POLYMER

1. Introduction:-

Polymers are large molecules composed of repeating subunits

called monomers. These subunits are joined together through
chemical reactions to form long chains, which can range from a
few hundred to several million units in length. The monomers
used to form the polymer chain can be either identical or
different, and the sequence of monomers can be random or
ordered.

Polymerization is the process of joining monomers together to

form a polymer. This can occur through a variety of methods, such
as addition polymerization, condensation polymerization, and
ring-opening polymerization. In addition polymerization,
monomers with double bonds are added together to form a
polymer chain, while in condensation polymerization, two
different types of monomers are joined together with the
elimination of a small molecule, such as water. Ring-opening
polymerization involves the opening of cyclic monomers, such as
lactones or lactams, to form a linear polymer chain.
Polymers can be natural or synthetic. Natural polymers are found
in living organisms and include DNA, proteins, and carbohydrates.
Synthetic polymers are produced by chemical reactions and
include plastics, synthetic fibers, and adhesives. Some common
synthetic polymers include polyethylene, polypropylene,
polystyrene, and polyvinyl chloride (PVC).

The properties of a polymer depend on its chemical structure and

composition, including the type of monomers used, the length of
the polymer chain, and the degree of branching or crosslinking.
Polymers can exhibit a range of physical and chemical properties,
including elasticity, rigidity, strength, and thermal stability. For
example, polyethylene has a high degree of flexibility and is used
in the production of plastic bags and packaging materials, while
PVC is a rigid plastic used in pipes and building materials.

Polymers have a wide range of applications in various industries,

including medicine, electronics, and energy. For example,
biodegradable polymers are used in medical implants and drug
delivery systems, while conductive polymers are used in electronic
devices such as solar cells and OLED displays. Polymers are also
used in energy storage applications, such as lithium-ion batteries.
 In conclusion, polymers are large molecules composed of
repeating subunits called monomers. They can be natural or
synthetic and have a wide range of applications in various
industries. The properties of a polymer depend on its chemical
structure and composition, making it a versatile material with a
diverse range of applications. The development of new and
improved polymers has led to significant advancements in fields
such as medicine, electronics, and energy.

2. HISTORY OF POLYMER:-

The history of polymers dates back to ancient times, where

natural polymers such as silk, wool, and natural rubber were used
in various applications. However, it was not until the 19th century
that the science of polymers began to emerge, and the first
synthetic polymer was produced.

In 1839, Charles Goodyear discovered the process of

vulcanization, which involved treating natural rubber with sulfur
to make it more durable and resistant to temperature changes.
This led to the widespread use of rubber in various industries,
including the automobile industry.
In 1870, the first synthetic polymer was produced by John Wesley
Hyatt, who developed celluloid as a replacement for ivory in the
production of billiard balls. Celluloid was made by combining
cellulose with camphor, and it quickly became a popular material
for various applications, including photography and film.

In the early 20th century, scientists began to develop new

synthetic polymers, such as Bakelite, the first thermosetting
plastic. Bakelite was invented by Leo Baekeland in 1907 and was
used in a variety of applications, including electrical insulation,
automobile parts, and household items.

During World War II, the demand for synthetic polymers increased
dramatically, as they were used in the production of materials for
the war effort. Nylon, a synthetic polymer invented by DuPont in
1935, was used to make parachutes, tents, and other military
equipment.

After the war, the development of new polymers continued, and

many new materials were invented, including polycarbonate,
polypropylene, and polyethylene. These materials had a wide
range of applications, including packaging, consumer goods, and
construction materials.
 In recent years, the development of new and improved polymers
has led to significant advancements in various fields, including
medicine, electronics, and energy. Biodegradable polymers,
conductive polymers, and polymers for energy storage are just a
few examples of the many types of polymers that are being
developed.

