OVERVIEW OF AFRO-ASIAN LITERATURE

Afro-Asian Literature

 Afro-Asian Literature mirrors not only the customs and traditions of African and Asian
countries but also their philosophy of life which on the whole are deeply and
predominantly contemplative and hauntingly sweet.
 Afro-Asian Literature is the reflection of the storm and the stress of developing nations
seeking a place under the sun which every student must understand so he/ she may know
how this literature affects the history and culture of a nation.
 In a simpler thought, Afro-Asian literature refers to the literary output of the various
countries and cultures in Africa and Asia. This includes their oral traditions and from the
first to the contemporary written and/or published prose and poetry.
 Asian Literature alone is diverse and vibrant. Add to that the splendor of African
Literature, and you get enriching Afro Asian Literature.
 There’s a lot of countries that composed the African and Asian continents, but throughout
this course, we will be mostly exploring:
1. India;
2. China;
3. Japan;
4. Middle East; and
5. Africa

INDIA – THE MYSTIC LAND (SOUTH ASIA)

The Literature of India

 Within Asian and Hindu literature like the literature of other cultures, we often find the
values, morality, and principles of proper or right human conduct values by such cultures.
From the writings of Confucius to the Noh plays to the epic Ramayana, we see such
principles illustrated as a means of helping human beings live a harmonious, peaceful,
and moral life.

 As a whole Asian literature is a compact of ideas wherein culture, belief, religion, and
values collide. This can be reflected from the different writers or authors all over Asia who
wants to share their views, ideas, and emotion through different literary pieces.

 However, this may not be enough to serve as your reference yet this could probably help
you to get a hint on what to do and what to read.

 Oral literature in the vernacular languages of India is of great antiquity, but it was not
until about the 16th century that an extensive written literature appeared. Chief factors in
this development were the intellectual and literary predominance of Sanskrit until then
(except in South India, where a vast literature in Tamil was produced from ancient times)
and the emergence of Hindu pietistic movements that sought to reach the people in their
spoken languages.
 Among the Muslims classical Persian poetry was the fountainhead of a later growth in the
Urdu literature produced for the Mughal court, and elaborate Urdu verse on set themes
was produced in abundance. In the early 19th cent., with the establishment of vernacular
schools and the importation of printing presses, a great impetus was given to popular
prose, with Bengali writers perhaps taking the lead. Foreign, particularly English,
literature was eagerly studied and to some extent assimilated to classical Indian modes
and themes.

 Today there is a written literature in all the important languages of India, Pakistan, and
Bangladesh, as well as a large literature in English intended to reach all the university-
educated public regardless of native language.

 Among the best-known writers of the 19th and early 20th cent. are Rammohun Roy,
Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, Vivekananda, Rabindranath Tagore, winner of the 1913
Nobel Prize in Literature, and Prem Chand, as well as Asadullah Khan Ghalib and
Muhammad Iqbal, the Muslim poets who wrote in Urdu and in Persian.

 Later writers include R.K. Narayan, Raja Rao, Bhabhani Bhattacharya, Ahmed Ali,
Khushwant Singh, Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai, and Mulk Raj Anand in the field of fiction;
Sarojini Naidu, Faiz Ahmed Faiz, Nazrul Islam, and the Bangladeshi Shamsur Rahman in
the field of poetry; and Mohandas Gandhi, M. N. Roy, Jawaharlal Nehru, and Jaya
Prakash Narayan in the field of politics.

 Indian English Literature refers to the body of works by authors in India who write
in English and whose native or co-native language could be one of the numerous
languages of India. It is also associated with the works of members of the Indian diaspora.
The very definition of the adjective “Indian” here is hazy.

 Many of these writers neither live in India, nor are Indian citizens. As a category, this
production comes under the broader realm of postcolonial literature – the
production from previously colonized countries such as India. Though one can trace
such writers in India to a century back, Indian writing in English has come into force
only in the last couple of decades or so, as far as literature goes.

The Four Books of Knowledge (Vedas)

1. Rigveda - a large collection of 1,028 hymns in praise of the gods, which are chanted in
various rituals.
2. Samaveda - known as the Veda of melodies and chants related to public worship.
3. Yajurveda - compiles ritual-offering mantras/chants. These chants were offered by the
priest alongside a person who used to perform a ritual (in most cases yajna fire.)
4. Atharvaveda - book of magic and charms, witchcraft, spells, etc.

