PV and V2H integrated Home power management system using

IOT

ABSTRACT
The performance of a photovoltaic (PV) energy conversion system is mostly affected by
array configuration, irradiance, and module temperature. It is important to understand the
relationship between these effects and the output power of the PV array. This paper presents a
PV model with battery energy storage system which includes a boost converter with mppt
control and bidirectional buck boost converter with battery voltage control loop and voltage
source converter in order to supply ac load as well as to supply the battery from grid. MPPT
algorithm such as modified Perturb and Observe (P&O) are applied to extract the maximum
power from PV source. Proportional Integral Controller is utilised for battery voltage control.
Under the conditions of nonuniform irradiance, simulation results show that the output power
of a PV array as well as battery and load parameters. The proposed system is simulated in
MATLAB/Simulink software.

INTRODUCTION
Conventional One of the most essential energy-related challenges recently is the widespread
development of renewable energy sources (RES) to provide sustainable and environmentally
friendly energy. Therefore, achieving such a scenario requires an evolution in energy
management because power generation The associate editor coordinating the review of this
manuscript and approving it for publication was Alfeu J. Sguarezi Filho . planning results
from system flexibility. This is seen with numerous initiatives for international projects to
offer flexibility in the generation, transmission, distribution, and consumption of electricity. In
this regard, the most promising concept for integrating RES sources in hybrid energy flexibly
and efficiently is presented as a microgrid (MG). Among the types of RES used to start MGs,
PV equipped with BESS has received more attention in rural areas far from the grid or the
possible islanding phenomenon due to self-compensation. In addition, due to the production of
DC electricity by PV-BESS, it can be used more economically in the distribution of DC
energy to charge electric vehicles, household devices, telecommunication towers, and data
centers. To improve the fluctuations caused by wind and PV energy, a BESS station is used to
adjust BESS power levels based on the variations of the units and the SOC levels. Similarly,
this setting is presented based on direct power control with droop rate in PV. In the mentioned
methods, the dynamic model of the system is unknown during the design of the controller,
which is considered a negative factor from the point of view of stability. In the control design
for the PV converter using the droop method is presented in more detail to increase the PV
power during disturbances. However, the design of the BESS-related controller to measure the
PV output power requires online measurements, which leads to the difficult location of the
BESS. As a result, to solve this problem, a high-speed communication link should be used in
the design, which in addition to increasing the operating cost, also makes the design process
more difficult. In the emulation of a virtual capacitor is used to compensate the inertia
required for droop gain based on the SOC of the BESS. The mentioned method does not
perform appropriately in weak grids due to the use of proportionalintegral (PI) controllers in
voltage and current loops. At present, most RESs are operated in AC grid-connected mode
with grid-imposed voltage and frequency and inject a predefined amount of power into the
grid. In the island operation mode, the MG should adjust the voltage and frequency within the
determined limits while maintaining the power balance. In this regard, using a set of droop
topologies without inertia reduces the reliable performance of MGs. Therefore, in order to
operate RES more safely, their DC/AC converter can be controlled through a VSG. In this
case, by simulating the governor control in traditional power stations, which is referred to as
droop control, it is possible to simulate the inertia of the rotating machine or the oscillating
equation of the synchronous generator, which is called VSG. In this regard, the use of
different controllers to support the MG frequency requires energy storage. In the wind power
plant, the kinetic energy stored in the rotor blade can be used as an energy source to support
this frequency. But in the PV system, since there is no rotating part and the only energy
storage elements include the DC link capacitor and the inductance of the converters, for this
reason, the stored energy of the DC link capacitor in the PV inverter is used to support the MG
(through virtual inertial control (VIC)) frequency in the switching reference signals. An
alternative method for frequency support is a load-shedding strategy where the PV operates
away from its maximum power point. In this method, the difference between the maximum
available power and absorbed power can be used as reserve power to support MG frequency
during disturbances. The main advantage of load shedding is the lack of additional investment
in additional and complex control elements. An optimal control method based on
reinforcement learning is proposed for the three-phase gridconnected inverter used in VSGs.
In this case, the dynamics of the system are unknown under different operating conditions of
the grid, including balanced/unbalanced networks and the presence of voltage drop in weak
grids. The mentioned method is only designed for a DC/AC converter, and RES and BESS
modeling is not used for MG frequency support. The dynamic characteristics of energy
storage considering SOC time have been used for VSG control. So that the neural network
based on Radial Basis Function (RBF) can be used to learn the data features and the nonlinear
relationship between the input voltage and the output power of the energy storage. The
mentioned method is only designed based on the dynamic characteristics of the inverter, and
there is no energy management on the BEES charge and discharge modes. Using the Kalman
filter method, first the BESS charge and discharge status is estimated online, and then the
droop and inertia parameters are designed through fuzzy logic and smart algorithms based on
the battery status and bus voltage deviation. However, the static and dynamic characteristics
of BESS to make the network more stable are not available in the controller design, and the
controller performance is poor for supporting DC loads. In order to solve the problem of
voltage fluctuations caused by distributed generation (DG), a coordinated voltage and
frequency deviation controller has been used in a group of BESS installed on the feeder of the
distribution network. So that when the feeder is isolated due to a fault, the frequency deviation
controller based on the hysteresis loop activates the frequency control loop to control the
frequency and voltage of the island synchronously to realize the self-healing of the island. In
the mentioned paper, BESS is modeled as a DC source, and therefore no controller is
proposed on the SOC level, and the battery is connected to the AC grid through an inverter,
which eliminates the scenario of feeding DC loads on the battery side. The optimal voltage
and frequency recovery method based on decentralized state estimation is used to control the
inverter of distributed energy resources (DER). In the mentioned method, the reference signal
related to the primary controller is optimally predicted so that it is not affected by the local
measurement noise, so the shared power between DERs is guaranteed.