In conclusion, the history of polymers is a fascinating one,

spanning from ancient times to the present day. From natural
polymers such as silk and wool to the first synthetic polymer,
celluloid, and the development of modern plastics and materials,
the science of polymers has played a significant role in shaping our
world. With continued research and development, polymers are
likely to play an even more significant role in the future, as new
materials are developed to meet the growing demands of our
society

3. PROPERTIES OF POLYMERS:-
 LIGHT IN WEIGHT.
 HIGHER STRENGTH TO WEIGHT RATIO.
 WIDER & DESIGN FREEDOM.
 EASY PROCESSABILITY.
 LOW ENERGY REQUIRED FOR MANUFACTURE.
 MINIMUM POSTS FINISHING.
 CORROSION RESISTANT.
 LOW CREEP.
 BETTER AESTHETIC LOOK.
 WIDE COLOUR RANGE.
 EASY REPLACEABLE.
 RESISTANT TO CHEMICALS.
 RESISTANT TO WATER.
 LOW MAIRENANCE COST.
 ADHESIVE OF PLASTIC RESIN ARE VERY STRONG, DURABLE &
PRODUCE VERY THIFILM.

4. CLASSIFICATION OF POLYMERS:-
Polymer can have different chemical structures, physical
properties, mechanical behaviours, thermal characteristics, etc.,
and can be classified in different ways. Polymer is a generic name
given to a vast number of materials of high molecular weight. These
materials exist in countless form and numbers because of very large
number and type of atoms present in their molecule .
1. ORIGIN:-

 NATURAL.( RUBBER, SILK,STARCH,PROTEINS etc.)

 SEMISYTHETIC (CHEMICALLY MODIFIEDN.POLYMERS)
 SYNTHETIC. ( MAN MADE POLYMERS )

2. MODE OF FORMATION:-

 ADDITION.(PE,PP,PS etc)
 CONDENSATION.(NYLON,POLYESTER etc)

3. BASED ON STRUCTURE/SHAPE:-

 LINEAR. (HDPE PVC,PS etc.)

 BRANCHED.(LDPE)
 CROSSLINKED.(BAKELITE)

4. THERMAL RESPONSE:-

 THERMOPLASTICS
 THERMOSETTING.
 5. MECHNICAL PROPERTIES & BEHAVIOUR:-

 RUBBER.
 PLASTICS.
 FIBRES

6. TYPES OF MESOMERS INVOLVED I THE POLYMERS:-

 HOMOPOLYMERS.
 HETRO POLYMERS
 A RANDOM COPOLYMER(A-A-B-B-A-B-A-B-)