Facts about India

1. India is the world’s second most populous nation (after China) and the seventh largest in
area located in South Asia on the Indian subcontinent.
2. India’s land frontier of about 5,700 km (3,540 mi) is shared with Pakistan on the west;
with China (mostly Tibet), Nepal, and Bhutan on the north; and with Bangladesh and
Burma on the east.
3. India’s seventh neighbor is the island nation of Sri Lanka, located off the southern tip of
the peninsula.
4. The name India, which derives from the Indus River and was used by the ancient Greeks
and Persians, came into wide usage during the colonial period.
5. Aryan invaders entered India from the northwest and intermingled with the local
Dravidian population.
6. The foundations of Indian society, including Hinduism and the caste system, were
established from these two groups. Buddhism and Jainism also began in ancient India.
7. The Himalayas form parts of India's borders with Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Tibet in the
west and with Nepal, Bhutan, and Tibet in the east. The region is topographically
complex and divided into prominent elongated valleys and mountain ranges.

Literary Periods of India

 The Indus Valley civilization flourished in northern India between 2500 and 1500 B.C.
The Aryans, a group of nomadic warriors and herders, were the earliest known migrants
into India. They brought with them a well-developed language and literature and a set
of religious beliefs.

a. Vedic Period (1500 B.C.-500 B.C.)

 This period is named for the Vedas, a set of hymns that formed the cornerstone of
Aryan culture. Hindus consider the Vedas, which were transmitted orally by priests,
to be the most sacred of all literature for they believe these to have been revealed to
humans directly by the gods.
 The Rigveda (hymns of supreme sacred knowledge) is the foremost collection or
Samhita made up of 1,028 hymns.
 The Hindus regard these hymns as divinely inspired or ‘heard’ directly from the
gods.

b. Epic and Buddhist Age (500 B.C.-A.D.)

 The period of composition of the two great epics, Mahabharata and the Ramayana.
 This time was also the growth of later Vedic literature, new Sanskrit literature, and
Buddhist literature in Pali. The Dhammapada was also probably composed during
this period.
 The Maurya Empire (322-230 B.C.) ruled by Ashoka promoted Buddhism and
preached goodness, nonviolence, and ‘righteousness’ although this period was
known for warfare and iron-fisted rule.
 The Gupta Dynasty (320-467 B.C.) was the next great political power. During this
time, Hinduism reached a full flowering and was evident in culture and the arts.
 b.1. The Mahabharata

It is traditionally ascribed to the sage Vyasa, consists of a mass of legendary and

didactic material that tells of the struggle for supremacy between two groups of
cousins, the Kauravas and the Pandavas set sometime 3102 BC.

 The poem is made up of almost 100,000 couplets divided into 18 parvans or

sections. It is an exposition on dharma (codes of conduct), including the proper
conduct of a king, of a warrior, of a man living in times of calamity, and of a
person seeking to attain emancipation from rebirth.

b.2. The Bhagavad Gita (The Blessed Lord’s Song)

 It is one of the greatest and most beautiful of the Hindu scriptures. It is regarded
by the Hindus in somewhat the same way as the Gospels are by Christians.
 It forms part of Book IV and is written in the form of a dialogue between the
warrior Prince Arjuna and his friend and charioteer, Krishna, who is also an
earthly incarnation of the god Vishnu.

b.3. The Ramayana

 It was composed in Sanskrit, probably not before 300 BC, by the poet Valmiki
and consists of some 24,000 couplets divided into seven books.
 It reflects the Hindu values and forms of social organization, the theory of karma,
the ideals of wifehood, and feelings about caste, honor and promises.

c. Classical Period (A.D. – 1000 A.D.)

