Geometric design for highways and railways, including cross

sections, horizontal and vertical alignments, super-elevation

and earthworks

Submitted by:
Celin, June Vel C.
Davis, Anisa O.
Del Rosario, Wilbur A.
Dela Torre, Johnino Z.
Delabajan, Zire Y.
Diama, Klyden C.

BSCE-3

Submitted to:
Engr. June Carlo S. Encabo
Instructor

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Abstract:
Geometric design of highways and railways refers to the design of the visible dimensions
of such features as horizontal and vertical alignments, cross sections, super-elevation and
earthworks facilities. The main objective of geometric design is to produce a highway with safe,
efficient, and economic traffic operations while maintaining aesthetic and environmental quality.
Geometric design is influenced by the vehicle, driver, and traffic characteristics. The temporal
changes of these characteristics make geometric design a dynamic field where design
guidelines are periodically updated to provide more satisfactory design. The geometric design
of highways deals with the dimensions and layout of visible features of the highway. The
features normally considered are the cross-section elements, sight distance consideration,
horizontal curvature, gradients, and intersection. The design of these features is to a great
extent influenced by driver behaviour and psychology, vehicle characteristics, traffic
characteristics such as speed and volume. Proper geometric design will help in the reduction
of accidents and their severity. Therefore, the objective of geometric design is to provide
optimum efficiency in traffic operation and maximum safety at reasonable cost.

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 Table of Contents

Introduction----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1
1. Geometric Design------------------------ ---------------------------------------------------------------------2
1.1 Highway Geometric Design----------------------------------------------------- --------------------------2
1.1.1 Design Considerations-------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------2
1.2 Railway Geometric Design----------------------------------------------------- -------------------------3
1.2.1 Gradient-------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------6
2 Cross Sections- -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------7
3 Horizontal and Vertical Alignment---------------------------------------------------------------------14
3.1 Horizontal Alignment-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------14
3.1.2 Design of Horizontal Alignment--------------------------------------------------------------------15
3. 2 Vertical alignment-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------16
4 Super- elevation----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------16
5 Earthworks------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------18
Reference----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------19

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Introduction
Geometric design of highways talks about the design of its visible dimensions of
components like horizontal and vertical alignments, cross sections, junctions or intersections,
super elevations, and earthworks. These basic elements are common to all linear facilities,
such as roadways, railways. The primary goal of geometric design is to create a roadway that
is safe, efficient, and cost-effective to operate while maintaining a high level of aesthetic and
environmental quality. Vehicle, driver, and traffic factors all have an impact on geometric
design. The geometric design is a dynamic discipline where design rules are changed on a
regular basis to produce better results for a reason that these characteristics changes over
time.

Geometric design of Railways refers to the importance of tracks to have a proper

geometric design in order to maximize the safety and smooth running of trains at maximum
allowable speed carrying the heaviest load of the axle. The speed and axle load of the train is
important and sometimes included as parameters to be considered while arriving at the
geometric design of railway. This chapter focuses on the fundamentals of geometric design of
highways and railways, and presents standards and examples from different modes. The order
of presentation of material in this chapter is to consider geometric design of highway first, then
geometric design of railway, cross-sections, vertical alignment, horizontal alignment, super
elevation, earthworks, and other design details. Design guidelines take into account speed,
vehicle type, road grade (slope), view obstructions, and stopping distance. With proper
application of guidelines, along with good engineering judgement, an engineer can design a
roadway that is comfortable, safe, and appealing to the eye.

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1. Geometric Design

1.1 Highway Geometric Design

The geometric design of roads is the branch of highway engineering concerned with the
positioning of the physical elements of the roadway according to standards and constraints.
The basic objectives in geometric design are to optimize efficiency and safety while minimizing
cost and environmental damage. Geometric design also affects an emerging fifth objective
called "liveability," which is defined as designing roads to foster broader community goals,
including providing access to employment, schools, businesses and residences, accommodate
a range of travel modes such as walking, bicycling, transit, and automobiles, and minimizing
fuel use, emissions and environmental damage. Geometric roadway design can be broken into
three main parts: alignment, profile, and cross-section. Combined, they provide a three-
dimensional layout for a roadway.