PROBLEM STATEMENT

The increasing demand for sustainable and efficient energy consumption has led to exploring innovative solutions that harness

Renewable Energy (RE) sources and optimize energy usage within residential settings. Additionally, the electric vehicles

(EVs) presents an opportunity to leverage Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) technology for bidirectional energy flow. However, there

remains a lack of comprehensive and seamlessly integrated systems that combine these technologies into a unified, IoT-

enabled Home Power Management System (HPMS). By using thethe PV and V2H combination to adapt to changing weather

conditions and efficiently meet residential load requirements. And implementing HEMS with constraints to ensure smooth

system operations, satisfying load demand, and minimizing energy usage from GRID during peak periods.
LITERATURE SURVEY
H. Patel and V. Agarwal, “MATLAB-based modeling to study the effects of partial shading
on PV array characteristics,”. The performance of a photovoltaic (PV) array is affected by
temperature, solar insolation, shading, and array configuration. Often, the PV arrays get
shadowed, completely or partially, by the passing clouds, neighboring buildings and towers,
trees, and utility and telephone poles. The situation is of particular interest in case of large PV
installations such as those used in distributed power generation schemes. Under partially
shaded conditions, the PV characteristics get more complex with multiple peaks. Yet, it is
very important to understand and predict them in order to extract the maximum possible
power. This paper presents a MATLAB-based modeling and simulation scheme suitable for
studying the I-V and P-V characteristics of a PV array under a nonuniform insolation due to
partial shading. It can also be used for developing and evaluating new maximum power point
tracking techniques, especially for partially shaded conditions. The proposed models
conveniently interface with the models of power electronic converters, which is a very useful
feature. It can also be used as a tool to study the effects of shading patterns on PV panels
having different configurations. It is observed that, for a given number of PV modules, the
array configuration (how many modules in series and how many in parallel) significantly
affects the maximum available power under partially shaded conditions. This is another aspect
to which the developed tool can be applied. The model has been experimentally validated and
the usefulness of this research is highlighted with the help of several illustrations. The
MATLAB code of the developed model is freely available for download.

N. D. Kaushika and N. K. Gautam, “Energy yield simulations of interconnected solar PV

arrays,”. In this paper, the electrical characteristics of array interconnection schemes are
investigated using simulation models to find a configuration that is comparatively less
susceptible to shadow problem and power degradation resulting from the aging of solar cells.
Three configurations have been selected for comparison: (i) simple series-parallel (SP) array
which has zero interconnection redundancy; (ii) total-cross-tied (TCT) array which is obtained
from the simple SP array by connecting ties across each row of junctions; it may be
characterized as the scheme with the highest possible redundancy; and (iii) bridge-linked (BL)
array in which all cells are interconnected in bridge rectifier fashion. The explicit computer
simulations for the energy yield and current-voltage distributions in the array are presented,
which seem to favor cross-tied configurations (TCT and BL) in coping with the effects of
mismatch losses.
E. V. Paraskevadaki and S. A. Papathanassiou, “Evaluation of MPP voltage and power of mc-
Si PV modules in partial shading conditions,”. Photovoltaic (PV) system performance is
influenced by several factors, including irradiance, temperature, shading, degradation,
mismatch losses, soiling, etc. Shading of a PV array, in particular, either complete or partial,
can have a significant impact on its power output and energy yield, depending on array
configuration, shading pattern, and the bypass diodes incorporated in the PV modules. In this
paper, the effect of partial shading on multicrystalline silicon (mc-Si) PV modules is
investigated. A PV module simulation model implemented in P-Spice is first employed to
quantify the effect of partial shading on the I-V curve and the maximum power point (MPP)
voltage and power. Then, generalized formulae are derived, which permit accurate enough
evaluation of MPP voltage and power of mc-Si PV modules, without the need to resort to
detailed modeling and simulation. The equations derived are validated via experimental
results.