 The main literary language of northern India during this period was Sanskrit, in
contrast with the Dravidian languages of southern India. Sanskrit, which means
‘perfect speech’ is considered a sacred language, the language spoken by the gods
and goddesses.
 As such, Sanskrit was seen as the only appropriate language for the noblest literary
works. Poetry and drama peaked during this period. Beast fables such as the
Panchatantra were popular and often used by religious teachers to illustrate moral
points.

c.1. The Panchatantra

 It is a collection of Indian beast fables originally written in Sanskrit. In Europe,

the work was known under the title The Fables of Bidpai after the narrator, and
Indian sage named Bidpai, (called Vidyapati in Sanskrit).
 It is intended as a textbook of artha (worldly wisdom); the aphorisms tend to
glorify shrewdness and cleverness more than helping of others.

c.2. Shakuntala
  It is a Sanskrit drama by Kalidasa, tells the love between Shakuntala and King
Dushyanta. What begins as a physical attraction for both of them becomes
spiritual in the end as their love endures and surpasses all difficulties.
 King Dushyanta is a noble and pious king who upholds his duties above
personal desire. Shakuntala, on the other hand, is a young girl who matures
beautifully because of her kindness, courage, and strength of will.
 After a period of suffering, the two are eventually reunited. Emotion or rasa
dominates every scene in Sanskrit drama.
 These emotions vary from love to anger, heroism to cowardice, joy to terror and
allows the audience to take part in the play and be one with the characters.

d. Medieval and Modern Age (1000 A.D. to present)

 Persian influence on literature was considerable during this period. Persian was the
court language of the Moslem rulers. In the 18th century India was directly under
the British Crown and remained so until its Independence in 1947.
 British influence was strong and modern-day Indians are primarily educated in
English. Many have been brought into the world of Western learning at the expense
of learning about their own culture.

d.1. Gitanjali

 Gitanjali: Song Offerings was originally published in India in 1910 and its
translation followed in 1912.
 In these prose translations, Rabindranath Tagore uses imagery from nature to
express the themes of love and the internal conflict between spiritual longings
and earthly desires.

d.2. The Taj Mahal

 The Taj Mahal, a poem by Sahir Ludhianvi, is about the mausoleum in North
India built by the Mogul emperor Shah Jahan for his wife Mumtaz Mahal. The
façade of this grandiose structure is made of white marble and is surrounded by
water gardens, gateways, and walks.
 The tomb at the center of the dome stands on a square block with towers at each
corner. The construction of the building took twenty years to complete involving
some 20, 000 workers.

d.3. On Learning to be an Indian

 It is an essay by Santha Rama Rau illustrating the telling effects of colonization

on the lives of the people particularly the younger generation. The writer
humorously narrates the conflicts that arise between her grandmother's
traditional Indian values and the author’s own British upbringing.
 “Because Mother had to fight against the old standards, and because she was brought up
to believe in them, she has an emotional understanding of them which my sister and I will
never have. Brought up in Europe and educated in preparatory and public schools in
 England, we felt that the conventions were not only retrogressive and socially crippling
to the country but also a little ridiculous.”

Religions in India

 Indian creativity is evident in religion as the country is the birthplace of two important
faiths: Hinduism, the dominant religion, and Buddhism, which ironically became extinct
in India but spread throughout Asia.

a. Hinduism

 Hinduism, literally “the belief of the people of India,” is the predominant faith of
India and of no other nation.
 The Hindus are deeply absorbed with God and the creation of the universe.

a.1. The Purusarthas

 The Purusarthas are the three ends of man: dharma – virtue, duty, righteousness,
moral law; artha – wealth; and kama – love or pleasure.
 A fourth end is moksha – the renunciation of duty, wealth and love in order to
seek spiritual perfection. It is achieved after the release from samsara, the cycle
of births and deaths.
 The Hindus believe that all reality is one and spiritual, and that each individual
soul is identical with this reality and shares its characteristics: pure being,
intelligence, and bliss.
 Everything that seems to divide the soul from this reality is maya or illusion.
 Life is viewed as an upward development through four stages of effort called the
four asramas:
1. the student stage – applies to the rite of initiation into the study of the
Vedas;
2. the householder stage – marries and fulfills the duties as head of the
family where he begets sons and earns a living;
3. the stage of the forest dweller – departs from home and renounces the
social world; and
4. ascetic – stops performing any of the rituals or social duties of life in the
world and devotes time for reflection and meditation.