Applications and Processing of Polymers:-

Polymers play a very important role in human life. In fact, our body is
made of lot of polymers, e.g. Proteins, enzymes, etc. Other naturally
occurring polymers like wood, rubber, leather and silk are serving the
humankind for many centuries now. Modern scientific tools
revolutionized the processing of polymers thus available synthetic
polymers like useful plastics, rubbers and fiber materials. As with other
engineering materials (metals and ceramics), the properties of
polymers are related their constituent structural elements and their
arrangement. The suffix in polymer ‘mer’ is originated from Greek
word meros – which means part. The word polymer is thus coined to
mean material consisting of many parts/mers. Most of the polymers
are basically organic compounds, however they can be inorganic (e.g.
silicones based on Si-O network). This chapter introduces classification
of polymers, processing and synthesis of polymers, followed by
mechanism of deformation and mechanical behavior of polymers.
Polymer types and Polymer synthesis & processing:-
Polymers are classified in several ways – by how the molecules are
synthesized, by their molecular structure, or by their chemical family.
For example, linear polymers consist of long molecular chains, while
the branched polymers consist of primary long chains and secondary
chains that stem from these main chains. However, linear does not
mean straight lines. The better way to classify polymers is according to
their mechanical and thermal behavior. Industrially polymers are
classified into two main classes – plastics and elastomers.
Plastics are moldable organic resins. These are either natural or
synthetic, and are processed by forming or molding into shapes.
Plastics are important engineering materials for many reasons. They
have a wide range of properties, some of which are unattainable from
any other materials, and in most cases they are relatively low in cost.
Following is the brief list of properties of plastics: light weight, wide
range of colors, low thermal and electrical conductivity, less brittle,
good toughness, good resistance to acids, bases and moisture, high
dielectric strength (use in electrical insulation), etc. Plastics are again
classified in two groups depending on their mechanical and thermal
behavior as thermoplasts (thermoplastic polymers) and thermosets
(thermosetting polymers).
Thermoplasts: These plastics soften when heated and harden when
cooled – processes that are totally reversible and may be repeated.
These materials are normally fabricated by the simultaneous
application of heat and pressure. They are linear polymers without any
cross-linking in structure where long molecular chains are bonded to
each other by secondary bonds and/or inter-wined. They have the
property of increasing plasticity with increasing temperature which
breaks the secondary bonds between individual chains. Common
thermoplasts are: acrylics, PVC, nylons, polypropylene, polystyrene,
polymethyl methacrylate (plastic lenses or perspex), etc.
Thermosets: These plastics require heat and pressure to mold them
into shape. They are formed into a permanent shape and cured or ‘set’
by chemical reactions such as extensive cross-linking. They cannot be
re-melted or reformed into another shape but decompose upon being
heated to too high a temperature. Thus thermosets cannot be
recycled, whereas thermoplasts can be recycled. The term thermoset
implies that heat is required to permanently set the plastic. Most
thermosets composed of long chains that are strongly cross-
linked(and/or covalently bonded) to one another to form 3-D network
structures to form a rigid solid. Thermosets are generally stronger, but
more brittle than thermoplasts. Advantages of thermosets for
engineering design applications include one or more of the following:
high thermal stability, high dimensional stability, high rigidity, light
weight, high electrical and thermal insulating properties and resistance
to creep and deformation under load. There are two methods whereby
cross-linking reaction can be initiated – cross-linking can be
accomplished by heating the resin in a suitable mold (e.g. bakelite), or
resins such as epoxies (araldite) are cured at low temperature by the
addition of a suitable cross-linking agent, an amine. Epoxies, vulcanized
rubbers, phenolics, unsaturated polyester resins, and amino resins
(ureas and melamines) are examples of thermosets.
Elastomers: Also known as rubbers, these are polymers which can
undergo large elongations under load, at room temperature, and
return to their original shape when the load is released. There are
number of man-made elastomers in addition to natural rubber. These
consist of coil-like polymer chains those can reversibly stretch by
applying a force.
 Processing of polymers mainly involves preparing a particular polymer
by synthesis of available raw materials, followed by forming into
various shapes. Raw materials for polymerization are usually derived
from coal and petroleum products. The large molecules of many
commercially useful polymers must be synthesized from substances
having smaller molecules. The synthesis of the large molecule polymers
is known as polymerization in which monomer units are joined over
and over to become a large molecule. More upon, properties of a
polymer can be enhanced or modified with the addition of special
materials. This is followed by forming operation. Addition
polymerization and condensation polymerization are the two main
ways of polymerization.
Addition polymerization, also known as chain reaction polymerization,
is a process in which multi-functional monomer units are attached one
at a time in chainlike fashion to form linear/3-D macro-molecules. The
composition of the macro-molecule is an exact multiple of for that of
the original reactant monomer. This kind of polymerization involves
three distinct stages – initiation, propagation and termination. To
initiate the process, an initiator is added to the monomer. This forms
free radicals with a reactive site that attracts one of the carbon atoms
of the monomer. When this occurs, the reactive site is transferred to
the other carbon atom in the monomer and a chain begins to form in
propagation stage. A common initiator is benzoyl peroxide. When
polymerization is nearly complete, remaining monomers must diffuse a
long distance to reach reactive site, thus the growth rate decreases.
The process for polyethylene is as follows
Here R. represents the active initiator. Propagation involves the linear
growth of the molecule as monomer units become attached to one
another in succession to produce the chain molecule, which is
represented, again for polyethylene, as follows