M. E. Ropp and S. Gonzalez, “Development of a MATLAB/Simulink model of a single-phase

grid-connected photovoltaic system,”. Because of their deployment in dispersed locations on
the lowest voltage portions of the grid, photovoltaic (PV) systems pose unique challenges to
power system engineers. Computer models that accurately simulate the relevant behavior of
PV systems would thus be of high value. However, most of today's models either do not
accurately model the dynamics of the maximum power point trackers (MPPTs) or anti-
islanding algorithms, or they involve excessive computational overhead for this application.
To address this need, a Matlab/Simulink model of a single-phase grid-connected PV inverter
has been developed and experimentally tested. The development of the PV array model, the
integration of the MPPT with an averaged model of the power electronics, and the Simulink
implementation are described. It is experimentally demonstrated that the model works well in
predicting the general behaviors of single-phase grid-connected PV systems. This paper
concludes with a discussion of the need for a full gradient-based MPPT model, as opposed to
a commonly used simplified MPPT model.

Y. Jiang, J. A. A. Qahouq, and I. Batarseh, “Improved solar PV cell MATLAB simulation

model and comparison,”. This paper presents an improved mathematical and simulation model
for Solar Photovoltaic (PV) cells and compares it to an existing model. The model is able to
simulate both the I-V characteristics curves and the P-V characteristics curves. The model is
used to study different parameters variations effects on the PV array including operating
temperature and solar irradiation level The results of the PV characteristics curves are
compared to the curves provided by BPSX150 PV module datasheet. Matlab®/Simulink®
software is used to implement the models and obtain the simulation results.
T. Arayashiki, H. Koizumi, and I. Batarseh, “A simulation method for maximum power point
tracking against stepped I–V characteristics,”. A current-voltage (I-V) characteristic changes
in various configuration and often includes multiple peaks affected by shadows. A stepped I-V
characteristic makes it difficult for maximum power point tracking (MPPT) to find the real
maximum power point (MPP). This paper proposes MATLAB-based simulation method to
predict and evaluate the MPPT performance. Considering the influence of the insolation
variation and shadow, these I-V characteristics are made every 0.01 [s] based on the measured
insolation data every 1 [s] with linear interpolation. In the case when PV modules are affected
by insolation variation and shadow, conventional three MPPT methods are simulated and
compared.

A. K. Sinha, V. Mekala, and S. K. Samantaray, “Design and testing of PV maximum power

tracking system with MATLAB simulation,”. This paper presents the determination of
unknown parameters from the given parameters of a solar panel data sheet by using the
iterative method i.e. Newton-Raphson method. The values obtained from the above are used to
calculate the voltage-current and voltage-power characteristics of a solar panel at different
radiation and temperature conditions. The maximum power point tracking (MPPT) operation
and control is developed. The Matlab/simulink set-up of PV-module gives power and the
power output of module is fed to the load through a dc-dc boost converter to track the
maximum power output. The Matlab/simulink arrangement of Incremental conductance
algorithm is responsible for driving the dc-dc boost converter to track maximum power point
(MPP). In this paper the MPP tracking is made for 1) A battery charging of 24 volts with
varying radiation and temperature conditions. 2) A battery charging along with a dc load of 10
watts at standard temperature and radiation conditions (STC). 3) A battery discharging along
with a dc load of 40 watts at standard radiation and temperature conditions (STC).

W. De Soto, “Improvement and validation of a model for photovoltaic array performance,”.

Manufacturers of photovoltaic panels typically provide electrical parameters at only one
operating condition. Photovoltaic panels operate over a large range of conditions so the
manufacturer’s information is not sufficient to determine their overall performance. Designers
need a reliable tool to predict energy production from a photovoltaic panel under all
conditions in order to make a sound decision on whether or not to incorporate this technology.
A model to predict energy production has been developed by Sandia National Laboratory, but
it requires input data that are normally not available from the manufacturer. The five-
parameter model described in this paper uses data provided by the manufacturer, absorbed
solar radiation and cell temperature together with semi-empirical equations, to predict the
current–voltage curve. This paper indicates how the parameters of the five-parameter model
are determined and compares predicted current–voltage curves with experimental data from a
building integrated photovoltaic facility at the National Institute of Standards and Technology
(NIST) for four different cell technologies (single crystalline, poly crystalline, silicon thin
film, and triple-junction amorphous). The results obtained with the Sandia model are also
shown. The predictions from the five-parameter model are shown to agree well with both the
Sandia model results and the NIST measurements for all four cell types over a range of
operating conditions. The five-parameter model is of interest because it requires only a small
amount of input data available from the manufacturer and therefore it provides a valuable tool
for energy prediction. The predictive capability could be improved if manufacturer’s data
included information at two radiation levels.

E. Matagne, R. Chenni, and R. El Bachtiri, “A photovoltaic cell model based on nominal data
only,”. A model of a photovoltaic array is developed using only the nominal values of the
modules: open-circuit voltage, short-circuit current, maximum power point, and the
temperature coefricients of the first two parameters. Its originality is that, although the model
uses four degrees of freedom for the characteristics I-U at nominal junction temperature, these
are fitted without using the temperature coefficients. After that, the temperature coefficients
are still available for the determination of the temperature behavior of the elements of the
model. A numerical example is presented and the source code used is made available.