a.2. Kama

 Kama refers to one of the proper pursuits of man in his role as householder, that of
pleasure and love.
 The Kama-sutra is a classic textbook on erotics and other forms of pleasure and
love, which is attributed to the sage Vatsyayana.

a.3. Purusha, the Universal Spirit, the soul and original source of the universe

 As the universal soul, Purusha is the life-giving principle in all animated beings.
As a personified human being, Purusha's body is the source of all creation.
  The four Varnas serve as the theoretical basis for the organization of the Hindu
society.
 These were thought to have been created from Purusha’s body:
 The Brahman (priest) was Purusha’s mouth. Their duty is to perform
sacrifices, to study and to teach the Vedas, and to guard the rules of dharma.
Because of their sacred work, they are supreme in purity and rank.
 The Ksatriyas (warriors) are the arms. From this class arose the kings who
are the protectors of society.
 The Vaisyas (peasants) are the thighs. They live by trading, herding, and
farming.
 The Sudras (serfs) are the feet. They engage in handicrafts and manual
occupation and they are to serve meekly the three classes above them. They
are strictly forbidden to mate with persons of a higher varna.

a.4. The Upanishads

 The Upanishads form a highly sophisticated commentary on the religious thought

suggested by the poetic hymns of the Rigveda. The name implies, according to some
traditions, ‘sitting at the feet of the teacher.’ The most important philosophical
doctrine is the concept of a single supreme being, the Brahman, and knowledge is
directed toward reunion with it by the human soul, the Atman or Self. The
nature of eternal life is discussed and such themes as the transmigration of souls
and causality in creation.

b. Buddhism

 Buddhism originated in India in the 6th century B.C. This religion is based on the
teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, called Buddha, or the ‘Enlightened One.’ Much
of Buddha’s teaching is focused on self-awareness and self-development in order to
attain nirvana or enlightenment.
 According to Buddhist beliefs, human beings are bound to the wheel of life which is a
continual cycle of birth, death, and suffering. This cycle is an effect of karma in which a
person’s present life and experiences are the result of past thoughts and actions, and
these present thoughts and actions likewise create those of the future. The Buddhist
scriptures uphold the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path.

b.1. The Four Notable Truths

1. Life is suffering;
2. The cause of suffering is desire;
3. The removal of desire is the removal of suffering; and
4. The Noble Eightfold Path leads to the end of suffering.
 b.2. The Notable Eightfold Path
1. Right to understanding;
2. Right thought;
3. Right speech;
4. Right action;
5. Right means of livelihood;
6. Right effort;
7. Right concentration; and
8. Right meditation.

b. Buddhism

 The Buddhist truth states that bad actions and bad feelings such as selfishness, greed,
hostility, hate are evil not because they harm others but because of their negative
influence on the mental state of the doer. It is in this sense that evil returns to punish
the doer.

b.3. The Dhammapada (Way of Truth)

 It is an anthology of basic Buddhist teaching in a simple aphoristic style. One of the

best known books of the Pali Buddhist canon, it contains 423 stanzas arranged in 26
chapters. These verses are compared with the Letters of St. Paul in the Bible or that
of Christ’s Sermon on the Mount.

HINDUISM AND INDIAN MYTHOLOGY

Indian Literature
Hinduism
 Hindus acknowledge that, at the most fundamental level, god is the one without a
second — the absolute, formless, and only reality known as Brahman, the supreme,
universal soul. Brahman is the universe and everything in it. Brahman has no form and
no limits; it is reality and truth.
 Thus, Hinduism is a pantheistic religion. It equates God with the universe. Yet Hindu
religion is also polytheistic: populated with myriad gods and goddesses who personify
aspects of the one true God, allowing individuals an infinite number of ways to worship
based on family tradition, community and regional practices, and other considerations.

Brahma (The Creator)

 Brahma is the first member of the Hindu Trinity and is “the Creator” because he
periodically creates everything in the universe. (The word periodically here refers to the
Hindu belief that time is cyclical; everything in the universe — except for Brahman and
certain Hindu scriptures — is created, maintained for a certain amount of time, and then
destroyed in order to be renewed in ideal form again.)