As we need polymers with controlled molecular weight, polymerization

needs to be terminated at some stage. Propagation may end or
terminate in different ways. First, the active ends of two propagating
chains may react or link together to form a non-reactive molecule, as
follows:
thus terminating the growth of each chain or an active chain end may
react with an initiator or other chemical species having a single active
bond, as follows:

with the resultant cessation of chain growth. Polyethylene,

polypropylene, PVC, and polystyrene are synthesized using addition
polymerization.
Condensation polymerization, also known as step growth
polymerization, involves more than one monomer species; and there is
usually a small molecular weight by-product such as water, which is
eliminated. The repeat unit here forms from original monomers, and
no product has the chemical formula of mere one mer repeat unit. The
polymerization of dimethyl terephthalate and ethylene glycol to
produce polyester is an important example. The by-product, methyl
alcohol, is condensed off and the two monomers combine to produce a
larger molecule (mer repeat unit). Another example, consider the
formation of a polyester from the reaction between ethylene glycol
and adipic acid; the intermolecular reaction is as follows:

This stepwise process is successively repeated, producing, in this case,

a linear molecule. The intermolecular reaction occurs every time a mer
repeat unit is formed. Reaction times for condensation are generally
longer than for addition polymerization. Polyesters, phenol-
formaldehyde, nylons, polycarbonates etc are produced by
condensation polymerization. Condensation polymerization reactions
also occur in sol-gel processing of ceramic materials. Some polymers
such as nylon may be polymerized by either technique.
Polymers, unlike organic/inorganic compounds, do not have a fixed
molecular weight. It is specified in terms of degree of polymerization –
number of repeat units in the chain or ration of average molecular
weight of polymer to molecular weight of repeat unit. Average
molecular weight is however defined in two ways. Weight average
molecular weight is obtained by dividing the chains into size ranges and
determining the fraction of chains having molecular weights within
that range. Number average molecular weight is based on the number
fraction, rather than the weight fraction, of the chains within each size
range. It is always smaller than the weight average molecular weight.
Most of polymer properties are intrinsic i.e. characteristic of a specific
polymer. Foreign substances called additives are intentionally
introduced to enhance or modify these properties. These include –
fillers, plasticizers, stabilizers, colorants, and flame retardants. Fillers
are used to improve tensile and compressive strength, abrasion
resistance, dimensional stability etc. wood flour, sand, clay, talc etc are
example for fillers. Plasticizers aid in improving flexibility, ductility and
toughness of polymers by lowering glass transition temperature of a
polymer. These are generally liquids of low molecular weight.
Stabilizers are additives which counteract deteriorative processes such
as oxidation, radiation, and environmental deterioration. Colorants
impart a specific color to a polymer, added in form of either dyes
(dissolves) or pigments (remains as a separate phase). Flame
retardants are used to enhance flammability resistance of combustible
polymers. They serve the purpose by interfering with the combustion
through the gas phase or chemical reaction.
Polymeric materials are formed by quite many different techniques
depending on (a) whether the material is thermoplast or thermoset, (b)
melting/degradation temperature, (c) atmospheric stability, and (d)
shape and intricacy of the product. Polymers are often formed at
elevated temperatures under pressure. Thermoplasts are formed
above their glass transition temperatures while applied pressure
ensures that the product retain its shape. Thermosets are formed in
two stages – making liquid polymer, then molding it.