A. Bidram, A. Davoudi, R. S. Balog, “Control and circuit techniques to mitigate partial

shading effects in photovoltaic arrays—an overview,”. Partial shading in photovoltaic (PV)
arrays renders conventional maximum power point tracking (MPPT) techniques ineffective.
The reduced efficiency of shaded PV arrays is a significant obstacle in the rapid growth of the
solar power systems. Thus, addressing the output power mismatch and partial shading effects
is of paramount value. Extracting the maximum power of partially shaded PV arrays has been
widely investigated in the literature. The proposed solutions can be categorized into four main
groups. The first group includes modified MPPT techniques that properly detect the global
MPP. They include power curve slope, load-line MPPT, dividing rectangles techniques, the
power increment technique, instantaneous operating power optimization, Fibonacci search,
neural networks, and particle swarm optimization. The second category includes different
array configurations for interconnecting PV modules, namely series-parallel, total-cross-tie,
and bridge-link configurations. The third category includes different PV system architectures,
namely centralized architecture, series-connected microconverters, parallel-connected
microconverters, and microinverters. The fourth category includes different converter
topologies, namely multilevel converters, voltage injection circuits, generation control
circuits, module-integrated converters, and multiple-input converters. This paper surveys the
proposed approaches in each category and provides a brief discussion of their characteristics.

METHODOLOGY

The following block diagram presents the overall control diagram of the proposed PV model
with MPPT control:

In this, the PV generates power of 4KW and two batteries are connected of 48V, 150Ah (Solar
battery) and 48Ah (EV battery) using buck boost converter. When PV is providing supply, it
charges the battery and also supplies to the ac load. When irradiation is reduced the power
generated from PV also gets reduced and the battery combined with PV supplies to the ac
load. When irradiation reaches zero, the battery alone provide supply to the ac load. When the
%SOC goes below threshold limit, the grid is connected and provides supply to the load as
well as charges the battery.

PV ARRAY
An initial understanding of the performance of a solar cell may be obtained by considering it
as a diode in which the light energy, in form of photons with the appropriate energy level, falls
on the cell and generates electron-hole pairs. The electrons and holes are separated by the
electric field established at the junction of the diode and are then driven around an external
circuit by this junction potential. There are losses associated with the series and shunt
resistance of the cell as well as leakage of some of the current back across the p-n junction.
This leads to the equivalent circuit given below:
The PV cell can be modeled as a diode in parallel with a constant current source and a shunt
resistor. These three components are in series with the series resistor. The output-terminal
current I is equal to the light-generated current I ph, less than the diode current I D and the shunt-
leakage current I p.The series resistance R s represents the internal resistance to the current flow,
and depends on the p-n junction depth, the impurities and the contact resistance. The shunt
resistance R sh is inversely related to the leakage current to the ground. In an ideal PV cell, R s =
0 (no series loss), and R p =1(no leakage to ground). The PV cell conversion efficiency is
sensitive to small variations in R s , but is insensitive to variations in R p. A small increase in R s
can decrease the PV output significantly. In the equivalent circuit, the current delivered to the
external load equals the current I ph generated by the illumination, less than the diode current I D
and the ground-shunt current I sh. The fundamental equation of PV cell can be derived from the
theory of Shockley diode equation and semiconductor theory. The fundamental equations
needed to design a PV cell are given below:

Using KCL we get

I pv =I ph−I D−I p

As we know Shockley diode equation

I D =I 0−exp ( n Kb T )
e ( V p + Rs I )
−1

Now putting this value into equation (2.1) we get

[ (
I pv =I ph−I 0 exp
e ( V p + Rs I )
n Kb T )] −I p
Finally, putting the value of I pin equation (2.3) from figure 2.2

[ (
I pv =I ph−I 0 exp
e ( V p + Rs I )
n Kb T )] −
V p+ Rs I
Rp

Now the output current at the standard test conditions (STC) is given as :

[ ( ) ]
I pv =I ph ,ref −I 0 , ref exp
Vp
a ref
−1

If we consider short circuit condition, V=0 we get

[ ( ) ]
I pv =I ph ,ref −I 0 , ref exp
0
a ref
−1 =I ph ,ref

But photo current depends on light intensity and temperature. Therefore, equation of
photocurrent may be defined as

G
I ph= (I + µ . ∆T )
Gref ph ,ref sc

Where, G=Irradiance,Gref = Irradiance at STC, ∆ T =T c −T ref , T ref = Cell temperature at STC = 25

+ 273 =298, µsc is the Coefficient temperature of short circuit current(A/K), provided by the
manufacturer, I ph, ref is the Photocurrent (A) at STC.