Vishnu (The Preserver)

 Vishnu is the second member of the Hindu Trinity. He maintains the order and harmony
of the universe, which is periodically created by Brahma and periodically destroyed by
Shiva to prepare for the next creation.
 Vishnu is worshipped in many forms and in several avatars (incarnations). Vishnu is an
important, somewhat mysterious god. Less visible than nature gods that preside over
 elements (such as fire and rain), Vishnu is the pervader — the divine essence that
pervades the universe. He is usually worshipped in the form of an avatar (see below).

Shiva (The Destroyer)

 Shiva is the third member of the Hindu Trinity, tasked with destroying the universe in
order to prepare for its renewal at the end of each cycle of time. Shiva’s destructive power
is regenerative: It’s the necessary step that makes renewal possible.
 Hindus customarily invoke Shiva before the beginning of any religious or spiritual
endeavor; they believe that any bad vibrations in the immediate vicinity of worship are
eliminated by the mere utterance of his praise or name.

Ganapati (The Remover of Obstacles)

 Ganapati, also known as Ganesha, is Shiva’s first son. Lord Ganapati, who has an
elephant head, occupies a very special place in the hearts of Hindus because they
consider him the Remover of Obstacles. Most Hindu households have a picture or statue
of this godhead, and it’s not uncommon to see small replicas of Ganapati hanging from
rearview mirrors of cars and trucks!

Avatars of Vishnu (Rama)

 The literal meaning of the word avatar is “descent,” and it’s usually understood to mean
divine descent. Avatars are savior forms of a god that descend to earth to intervene
whenever help is needed to restore dharma (moral order) and peace. Two of Vishnu’s
ten avatars are Rama and Krishna.
 Rama is one of the most beloved Hindu gods and is the hero of the Hindu epic called the
Ramayana. He is portrayed as an ideal son, brother, husband, and king and as a strict
adherent to dharma. Millions of Hindus derive satisfaction from reading and recalling
Rama’s trials and tribulations as a young prince who was exiled from his kingdom for
14 years.

Avatars of Vishnu (Krishna)

 If one Hindu god’s name is known and recognized throughout the world, it is Krishna.
Hindus identify Krishna as the teacher of the sacred scripture called the Bhagavad Gita
and as the friend and mentor of prince Arjuna in the epic the Mahabharata.
 For his devotees, Krishna is a delight, full of playful pranks. But most of all, Lord
Krishna’s promise to humanity that he will manifest himself and descend to earth
whenever dharma declines has sustained Hindu belief in the Supreme Being over
thousands of years.

Saraswati (The Goddess of Learning)

 Saraswati is the consort of Brahma the Creator and is worshipped as the goddess of
learning, wisdom, speech, and music. Hindus offer prayer to Saraswati before beginning
any intellectual pursuit, and Hindu students are encouraged to offer prayers to her
during the school/college term and especially before and during examinations.

Lakshmi (The Goddess of Fortune)

 Lakshmi is the goddess of good fortune, wealth, and well-being. As the consort of
Vishnu, she plays a role in every incarnation. (She is Sita, wife of Rama; Rukmini, wife
of Krishna; and Dharani, wife of Parashu Rama, another avatar of Vishnu.)
Durga Devi (The Destroyer of Demons)
 Durga Devi is a powerful, even frightening goddess who fights fiercely in order to
restore dharma (moral order). Yet, while Durga is terrifying to her adversaries, she is full
of compassion and love for her devotees.

Indra (The King of Heaven & the Lord of the Gods)

 Indra wields a thunderbolt and is a protector and provider of rain. Indra was the most
important god in the pantheon of Vedic mythology (along with Buddhist and Jain
pantheons), and as such is still counted as a significant deity among the present-day
Hindu gods and goddesses. Alluding to the Indo-European roots of early Vedic religion,
Indra (also known as Devendra) is often perceived as the Indian counterpart to European
deities like Zeus, Perun, and even Odin and Thor.

Surya (The Sun God)

 Surya (or Soorya) is a golden warrior arriving on a chariot pulled by seven white horses.
Interestingly enough, in spite of being one of the older deities of the Indian Hindu
mythology, his creation myth often takes the complex route, with one narrative
suggesting how he was the son of Dyaus (sky), while another hinting at how he was sired
by Kasyapa (a Vedic sage) and Aditi (the ‘limitless’ mother of the gods). In any case,
befitting his status as the effulgent sun, Surya is often portrayed in a resplendent manner
as a mighty figure seated atop an ostentatious chariot – drawn by seven horses and
driven by Aruna, the personification of dawn.