 The alignment is the route of the road, defined as a series of horizontal tangents
and curves.

 The profile is the vertical aspect of the road, including crest and sag curves, and
the straight grade lines connecting them.

 The cross section shows the position and number of vehicle and bicycle lanes and
sidewalks, along with their cross slope or banking. Cross sections also show
drainage features, pavement structure and other items outside the category of
geometric design.

1.1.1 Design Considerations

To meet the objective of fitting the highway to site topography and yet satisfy the safety,
service and performance standards, the following considerations have to be properly
addressed in the design process.

 Design speed

 Design traffic volume

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 Number of lanes

 Level of service (LOS)

 Sight distance

 Alignment, super-elevation and grades

 Cross section

 Lane width

 Horizontal and vertical clearance

1.1.2 Design Elements

Design Speed

The design speed is defined as a selected rate of travel used to determine the various
geometric features of the roadway. The basic purpose in using the design speed concept is to
achieve consistency in the various design elements that influence vehicle operations. Since
many critical design features are predicated upon design speed, the selection of the proper
value is essential to allow for the safe design of a safe street or highway. The selection of an
appropriate design speed is dependent on the predicted driver behavior and is, therefore,
rather complex. This selection of design speed should receive considerable preliminary
investigation and thought so safety will be realized from the design. The primary basis for
selecting the design speed should be a rational prediction of the probable maximum operating
speed (by approximately 90 percent of the vehicles) on the street or highway. The "average
running speed" is not acceptable as a design speed.

In selecting design speeds, consideration should also be given to pedestrians and

bicycle usage and to the present and future adjacent land use. Recommended minimum
values for design speed are given in the table below. These values should be considered as
general guidelines only.

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 The maximum normal operating speed is dependent on many variables including
topography, general roadway geometry, frequency of traffic signals or other traffic control
devices, posted speed limit and the degree of enforcement and others.

Design Vehicles

A "design vehicle" is a selected motor vehicle whose weight, dimensions, and operating
characteristics are used to establish highway design controls to accommodate vehicles of a
designated type. For the purpose of geometric design, the design vehicle should be one with
dimensions and minimum turning radii larger than those of almost all vehicles in its class. The
decision as to which of the design vehicles (or other special vehicles) should be used as a
control is complex and requires careful study. Each situation Each situation must be evaluated
individually to arrive at a reasonable estimate of the type and volume of expected traffic.
Design criteria significantly affected by the type of vehicle include:

 Horizontal and vertical clearances

 Alignment

 Lane widening on curves

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 Shoulder width requirements

 Turning roadway and intersection radii

 Intersection sight distance

 Acceleration criteria

Sight Distance

Sight distance is the roadway ahead that is visible to the driver. Various sight distance
criteria exist in highway geometric design to provide drivers with sufficient warning of potential
obstacle or conflict ahead. Future obstruction to sight distance that may develop or be
constructed should be taken into consideration in the initial design. Areas outside of the
highway right of way that are not under the highway agency's jurisdiction should be considered
as points of obstruction.

Stopping Sight Distance

Stopping sight distance is the distance ahead that a motorist should be able to see so
that the vehicle can be brought safely to a stop short of an obstruction or foreign object on the
road. This distance will include the driver’s reaction or perception distance and the distance
traveled while the brakes are being applied. The total distance traveled varies with the initial
speed, the brake reaction time, and the coefficient of friction for wet pavements and average
tires. Safe stopping sight distances shall be provided continuously on all streets and highways.
The factors, which determine the minimum distance required to stop, include:

 Vehicle speed

 Driver's total reaction time

 Characteristics and conditions of the vehicle

 Friction capabilities between the tires and the roadway surface

 Vertical and horizontal alignment of the roadway

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1.2 Railway Geometric Design

Geometric Design of Railway Track should be such as to provide maximum efficiency in

the traffic operation with maximum safety at reasonable cost.