Finally, by simplification we get reverse saturation current

I 0=I 0 ,ref ¿

DC-DC CONVERTERS:

DC-DC converters are electronic gadgets which might be used to change DC electrical
electricity successfully from one voltage level to any other. they're an electronic circuit which
converts a DC signal from one voltage level to every other degree through storing the enter
electricity and knowing that energy to the output at one of a kind voltage level. They use an
inductor and a capacitor as power storage factors so that electricity may be transferred from
the input to the output. DC- DC converters are widely utilized in switched-mode electricity
elements (SMPS) and feature a wide range of uses these days and are getting an increasing
number of vital in everyday use. There are distinct types of DC-DC converters. The most
commonly known are:

· Buck converter

· Boost converter

· Buck-boost converter

Boost Converter

The key principle that drives the boost converter is the tendency of an inductor to resist
changes in current. When being charged it acts as a load and absorbs energy (somewhat like a
resistor); when being discharged it acts as an energy source (somewhat like a battery). The
voltage it produces during the discharge phase is related to the rate of change of current, and
not to the original charging voltage, thus allowing different input and output voltages. The
following figure shows the basic configuration of a boost converter:

The design procedure of the boost converter is shown in following steps:

The first step to calculate the switch current is to determine the duty cycle, D, for the
minimum input voltage.
The next step to calculate the maximum switch current is to determine the inductor ripple
current. A good estimation for the inductor ripple current is 20% to 40% of the output current.

Often data sheets give a range of recommended inductor values. If this is the case, it is
recommended to choose an inductor from this range. The higher the inductor value, the higher
is the maximum output current because of the reduced ripple current. The lower the inductor
value, the smaller is the solution size. Note that the inductor must always have a higher current
rating than the maximum current given in Equation 4 because the current increases with
decreasing inductance. For parts where no inductor range is given, the following equation is a
good estimation for the right inductor:

With external compensation, the following equations can be used to adjust the output
capacitor values for a desired output voltage ripple:

Where ΔVOUT = desired output voltage ripple.

DC-DC converters consists of the subsequent exceptional kinds of additives. they're:

A. Switch

Its most knot-shaped switch is the toggle switch, which varies between supply voltage and
ground. Here the transistor chosen to switch power components needs a quick switching time
and must be able to prevent voltage spikes generated by the inductor. SCR, GTO, IGBT and
MOSFET are the most popular devices. Energy MOSFETs are key components of extreme
frequency frequency strength structures consisting of high-density energy components.
MOSFETs are therefore used in designs that operate at better frequencies but at lower
voltages. Running Frequency The running frequency determines the overall performance of
the transfer. There may be a growing fashion now in study painting and new power converter
designs to increase switching frequencies. Aim for higher switching frequency to reduce price,
****** smaller size and component fee. This is because the total length of the power
converter is reduced evenly.

B. Inductor

The inductor is characterized by limiting the trendy sleeve value (modern-day congestion
limit) by power transfer when the circuit is turned on. Contemporaries cannot change at once
by induction. When the current has a tendency to fall through an inductor, there is a tendency
to conserve electricity by appearing as the source of the inductor. The important thing is that
when the inductor is used to release the voltage, it stores energy. It also controls the
percentage of inductive ripples and determines whether the converter is operating in constant
circulation mode. The small inductive charge allows a quick short response; In addition as a
result of large current ripples, good conduction loss can occur in the switch, inductor and
parasite resistors. The small inductance value to reduce the output voltage ripple ****** also
calls for a clear output capacitor. Inductors used in switched equipment are rolled up a toroidal
core each time, which is regularly constructed from ferrite or powder iron beech, with an air-
gap assigned to hold power.

C. Capacitor

The capacitor provides filter speed by providing a path for harmonic currents away from the
load. The output capacitance (across the load) is required to limit the voltage overshoot and
ripple current at the output of the step-down converter. The capacitor is large enough that
there will be no significant change in its voltage‌for the duration of the switching off.

D. Diode

Due to the fact that the current in the inductor is not alternating at once, there must be a course
for the current inductor when the switch is closed (open). This path consists of a freewheeling
diode (trap diode). The reason for this diode is not only to correct, but also to guide the
modern float inside the circuit and ensure that there is a constant course of current flowing
across the inductor for synchronization. This diode should be able to shut down especially
fast. Thus allowing the diode converter to convert the energy saved in the inductor into a load.
That is why we have seen better performance in DC-DC converters than linear regulator.
When the switch is turned off, the modern-day simply rises. When the switch is open, the
freewheeling diode causes linear reduction in modern times.

DC-DC Converter Mode of Operation

There are two types of operational modes for dc-dc converter which depends on the current
flow across the inductor over one switching cycle of time period. These are:

· DCM (Discontinuous conduction mode)

· CCM (Continuous conduction mode)

Discontinuous Conduction Mode (DCM)

This circumstance happens when the inductor cutting-edge has an c programming language of
time staying at 0 with out a charge and discharge all through a switching length. inside the
discontinuous conduction mode each switching cycle is split into three parts that is DT, DˈT
and DˈˈT (D+Dˈ+Dˈˈ=1). in the course of the primary and 2nd mode that is in DT and DˈT the
inductor contemporary boom and decrease respectively, while throughout the 0.33 mode that
is in DˈˈT the inductor current stay at zero without a price and discharge.

Continuous Conduction Mode (CCM)

This situation occurs when the inductor of contemporary weft price is non-stop and releases
everything in one switching period. In CCM, each switching cycle consists of two
components, DT and DˈT (D + Dˈ = 1). Induction mode surge during primary and second
mode and decrease in DT and DˈT respectively.