Agni (The Fire God)

 Agni holds a special place in Hindu fire ritual to this day as the sacrificer (the priest who
performs the ceremony); the sacrifice (the ritual fire and the offerings made into it); and
the witness to all rites. Interestingly enough, fire is still central to the theme of Hindu
worship, with its crucial role in the various yajnas (rites). And even beyond his aspect of
fire in the earthly domain, Agni symbolized other forms of energy in the ‘atmosphere’,
including both the lightning and the sun.

Hanuman (The Monkey King)

 Hanuman is featured in the great Hindu epic the Ramayana. He earned his path to
deification by performing feats of strength, devotion, and courage while helping Rama
(an avatar of Vishnu) in countless exciting incidents.

Varuna (The God of the Sky and Oceans)

 An enigmatic Vedic deity among the Hindu gods who was first associated with the sky,
Varuna (‘he who encompasses’) later symbolized the forces of oceans, clouds, and water.
Pertaining to the latter, he was often depicted with his vehicle, the Makara – a hybrid sea
creature which is often found in other ancient Indian motifs.
 However, beyond the scope of skies and oceans, Rig Veda also mentions how Varuna is
the guardian of the moral law encompassing both Rta (justice) and Satya (truth). In that
regard, the god serves his dual role as the ruthless punisher of the sinners and the
compassionate forgiver of the remorseful.

Yama (The God of the Underworld & Death)

 The major deity of death and the underworld among the Hindu gods and goddesses
(and also the Buddhist pantheon), Yama was/is venerated as the patron god of the
ancestors and the divine judge of the departed souls. Also known by his other monikers
 Dharmaraja (‘ruler of justice’) and Mrityu (‘death’), Yama is mentioned in the Vedas as
being the first mortal who died (thereby providing him with the precedence to rule over
his departed brethren).
 However, in Vishnu Purana, he, along with his twin sister Yami, is extolled as the son of
Vivasvat (an aspect of Surya), the resplendent sun god of the Hindu mythology, and
Saranyu-Samjna, the Hindu goddess of conscience.

Shakti (The Goddess of Power)

 Literally translating to power or might in Sanskrit, Shakti among the Hindu gods and
goddesses (along with Vedic gods) pertains to the manifestation of the primordial cosmic
energy. Given the association to creation (or birth) on an elemental level, Shakti is often
considered feminine in form and is thus given the epithet of ‘The Great Divine Mother’.
Her mother form, also known as Adi Shakti or Adi Parashakti (‘supreme energy’) is not
only equated to creation but also venerated as the bringer (or agent) of change.
 In terms of Hindu mythology, Shakti is often viewed as the feminine energy reserved
within Shiva. In other words, she epitomizes the creative power of Shiva (often identified
as his consort and lover Parvati), and as such eight other mother goddesses represent the
Shakti (power) of their male counterparts.

Kali (The Goddess of Destruction)

 While Durga espouses the magnificence of Shakti, Kali, among the Hindu gods and
goddesses, represents the violent nature of Shakti (power). The feminine form of Kalam
(meaning dark colored or dark blue), Kali is often portrayed as one of the incarnations
of Parvati’s skin (which the goddess sheds), while one famous legend even mentions her
as the manifestation of the destructive power of Durga herself.
 The rampage of Kali was/is a popular motif in Hindu worship, and as such, the violent
goddess is often venerated by the cremation grounds (usually associated with
battlefields). As for history, while Kali is mentioned in the Atharva Veda and later
Upanishads, her prominence as a goddess figure among the Hindu gods possibly came
after 6th century AD.