1.2.1 Gradient
Any departure of track from the level is known as grade or gradient. The purpose of
providing gradient is provide uniform rate of rise or fall, to reduce cost of earth work, to reach
different stations at different level.

Types of gradients

1. Ruling gradient
The steepest gradient allowed on the track section. It determines the max load that the
locomotive can haul that section. The steep gradient needs more powerful locomotives,
smaller train loads, lower speed, resulting in costly hauling.

–In plains: 1 in 150 to 1 in 200

–In hilly regions: 1 in 100 to 1 in 150

2. Momentum Gradient
The gradient on a section which are steeper than the ruling gradient acquire sufficient
momentum to negotiate them are known as momentum gradient.

3. Pusher gradient
As stated above a ruling gradient limits the maximum weight of a train which can be
hauled over the section by a locomotive. If the ruling gradient is so severe on a section that it
needs the help of extra engine to pull the same load than this gradient is known as pusher of
helper gradient. In Darjeeling Railways 1 in 37 pusher gradient is used on Western Ghats BG
Track.

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4. Gradient at stations
At stations gradient are provided sufficient low due to following reason:
 To prevent movement of standing vehicle
 To prevent additional resistance due to grade.
 On Indian railways, maximum gradient permitted is 1 in 400 in station yards.

Grade compensation on curves

If a curve is provided on a track with ruling gradient, the resistance of the track will be
increased this curve. In order to avoid resistance beyond the allowable limits, the gradients are
reduced on curves. The reduction in gradient is known as grade compensation for curves.

 BG track: 0.04% per degree of curve

 MG track: 0.03 % per degree of curve
 NG track: 0.02 % per degree of curve

2. Cross Sections
The AASHTO “Green Book” defines a roadway cross-section as “a vertical section of
the ground and roadway at right angles to the centreline of the roadway, including all elements
of a highway or street from right-of-way line”. Along with the vertical alignment (grades and
vertical curves) and horizontal alignment (tangents and curves), the roadway cross-section
helps to present a three-dimensional roadway model. The principal elements of a highway
cross section consist of the travel lanes, shoulders, and medians (for some multilane
highways). Marginal elements include median and roadside barriers, curbs, gutters, guard rails,
sidewalks, cross slope and side slopes. The primary consideration in the design of geometric
cross sections for highways, runways, and taxiways is drainage. Details vary depending on the
type of facility and agency.

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Travel Lanes or Traffic Lanes
Travel lane is “the portion of the roadway for the movement of vehicles, exclusive of
shoulders and bicycle lanes”. This area usually contains two or more lanes for roadway traffic.
Travel lanes have a great influence on driving comfort, operational characteristics, crash
probability and level of service. The predominant travel lane on freeways and land service
highways is 12 feet. Drivers typically increase their speeds with wider travel lanes. Therefore, it
may be appropriate to use narrower lane widths that are compatible with the alignment and
intended speed at locations with low design speeds and restricted alignments. Using a typical
lane width of 12 feet reduces maintenance costs and provides adequate clearance between
heavy vehicles on two-lane, two-way rural highways with high commercial vehicle traffic.