The flowchart for perturb and observe algorithm based mppt is provided below:

The Perturb and Observe algorithm based MPPT controller will provide the change in duty
ratio(ΔD) which will be added with initial duty ratio and provided for pwm pulse generation
unit. The pulse generated is given to the gate terminal of the boost converter switch. The P&O
mppt operates under the following conditions:
1. If ΔP/ΔV > 0, ΔD is +ve,
2. If ΔP/ΔV < 0, ΔD is –ve.

VOLTAGE SOURCE INVERTERS

Inverters are static power converters that produce an AC outputwaveform from a DC power
supply. They are applied in adjustable AC speeddrives, Uninterruptible Power Supplies
(UPS), shunt active power filter, etc.For sinusoidal AC outputs, the magnitude, frequency, and
phase should becontrollable. If a DC input is a voltage source, then the inverter is called
aVoltage Source Inverter (VSI). Similarly in case of a Current Source Inverter(CSI), the input
to the circuit is a current source. The VSI circuit has acapability of controlling AC output
voltage, whereas the CSI directly controlsAC output current. Sketch of output voltage
waveforms by an ideal VSI,should be independent of load connected at the output.According
to a number of phases, inverters are classified into twotypes
1. Single Phase Voltage Source Inverter

2. Three Phase Voltage Source Inverter

SINGLE PHASE VOLTAGE SOURCE INVERTER

Single phase inverters are basic inverters which produce a squareshape AC output with a
DC input. These inverters have simple on-off controllogic and obviously they operate at much
lower frequencies. Due to a capacityof low power, they are widely used in power supplies and
single phase UPS.They can be divided into two categories.
1. Half bridge Single Phase Voltage Source Inverter

2. Full bridge Single Phase Voltage Source Inverter.

Full Bridge Voltage Source Inverter

Figure 2.5 shows the power topology of a full bridge VSI.

Thisinverter is similar to the half bridge inverter, however a second leg providesthe neutral
point to the load. As in the half bridge inverter, both switches 1Qand 2Q or 3Q and 4Q in a
single leg cannot be on simultaneously because ashort circuit across the dc link voltage source
Vdc would be occurred.In a full bridge inverter, there are four defined (states 1, 2, 3, and
4)switching states as shown in following table:

The undefined condition should beavoided so as to be always capable of defining the AC

output voltage. It canbe observed that the AC output voltage can acquire values up to the DC
linkvalue Vdc which is twice that obtained with half bridge voltage source invertertopologies.
Output voltage is denoted as VAB taken from the load.In a full bridge inverter, there are four
defined (states 1, 2, 3, and 4)switching states as shown in above table. The undefined
condition should beavoided so as to be always capable of defining the AC output voltage. It
canbe observed that the AC output voltage can acquire values up to the DC linkvalue Vdc
which is twice that obtained with half bridge voltage source invertertopologies. Output voltage
is denoted as VAB taken from the load.
Lithium Batteries

Since the late 1980s rechargeable lithium cells have come onto the market. They offer
greatly increased energy density in comparison with other rechargeable batteries, though at
greatly increased cost. It is a well-established feature of the most expensive laptop
computers and mobile phones that lithium rechargeable batteries are specified, rather than
the lower cost NiCad or NiHM cells that we have been considering earlier.

The lithium batteries are of following types:

 Lithium polymer batteries

 Lithium ion batteries

In the following subsections each of the above two battery types are described.
The lithium polymer battery: The lithium polymer battery uses lithium metal for the negative
electrode and a transition metal intercalation oxide for the positive. In the resulting chemical
reaction the lithium combines with the metal oxide to form a lithium metal oxide and release
energy. When the battery is recharged the chemical reaction is reversed. The lithium is thus
both a reactant and the mobile ion that moves through the electrolyte. The overall chemical
reaction is:

The lithium ion battery: The lithium ion battery was introduced in the early 1990s and it uses
a lithiated transition metal intercalation oxide for the positive electrode and lithiated carbon
for the negative electrode. The electrolyte is either a liquid organic solution or a solid
polymer. Electrical energy is obtained from the combination of the lithium carbon and the
lithium metal oxide to form carbon and lithium metal oxide. The overall chemical reaction for
the battery is:

Control Principle

In this, the controlled pulses are generated for the sepic converter switch. The voltage tracking
relation is used in voltage control loop in order to control the sepic converter output voltage.
The DC reference voltage (𝑉 ∗𝑑𝑐) is provided below as

The reference DC voltage (𝑉∗𝑑𝑐) with the measured output voltage (𝑉𝑑𝑐) and the error signal
(𝑉𝐸) is obtained as
The generated error voltage is provided to proportional–integral (PI) controller, which
provides the reference controlled voltage 𝑉𝐶 given as

where k represents the present sampling instance. The pulses are generated for the sepic
converter switch of by comparing the PI controller output 𝑉𝐶 with high frequency triangular
signal 𝑀𝐶 as