Kartikeya (The Herald of Heaven)

 The eternally youthful deity among the Hindu gods and goddesses, Kartikeya is also
known as Kumara, Skanda, and Murugan (‘the youth’) – with the latter being an
important deity among the Tamil people residing not only in India but also other
parts of the world, including Sri Lanka, Singapore, Mauritius, Indonesia, and
Malaysia. In the mythical narrative, Kartikeya is often portrayed as the son of Shiva
and Parvati, with one legend mentioning how Kartikeya was incubated in Ganga
(preserved by the heat of Agni) after Shiva accidentally spilled his semen while
making love to Parvati.
 The resplendent nature of the child caught the attention of the Krittikas, feminine
entities who wanted to shower their motherly love – and thus these Krittikas,
symbolized by the seven brightest stars of the Pleiades cluster, gave their collective
name to the child – Kartikeya (‘of the Krittikas’).
 Further Readings 1 and 2
Indian Literature

A. MAJOR WRITERS OF INDIAN LITERATURE

a. Kalidasa, a Sanskrit poet and dramatist, is probably the greatest Indian writerof all
time. As with most classical Indian authors, little is known about Kalidasa’s person or
his historical relationships. His poems suggest that he wasa Brahman (priest). Many
works are traditionally ascribed to the poet, but scholars have identified only six as
genuine.
b. Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941). The son of a Great Sage, Tagore is a Bengalipoet and
mystic who won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1913. Tagoremanaged his father's
estates and lived in close contact with the villagers. His sympathy for their poverty and
backwardness was later reflected in his works.The death of his wife and two children
brought him years of sadness but this also inspired some of his best poetry. Tagore is
also a gifted composer and a painter.
c. Prem Chand is the pseudonym of Dhanpat Rai Srivastava (1880-1936). Indianauthor
of numerous novels and short stories in Hindi and Urdu who pioneeredin adapting
Indian themes to Western literary styles. He worked as a teacher before joining
Mahatma Gandhi’s anticolonial Noncooperation Movement.
 Sevasadana (House of Service). His first major novel deals with the problems
of prostitution and moral corruption among the Indian middleclass.
 Manasarovar (The Holy Lake). A collection of 250 or so short stories which
contains most of Prem Chand’s best works.
 Godan (The Gift of a Cow). This last novel was Prem Chand’s masterpiece and
it deals with his favorite theme – the hard and unrewarding life of the village
peasant.
d. Kamala Markandaya (1924). Her works concern the struggles of contemporaryIndians
with conflicting Eastern and Western values. A Brahman, she studied at Madras
University then settled in England and married an Englishman. In her fiction, Western
values typically are viewed as modern and materialistic, and Indian values as spiritual
and traditional.
 Nectar in a Sieve. Her first novel and most popular work is about an Indian
peasant’s narrative of her difficult life.
e. R. K. Narayan (1906). One of the finest Indian authors of his generation writing in
English. He briefly worked as a teacher before deciding to devote himself full-time to
writing. All of Narayan’s works are set in the fictitious South Indiantown of Malgudi.
They typically portray the peculiarities of human relationships and the ironies of
Indian daily life, in which modern urban existence clashes with ancient tradition. His
style is graceful, marked by genialhumor, elegance, and simplicity.
 Swami and Friends. His first novel is an episodic narrative recounting the
adventures of a group of schoolboys.
 Novels: The English Teacher (1945), Waiting for the Mahatma (1955), theGuide
(1958), the Man-Eater of Malgudi (1961), the Vendor of Sweets (1967), A Tiger
for Malgudi (1983), and the World of Nagaraj (1990).
 Collection of Short Stories: Lawley Road (1956), A Horse and Two Goatsand
Other Stories (1970), Under the Banyan Tree and Other Stories (1985), and
Grandmother’s Tale (1992).
f. Anita Desai (1937). An English-language Indian novelist and author of children’s
books, she is considered India’s premier imagist writer. She excelled in evoking
character and mood through visual images. Most of her works reflect Desei’s tragic
view of life.
 Cry, the Peacock. Her first novel addresses the theme of the suppressionand
oppression of Indian women.
 Clear Light of Day. Considered the author’s most successful work, this is a
highly evocative portrait of two sisters caught in the lassitude of Indian life.
This was shortlisted for the 1980 Booker Prize.
 Fire on the Mountain. This work was criticized as relying too heavily onimagery
at the expense of plot and characterization, but it was praised for its poetic
symbolism and use of sounds. This won for her the RoyalSociety of Literature’s
Winifred Holtby Memorial Prize.
g. Vir Singh (1872-1957). A Sikh writer and theologian, he wrote at a time whenSikh
religion and politics and the Punjabi language were under heavy attack by the English
and Hindus. He extolled Sikh courage, philosophy, and ideals,earning respect for the
Punjabi language as a literary vehicle.
 Kalghi Dhar Chamatkar. This novel is about the life of the 17th century guru
Gobind Singh.
 Other novels on Sikh philosophy and martial excellence include Sundri(1898)
and Bijai Singh (1899).
 h. Arundhati Roy. A young female writer whose first book The God of SmallThings
won for her a Booker Prize.