Facility Type: Typical Lane Widths

Range: 9 to 12 feet
High-speed, high-volume highways: 12 feet (predominant)
Urban areas with lane width controls: 11 feet
Low-speed facilities: 10 feet (acceptable)
Rural low-volume roads & residential areas: 9 feet (acceptable)

Shoulders
A shoulder is the portion of the roadway contiguous with the travelled way for
accommodation of stopped vehicles, for emergency use, and for lateral support of sub base,
base and surface courses. Some of the more important advantages of providing shoulders are:

 Space for the motorist to pull completely off the roadway for emergencies.
 An escape zone to allow motorists to avoid potential accidents or reduce accident severity.
 An aid to driver comforts by creating a sense of openness; improves highway capacity.
 An improvement in sight distance in cut sections.\
 A provision to enhance lateral clearance for the placement of signs, guide rails, or other
roadside appurtenances.
 Space for pedestrians where there is no sidewalk and for bicycle usage

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 Shoulder surfaces range in width from 2 ft. on minor roads to 12 ft. on major arterials.
Shoulders are also used to laterally support the pavement structure. The shoulder width is
known as either graded or usable, depending on the section of the shoulder being considered.
The graded shoulder width is the whole width of the shoulder measured from the edge of the
travel lane to the intersection of the shoulder slope and the plane of the side slope. The usable
shoulder width is that part of the graded shoulder that can be used to accommodate parked
vehicles. The usable width is the same as the graded width when the side slope is equal to or
flatter than 4:1 (horizontal: vertical), as the shoulder break is usually rounded to a width
between 4 ft. and 6 ft., thereby increasing the usable width.

Medians
A median is the section of a divided highway that separates the lanes in opposing
directions. This area is located between the edges of opposing travel lanes (including any left
shoulders). Median width and design characteristics are among the most important safety
features of high-speed highways in both urban and rural areas. The principal functions of a
median are to:

 Provide the desired freedom from the interference of opposing traffic.

 Provide a refuge area for pedestrians and bicyclists.
 Provide a recovery area for out-of-control vehicles.
 Provide a stopping area in case of emergencies.
 Provide for speed changes and storage of left turning and U turning vehicles.
 Minimize headlight glare.
 Provide width for future lanes.
 Add open green space in an urban area.
 Serve as traffic calming devices on low-speed roadways.

Median widths are dependent on the roadway type and location. Any proposed median
widths should be evaluated for potential barrier needs. Ideally, median widths (typically 4 to 80
feet) should be sufficient so that no barrier is needed, when practical. The wider medians are
safer but more costly, requiring more right-of-way, construction and maintenance. Medians can

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either be raised, flush, or depressed. Raised medians are frequently used in urban arterial
streets because they facilitate the control of left-turn traffic at intersections by using part of the
median width for left-turn-only lanes. Flush medians are commonly used on urban arterials.
They can also be used on freeways, but with a median barrier. Depressed medians are
generally used on freeways and are more effective in draining surface water.

Roadside and Median Barriers

A median barrier is defined as a longitudinal system used to prevent an errant vehicle
from crossing the portion of a divided highway separating the travelled ways for traffic in
opposite directions. Roadside barriers, on the other hand, protect vehicles from obstacles or
slopes on the roadside. They also may be used to shield pedestrians and property from the
traffic stream. The provision of median barriers must be considered when traffic volumes are
high and when access to multilane highways and other highways is only partially controlled.
However, when the median of a divided highway has physical characteristics that may create
unsafe conditions, such as a sudden lateral drop-off or obstacles, the provision of a median
barrier should be considered regardless of the traffic volume or the median width.

Curbs and Gutters

Curbs are raised structures made of either Portland cement concrete or bituminous
concrete (rolled asphalt curbs) that are used mainly on urban highways to delineate pavement
edges and pedestrian walkways. Curbs are also used to control drainage, improve aesthetics,
and reduce right of way. Curbs can be generally classified as either vertical or sloping. Vertical
curbs, range in height from 6 to 8 with steep sides, and are designed to prevent vehicles from
leaving the highway. Sloping curbs are designed so that vehicles can cross them if necessary.
Both vertical and sloping curbs may be designed separately or as integral parts of the
pavement. In general, vertical curbs should not be used in conjunction with traffic barriers,
such as bridge railings or median and roadside barriers, because they could contribute to
vehicles rolling over the traffic barriers. Vertical curbs should also be avoided on highways with
design speeds greater than 40 mi/h, because at such speeds it is usually difficult for drivers to
retain control of the vehicle after an impact with the curb.