{If 𝑀𝐶 < 𝑉𝐶 then the pulse is HIGH}

{If 𝑀𝐶 ≥ 𝑉𝐶 then the pulse is LOW}

i) Voltage Mode Control

In this control mode converter output voltage is regulated and fedback through a resistive
voltage divider. It is compared with a precision external reference voltage, Vref in a voltage
error amplifier. The error amplifier produces a control voltage that is compared to a
constant-amplitude saw tooth waveform. The comparator or the PWM Modulator produces
a PWM signal that is fed to drivers of controllable switches in the dc-dc converter. The duty
ratio of the PWM signal depends on the value of the control voltage.

ii) Current Mode Control

In this mode of control in current waveform has advantage over voltage signals. Voltage
being an accumulation of flux, which is slow in time as far as control mechanism, is
concerned. This led to the development of a new area in switch mode power supply design
using Current Mode Control. Here, the average or peak current is employed in the feedback
loop of the switch mode power converters. It has given new avenues of analysis and at same
time introduced complexities in terms of multiple loops.

PI CONTROLLER:
PI controllers are often used in the organization, especially when response speed is not always
an issue. When using the control without D mode:

a) Quick response of the device is not always necessary

B) The operation duration of the system is subject to heavy disruption and noise

C) Easy to process Strength garage (capacitive or inductive)

d) The machine can cause large delivery delay

The P-I controller is used specifically to deal with frequent state errors caused by the P
controller.

But, in terms of reaction rate and general stability of the system, it has terrible implications.

This controller is basically used in areas where system speed is not always a problem.

Since the controller does not have the ability to reverse future errors of the device, it does not
reduce the increase time and does not eliminate the oscillations.

When done, I guarantee a set point overshoot.

Manual Tuning Method:

 Manual tuning is performed by adjusting the parameters according to the

system response.
 , KP and gauging systems are modified by behavior until a preferred
gadget response is received.
 • Example (without machine oscillation): first spin off and reduce the
critical value to 0 and increase the ratio value to one hundred.
 • Then increase the inevitable value to one hundred and gradually reduce
the critical cost and study the response of the system.
 Since the Set gadget can be placed at the goal set point, the set factor can
be swapped to ensure that the device recovers in a timely manner.
 If Accept is not acceptable or for a quick response, reduce the mandatory
value.
 If the machine starts oscillating again, enter the required cost and increase
the price to 100.
  After increasing the value value to 100, go back to the proportional charge
and increase this cost until the oscillation stops.
 After wards, reduce the proportional value to 100.Zero, and then gradually
reduce the correct value to a charge that is 10% to 20% higher than the
value recorded when the oscillation starts (recorded charge example 1.1 or
1.2).
 Although the guide tuning method may seem easy, it is very time
consuming and enjoyable

The above controller was one of the earliest industrial controllers. It has many
advantages: its fee is economical, easy to clean and strong. This controller has been tested to
be very effective in controlling a variety of strategies. It no longer requires an actual model
and, therefore, can be used for strategies where models are more difficult to follow. But,
despite the advantages of the PI controller, there are still many drawbacks. This may not be
properly scoped in some cases:

- Non-Linear Strategies (change in action point).

- Time-different parameters.

- Compensation for strong and rapid disruptions.

- Monitoring in multivariate manipulation.

The PI controller is simple and straightforward; It provides great performance for consistent
linear methods. Self-tuning and adaptive PI design processes can conquer various parameters
of the working factor. However this requires a high efficiency of calculation and does not
guarantee the performance of the pie. The PI controller contains two phrases:

- Proportional movement.

- The inevitable movement to remove the stagnant national error.

Proportional controller

With proportional bands, the controller output error or amplitude is proportional to the
conversion.

Controller output = e (t) * 100 / (proportional gain)

Offset (deviation from set-factor) with proportional controller is good. The loop pass is
unstable due to increasing controller gain. To get rid of this offset, key speed controllers have
joined.

Integral control

With mandatory movement, the controller output error is proportional to the time at which the
reward occurs. The critical movement gets rid of the offset.

Controller output = (1 / critical time) * (critical of E (T))

The required action removes the offset. The reaction is stabilized by adding oscillation and
some by-product action instead. Mandatory speeds give the controller a huge advantage at low
frequency encies virtues, resulting in offset offsets and "hitting interruptions".

The upper controller output U in the S-region is given by the following equation:

U(s) = K (1+ 1/Tis ) E(s) .

INTRODUCTION to MATLAB(SIMULINK)
The simulink software program application simulates and analyzes dynamic systems. It gives
you the capability to invite a question about a device, version the device and determine out
what goes on. With simulink you could construct models from scratch without any problem or
modify the models to suit your desires. Simulink helps linear and nonlinear systems designed
to be non-stop time, pattern time, or a hybrid of 2. Systems also are multifaceted - consisting
of 1 kind of factors that may be sampled or up to date for a special fee.
Simulink provides a graphical user interface (gui) for drawing fashion into block
diagrams, allowing you to attract models with pencil and paper. Simulink moreover consists
of a entire block library of synchronization, property, linear and non-linear additives and
connectors. If those blocks not satisfy your cravings, you can even create your own blocks.
Simplifies the interactive graphical environment modeling method, doing away with the need
to create differential and differential equations inside a language or application.
Fashions are hierarchical, and it is feasible to apply pinnacle-down and backside-up strategies
to create fashions. The machine may be considered at a outstanding degree, and then double-
click on the block to peer the information of the rising model. This approach gives information
approximately how a version is made and the way its components are connected. The
distribution network version can be upgraded by means of setting commonplace blocks,
equations, and signs on the subdivision, simplifying the community as follows
BASIC STEPS TO BUILD THE SYSTEM
The library browser shows a simulink block library installed inside the machine. Fashions can
be created by copying blocks directly from the library into the model window. You can select
different blocks from the library browser as needed to create gadgets