B. FAMOUS LITERARY MASTERPIECES

1. Mahatma Gandhi – The Story of my Experiments with the Truth
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi has always been a very prominent figure in Indian history.
From his unbeatable spirit to inspiringMohandas Karamchand Gandhi has always been a very
prominent figure in Indian history. From his unbeatable spirit to inspiring courage, from
various controversies to his life as the father of the nation, Gandhi has always been an
interesting, inspiring and impressive personality to read about.
2. R.K. Narayan – The Guide
R.K Narayan is best known for stories based in and around the fictional village of Malgudi.
The Guide is yet another story set up in Malgudi. R.K. Narayan won the Sahitya Akademi
Award for the book in 1960. The Guide is the story of a tour guide who transforms himself
into a spiritual Guru and then the greatest holy man of India.The book was also adapted as a
film which starred the legendary actor Dev Anand.
3. Rohinton Mistry – A Fine Balance
This is the second novel by Mistry published in 1995 and, like his first novel, Such a Long
Journey, this novel too received wide acclaim across the globe. A fine balance revolves around
various characters in Mumbai (then Bombay) during the time of turmoil and government
emergencies. The story of friendship and love that progresses among the characters of the
book will keep you hooked till the end.
4. Salman Rushdie – Midnight’s Children
Midnight’s Children portrays the journey of India from British rule to independence and then
partition. The book received a great response, winning the Booker Prize in 1981 and the
“Booker of Bookers” Prize (commemorating the best among all the Booker winners) twice –
in 1993 and 2008! The book travels to various parts of the country including Kashmir, Agra
and Mumbai and incorporates many actual historicevents. The book was also included in the
List of 100 Best Novels of all time.
5. Jhumpa Lahiri – The Interpreter of Maladies
This is a collection of nine stories by Lahiri. The stories are based on lives of Indians and Indian
Americans who are lost between the two cultures. The book was publishedin 1999 and won the
Pulitzer Prize for Fiction and the Hemingway Foundation/PEN Award in the year 2000 and
has sold over 15 million copies worldwide.
6. Vikram Seth – A Suitable Boy
Published in 1993, this 1349-pages-long-book is one of the longest novels ever published in
a single volume in the English Language. The story focuses on India post-partition as a family
looks for a suitable boy to marry their daughter. Seth’s follow upbook A Suitable Girl is
expected to be released in 2016.
7. Arundhati Roy – God of Small Things
The debut novel by Roy, which took almost four years to finish is a story of fraternal twins
and how small things make a large difference in people’s lives and behavior. The book was
awarded the Booker Prize in 1997 and is Roy’s only published novel so far. The story
narrated in third person is set in Kerala, and takes place in 1969.
8. Amitav Ghosh – The Glass Palace
This book won Grand Prize for Fiction at the Frankfurt International e-Book Awards in
2001. The story is set in Burma and focuses on various issues during the British invasion in
1885. The novel beautifully portrays the circumstances and incidents that made Burma,
India and Malaya what they are today. This story of the empire, love and the changing
society is definitely worth reading.
9. Kiran Desai – The Inheritance of Loss
The book, written over a period of seven years after her first book, portrays different
conflicts between various Indian groups, in the past and at present. It shows how people
find the English lifestyle fascinating and also captures the perception of various
opportunities in the US. The book won Desai various awards including the Man Booker
Prize in 2006 and the National Book Critics Circle Fiction Award.
10. Mulk Raj Anand – The Private Life of an Indian Prince
This book was published in 1953 and is considered as one of the Anand’s finest works.The
story revolves around abolition of princely states in India, focusing on the life of a King and
his fascination towards one of his mistresses. The story has some real life incidents which
are beautifully converted into fiction.