Crystallization, melting and glass transition :-

Polymers are known by their high sensitivity of mechanical and/or
thermal properties. This section explains their thermal behavior.
During processing of polymers, they are cooled with/without presence
of presence from liquid state to form final product. During cooling, an
ordered solid phase may be formed having a highly random molecular
structure. This process is called crystallization. The melting occurs
when a polymer is heated. If the polymer during cooling retains
amorphous or non-crystalline state i.e. disordered molecular structure,
rigid solid may be considered as frozen liquid resulting from glass
transition. Thus, enhancement of either mechanical and/or thermal
properties needs to consider crystallization, melting, and the glass
transition.
Crystallization and the mechanism involved play an important role as it
influences the properties of plastics. As in solidification of metals,
polymer crystallization involves nucleation and growth. Near to
solidification temperature at favorable places, nuclei forms, and then
nuclei grow by the continued ordering and alignment of additional
molecular segments. Extent of crystallization is measured by volume
change as there will be a considerable change in volume during
solidification of a polymer. Crystallization rate is dependent on
crystallization temperature and also on the molecular weight of the
polymer. Crystallization rate decreases with increasing molecular
weight.
Melting of polymer involves transformation of solid polymer to viscous
liquid upon heating at melting temperature, Tm. Polymer melting is
distinctive from that of metals in many respects – melting takes place
over a temperature range; melting behavior depends on history of the
polymer; melting behavior is a function of rate of heating, where
increasing rate results in an elevation of melting temperature. During
melting there occurs rearrangement of the molecules from ordered
state to disordered state. This is influenced by molecular chemistry and
structure (degree of branching) along with chain stiffness and
molecular weight.
Glass transition occurs in amorphous and semi-crystalline polymers.
Upon cooling, this transformation corresponds to gradual change of
liquid to rubbery material, and then rigid solid. The temperature range
at which the transition from rubbery to rigid state occurs is termed as
glass transition temperature, Tg. This temperature has its significance
as abrupt changes in other physical properties occur at this
temperature. Glass transition temperature is also influenced by
molecular weight, with increase of which glass transition temperature
increases. Degree of cross-linking also influences the glass transition
such that polymers with very high degree of cross-linking do not
experience a glass transition. The glass transition temperature is
typically 0.5 to 0.75 times the absolute melting temperature. Above
the glass transition, non-crystalline polymers show viscous behavior,
and below the glass transition they show glass-brittle behavior (as
chain motion is very restricted), hence the name glass transition.
Melting involves breaking of the inter-chain bonds, so the glass- and
melting- temperatures depend on:
 chain stiffness (e.g., single vs. double bonds)
 size, shape of side groups
 size of molecule
 side branches, defects
 cross-linking