Simulink block library

The Simulink software program provides sixteen well-known block libraries. The next table
describes these libraries.
SimPowerSystems
Simpower Systems and Sim Mechanics work together with Simulink to model electrical,
mechanical and control systems for a physical modeling product.
Role of Simulation in Design
Electrical power structures are a aggregate of electrical and electrical device along with
motors and turbines. Engineers working on this subject are constantly enhancing the general
overall performance of structures. Requirements for significantly advanced performance have
forced electricity device designers to put in force energy digital gadgets and to keep state-of-
the-art manipulation of gadget standards that tax conventional evaluation equipment and
strategies. What makes the location of the analyst even greater complex is that the system is so
simple that the very best way to seize it is through simulation. The technology of floor-
primarily based strength isn't always restricted to the use of electric systems from hydropower,
steam or other gadgets. A common characteristic of those systems is that electricity electronics
and manipulate systems obtain their overall overall performance goals.
Simpowersystems is a modern-day-day device that permits scientists and engineers to
create models that simulate electricity structures in an surprising and easy manner. Simpower
structures uses the simulink environment, allowing you to create a model that uses simple
click and drag mechanisms. Despite the fact that the evaluation of a circuit may consist of
mechanical, thermal, manipulative, and other interactions, it isn't always viable to attract a
easy circuit topology . This is viable because all electric additives of the simulator are
connected to a huge simulink modeling library. On the grounds that simulink makes use of
matlab as its computing engine, designers can also use the matlab toolbox and simulink block
devices. Simpower systems and symmechanics hold a completely unique ****** modeling
block and connection line interface ratio.
SimPowerSystems Libraries
Simpower structures may be made for immediate portray. Libraries encompass standard
electric system models, together with transformers, strainers, machines and power electronics.
Those designs are legitimate from textbooks and their authenticity is based totally totally on
the pride of electrical structures and the simulation laboratory of hydro quebec, a large north
american software based in canada.
The abilities of simpower structures for modeling common electrical systems are shown
within the display files. And there is also self-information to examine case research for clients
who want to refresh the knowledge of the concept of power tools.
Design and Simulating of a Simple Circuit
Simpower systems allow the development and simulation of electrical circuits with linear and
non-linear elements.
On this growth it is miles
1 find the simpower systems powerlib library
2 discover ways to create a simple circuit from the powerlib library
Three connect the mull hyperlink for your vicinity
The subsequent subjects are discussed on this section:
1 building electrical circuits via the powerlib library
2 connecting electrical circuits with simulink
Three measuring voltage and modern-day
4 fundamental additives for connecting capacitors and inductors
5 powerlib blocks are used to mimic the fashion of simpower systems

Design and Simulating of a Simple Circuit

The graphical consumer interface makes use of the simulink functionality to attach various
electric components. Electrical components are grouped in a special library referred to as the
powerlib. Typing the following command on the matlab set off will open the simpower
structures library. The powerlib command displays a simulink window that presentations icons
from various block libraries.

You may open these libraries to provide windows containing blocks that will be copied to a
given circuit. Each topic is represented by a separate icon, which contains one or more inputs,
such as specific problem terminals.
Interfacing Electrical Circuit with Simulink
A quantity-formed block acts as a signal among a simple machine block and a simulink block.
The quantity measurement weblog converts rated energy into simulink indicators. Parallel-size
blocks from the powerlib library can also be used to convert any standard mode electricity into
a simulink signal. It's also viable to interact from the simulink block to the machine. For
instance, it is feasible to use a managed source block to inject electrical energy inside miles of
an electrical circuit, as proven in the discern below.

Measuring Voltages and Currents

To modernize the usage of molded blocks in the current generation, a high-stage modern-day
course is proven inside the block image (precise current glide from the advantage discussion
board to the bad discussion board). Additionally, to degree voltage using a voltage dimension
block, measure the voltage throughout the + v give up to the v end. But, whilst the voltages
and currents of a block from a cloth library are measured using a multi-meter block, the
corresponding voltages and polarities aren't right now obvious due to the fact actual blocks
may be turned around and there aren't any symptoms and no block symptoms. Capabilities
that show courting. Unlike simulink tracking and input and output ports, the type of
connection of the model and the final ports of a simple system haven't any internal shape.
Voltage and high polarities are fixed, now not utilized in line orientation, but as an option with
block orientation.
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