Mechanical behavior of polymers :-

Polymer mechanical properties can be specified with many of the same
parameters that are used for metals such as modulus of elasticity,
tensile/impact/fatigue strengths, etc. However, polymers are, in many
respects, mechanically dissimilar to metals. To a much greater extent
than either metals or ceramics, both thermal and mechanical
properties of polymers show a marked dependence on parameters
namely temperature, strain rate, and morphology. In addition,
molecular weight and temperature relative to the glass transition play
an important role that are absent for other type of materials.
A simple stress- strain curve can describe different mechanical
behavior of various polymers. As shown in figure, the stress-strain
behavior can be brittle, plastic and highly elastic (elastomeric or
rubber-like). Mechanical properties of polymers change dramatically
with temperature, going from glass-like brittle behavior at low
temperatures to a rubber-like behavior at high temperatures. Highly
crystalline polymers behave in a brittle manner, whereas amorphous
polymers can exhibit plastic deformation. These phenomena are highly
temperature dependent, even more so with polymers than they are
with metals and ceramics. Due to unique structures of cross-linked
polymers, recoverable deformations up to very high strains / point of
rupture are also observed with polymers (elastomers). Tensile modulus
(modulus) and tensile strengths are orders of magnitude smaller than
those of metals, but elongation can be up to 1000 % in some cases. The
tensile strength is defined at the fracture point and can be lower than
the yield strength.
As the temperature increases, both the rigidity and the yield strength
decrease, while the elongation increases. Thus, if high rigidity and
toughness are the requirements, the temperature consideration is
important. In general, decreasing the strain rate has the same
influence on the strain-strength characteristics as increasing the
temperature: the material becomes softer and more ductile. Despite
the similarities in yield behavior with temperature and strain rate
between polymers, metals, and ceramics, the mechanisms are quite
different. Specifically, the necking of polymers is affected by two
physical factors that are not significant in metals: dissipation of
mechanical energy as heat, causing softening magnitude of which
increases with strain rate; deformation resistance of the neck, resulting
in strain-rate dependence of yield strength. The relative importance of
these two factors depends on materials, specimen dimensions and
strain rate. The effect of temperature relative to the glass transition is
depicted in terms of decline in modulus values. Shallow decline of
modulus is attributed to thermal expansion, whereas abrupt changes
are attributable to viscoelastic relaxation processes.
Together molecular weight and crystallinity influence a great number
of mechanical properties of polymers including hardness, fatigue
resistance, elongation at neck, and even impact strength. The chance
of brittle failure is reduced by raising molecular weight, which
increases brittle strength, and by reducing crystallinity. As the degree
of crystallinity decreases with temperature close to melting point,
stiffness, hardness and yield strength decrease. These factors often set
limits on the temperature at which a polymer is useful for mechanical
purposes.
Elastomers, however, exhibit some unique mechanical behavior when
compared to conventional plastics. The most notable characteristics
are the low modulus and high deformations as elastomers exhibit
large, reversible elongations under small applied stresses. Elastomers
exhibit this behavior due to their unique, cross-linked structure.
Elastic modulus of elastomers (resistance to the uncoiling of randomly
orientated chains) increases as with increase in temperature. Unlike
non-cross-linked polymers, elastomers exhibit an increase inelastic
modulus with cross-link density.
11.4 Mechanisms of deformation and strengthening of polymers
An understanding of deformation mechanisms of polymers is
important in order to be able to manage the optimal use of these
materials, a class of materials that continues to grow in terms of use in
structural applications. Despite the similarities in ductile and brittle
behavior with to metals and ceramics respectively, elastic and plastic
deformation mechanisms in polymers are quite different. This is mainly
due to (a) difference in structure they made of and (b) size of the
entities responsible for deformation. Plastic deformation in metals and
ceramics can be described in terms of dislocations and slip planes,
whereas polymer chains must undergo deformation in polymers
leading to different mechanism of permanent deformation. Unique to
most of the polymers is the viscoelasticity – means when an external
force is applied, both elastic and plastic (viscous) deformation occur.
For viscoelastic materials, the rate of strain determines whether the
deformation in elastic or viscous. The viscoelastic behavior of
polymeric materials is dependent on both time and temperature.
Plastic polymers deform elastically by elongation of the chain
molecules from their stable conformations in the direction of the
applied stress by the bending and stretching of the strong covalent
bonds. In addition, there is a possibility for slight displacement of
adjacent molecules, which is resisted by weak secondary / van der
Waals bonds. Plastic deformation in polymers is not a consequence of
dislocation movement as in metals. Instead, chains rotate, stretch,
slide and disentangle under load to cause permanent deformation. This
permanent deformation in polymers might occur in several stages of
interaction between lamellar and intervening amorphous regions.
Initial stages involve elongation of amorphous tie chains, and eventual
alignment in the loading direction. Continues deformation in second
stage occurs by the tilting of the lamellar blocks. Next, crystalline block
segments separate before blocks and tie chains become orientated in
the direction of tensile axis in final stage. This leads to highly
orientated structure in deformed polymers.
Elastomers, on the other hand, deform elastically by simple uncoiling,
and straightening of molecular chains that are highly twisted, kinked,
and coiled in unstressed state. The driving force for elastic deformation
is change in entropy, which is a measure of degree of disorder in a
system. When an elastomer is stretched, the system’s order increases.
If elastomer is released from the applied load, its entropy increases.
This entropy effect results in a rise in temperature of an elastomer
when stretched. It also causes the modulus of elasticity to increase
with increasing temperature, which is opposite to the behavior of
other materials.
Fracture of polymers is again dependent on morphology of a polymer.
As a thumb rule, thermosets fracture in brittle mode. It involves
formation of cracks at regions where there is a localized stress
concentration. Covalent bonds are severed during the fracture.
However, both ductile and brittle modes are possible mode of fracture
for thermoplasts. Many of thermoplasts can exhibit ductile-to-brittle
transition assisted by reduction in temperature, increase in strain rate,
presence of notch, increased specimen thickness and a modification of
the polymer structure. Unique to polymer fracture is crazing –
presence of regions of very localized yielding, which lead to formation
of small and interconnected microvoids. Crazes form at highly stressed
regions associated with scratches, flaws and molecular
inhomogeneties; and they propagate perpendicular to the applied
tensile stress and typically are 5 μm or less thick. A craze is different
from a crack as it can support a load across its face.
The deformation of plastic materials can be primarily elastic, plastic, or
a combination of both types. The deformation mode and resistance of
deformation depends on many parameters for different plastics. The
following factors influence the strength of a thermoplast: average
molecular mass, degree of crystallization, presence of side groups,
presence of polar and other specific atoms, presence of phenyl rings in
main chains and addition of reinforcements. Effect of every one of
these factor can be used to strengthen a thermoplast. Thermosets are,
however, strengthened by reinforcement methods.
Strength of a thermoplast is directly dependent on its average
molecular mass since polymerization up to a certain molecular-mass
range is necessary to produce a stable solid. This method is not used so
often as after a critical mass range, increasing the average molecular
mass does not greatly increase its strength. In general, as the degree of
crystallinity increases, the strength, modulus and density all increase
for a thermoplast. Another method to increase the strength is to create
more resistance to chain slippage. This can be achieved by addition of
bulky side groups on main chains, which results in increase of strength
but reduces the ductility. Increased resistance to chain slippage can be
achieved by increasing the molecular bonding forces between the
polymer chains. E.g.: introducing a chlorine atom on every other
carbon atom of main chain to make polyvinylchloride (PVC).
Introducing an ether linkage (i.e. introduction of oxygen atom) or
amide linkage (i.e. introduction of oxygen and nitrogen atoms) into the
main chain can increase the rigidity of thermoplasts. One of the most
important strengthening methods for thermoplasts is the introduction
of phenylene rings in the main chain. It is commonly used for high-
strength engineering plastics. The phenylene rings cause steric
hindrance to rotation within the polymer chain and electronic
attraction of resonating electrons between adjacent molecules.
Another method of strengthening is introduction of reinforcements like
glass fibers. Glass content ranges from 20 to 40%, depending on trade-
off between desired strength, ease of processing and economics.
Thermosets are strengthened by reinforcements again. Different
reinforcements are in use according to the necessity. Glass fibers are
most commonly used to form structural and molding plastic
compounds. Two most important types of glass fibers are E (electrical)-
and S (high strength)- glasses. E-glass (lime-aluminium-borosilicate
glass with zero or low sodium and potassium levels) is often used for
continuous fibers. S-glass (65%SiO2, 25%Al2O3 and 10% MgO) has
higher strength-to-weight ratio and is more expansive thus primary
applications include military and aerospace applications. Carbon fiber
reinforced plastics are also often used in aerospace applications.
However they are very expansive.
The other classes of reinforcements include aramid (aromatic
polyamide) fibers. They are popularly known as Kevlar. Presently two
commercial variants of Kevlar are available – Kevlar29 and Kevlar49.
Kevlar29 is a low-density, high strength aramid fiber designed for
applications such as ballistic protection, ropes and cables. Kevlar49 is
characterized by a low density and high strength/modulus; is used in
aerospace, marine, automotive and other industrial applications.
Thermosets without reinforcements are strengthened by creation of
network of covalent bonds throughout the structure of the material.
Covalent bonds can be developed during casting or pressing under heat
and pressure.

TYPES OF POLYMERS: -
 Homopolymer.
 Copolymer.
Homopolymer:- A polymer consists of identical monomer is called
Homopolymer.
------M-M-M-M-M-M-M-M-M-M------------
Homopolymer
Copolymer:- A Polymer consists of monomer of different chemical
structure is called copolymer.
--------M1-M2- M1-M2-M2-M1-M2-M1-M2------
Copolymer
ARRANGEMENT OF MONOMERIC UNITS: -
1. Linear.
2.Branched.
3. Cross –Linked ( Three dimensional structure) .

THERMOPLASTICS:-
 Thermoplastics consists of linear or branched macromolecules.
 Held together by intermolecular forces.
 NOT Deform permanently.Do not recover.
 Thermally recoverable.
 Can dissolve in solvents and can be recovered after solvent
evaporates.

THERMOSET:-
 On heating undergo chemical change.
 Heating causes similar effect as vulcanizing.
 Change due to heating causes formation of more tightly cross
linked molecules than rubber. Hence rigid and hard.
 Can not be reprocessed.

THERMOPLASTICS :-
Commodity Plastics
 Poly Ethylene (LDPE, LLDPE, HDPE)
 Poly Propylene (PP)
 Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC)
  Poly Styrene (GPPS, HIPS)
 Styrene Acrylonitrile (SAN)
 Poly Methyl Methacrylate (PMMA)
Engineering Plastics
 Poly Amide (Nylon 6, 66)
 Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS)
 Poly Acetal
 Poly Carbonate (PC)
 Thermoplastic Polyesters (PET,PBT)
 Poly Phenylene Oxide (PPO)
 Thermo Plastics Poly Urethane (TPU)

THERMOSETS:-
 Phenol Formaldehyde (PF)
 Urea Formaldehyde (UF)
 Melamine Formaldehyde (MF)
 Epoxy
 Unsaturated Polyester

Use of Polymer in Day to Day Life

Introduction Of S-Triazine :-

S-triazine is a nitrogen-containing organic compound that is

widely used in various industries due to its high stability and
versatility. It consists of a six-membered ring made up of three
nitrogen atoms and three carbon atoms, with the chemical
formula C3H3N3 and a molecular weight of 81.07 g/mol.

S-triazine is a key starting material for the synthesis of a wide

range of organic compounds, including herbicides, dyes, and
pharmaceuticals. For example, the herbicide atrazine is a
derivative of s-triazine and is widely used in agriculture to control
the growth of weeds.

In addition to its use as a starting material for the synthesis of

organic compounds, s-triazine is also used as a crosslinking agent
in the production of resins, plastics, and rubber. It can react with
other functional groups, such as hydroxyl and carboxyl groups, to
form strong covalent bonds, which improve the mechanical
properties of the final product.

S-triazine is also used as a disinfectant and sanitizer in the food

industry, as it has strong antimicrobial properties. However, its
use has been associated with environmental and health concerns,
particularly in the case of atrazine, which has been found to
contaminate water sources and has been linked to negative
effects on aquatic ecosystems and wildlife.

In conclusion, s-triazine is an important compound with a wide

range of applications in various industries. While its use has raised
environmental and health concerns, it remains an essential
component in the synthesis of many important organic
compounds and in the production of resins, plastics, and rubber.

History of s-triazine:-
S-triazine is a heterocyclic organic compound composed of a six-
membered ring consisting of three nitrogen atoms and three
carbon atoms. It was first synthesized in 1865 by the German
chemist Adolf von Baeyer, who discovered the compound while
studying the reaction between cyanuric chloride and ammonia.
 Initially, s-triazine was mainly used in the dye industry as a
precursor for the synthesis of various azo dyes. However, it wasn't
until the 1950s that s-triazine derivatives were introduced as
herbicides. The first s-triazine herbicide, atrazine, was discovered
by a team of scientists at the Geigy company in Switzerland in
1958.

Atrazine quickly became one of the most widely used herbicides in

the world, due to its broad-spectrum effectiveness and low cost.
Other s-triazine herbicides, such as simazine and cyanazine, were
also developed in the following years.

However, the use of s-triazine herbicides has been controversial

due to their potential environmental and health effects. Atrazine,
in particular, has been linked to a range of negative impacts on
wildlife and human health, including reproductive problems and
cancer. As a result, many countries have banned or severely
restricted the use of s-triazine herbicides in recent years.

In addition to their use as herbicides, s-triazine compounds have

also been studied for a range of other applications, including as
building blocks for polymers and as catalysts in organic reactions.

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