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 Gutters or drainage ditches are usually located on the pavement side of a curb to
provide the principal drainage facility for the highway. They are sloped to prevent any hazard
to traffic, and they usually have cross slopes of 5 to 8 percent and are 1 to 6 ft. wide. Gutters
can be designed as V-type sections or as broad, flat, rounded sections.

Guard Rails
Guard rails are longitudinal barriers placed on the outside of sharp curves and at
sections with high fills. Their main function is to restrain and redirect errant vehicles and
prevent them from leaving the roadway. They are installed at embankments higher than 8 ft.
and when shoulder slopes are greater than 4:1. Shapes commonly used include the W beam
and the box beam. The weak post system provides for the post to collapse on impact, with the
rail deflecting and absorbing the energy due to impact.

Sidewalks
Sidewalks are usually provided on roads in urban areas, but are uncommon in rural
areas. Nevertheless, the provision of sidewalks in rural areas should be evaluated during the
planning process to determine sections of the road where they are required. Generally,
sidewalks should be provided when pedestrian traffic is high along main or high-speed roads in
either rural or urban areas. When shoulders are not provided on arterials, sidewalks are
necessary even when pedestrian traffic is low. In urban areas, sidewalks should also be
provided along both sides of collector streets that serve as pedestrian access to schools, parks,
shopping centers, and transit stops, and along collector streets in commercial areas.
Sidewalks should have a minimum clear width of 4 ft. in residential areas and a range of 4 to 8
ft. in commercial areas. To encourage pedestrians to use sidewalks, they should have all-
weather surfaces since pedestrians will tend to use traffic lanes rather than unpaved sidewalks.

Cross Slope
Pavements on straight sections of two-lane and multilane highways without medians are
sloped from the middle downward to both sides of the highway, resulting in a transverse or
cross slope, with a cross section shape that can be curved, plane or a combination of the two.

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 Plane: Slope break at crown line, Uniform slope on each side

Rounded: Parabolic cross-section, Rounded surface at crown line

Increasing slope toward edges

The rounded section is beneficial for roadway drainage due to its steepening cross
slope toward the edge of travelled way. However, disadvantages include: difficult construction;
excessive outer lane cross slopes; and pavement transitions at intersection areas.

Side slopes
Side slopes adjoin the roadway shoulder and are located between the edge of the
shoulder and the right-of-way boundary. Any side slope design needs to improve road stability
and provide adequate recovery space for errant vehicles. Side slopes are also provided on
embankments and fills to provide stability for earthworks. When being considered as a safety
feature, the important sections of the cross slope are the hinge point, the fore slope, and the
toe of the slope. The hinge point should be rounded since it is potentially hazardous and may
cause vehicles to become airborne while crossing it, resulting in loss of control of the vehicle.
The fore slope serves principally as a recovery area, where vehicle speeds can be reduced
and other recovery manoeuvres taken to regain control of the vehicle. The Toe of Slope is the
intersection of fore slope with level ground or back slope and usually within clear zone and
impacted by vehicle.

Figure 2.1 - Two-lane highway cross section, with ditches

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.

Figure 2.2 - Two-lane highway cross section, curbeds

Figure 2.3 - Divided highway cross section, depressed median, with ditches.

Figure 2.4 - Divided highway cross section, raised median, curbed

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 Figure 2.5 - Railroad track geometric cross section

3. Horizontal and Vertical Alignment

3.1 Horizontal Alignment
The horizontal alignment of a roadway should be designed to provide motorists with a
facility for driving in a safe and comfortable manner. Adequate stopping sight distance should
be furnished. Also, changes in direction should be accompanied by the use of curves and
superelevation when appropriate in accordance with established guidelines.Some changes in
alignment are slight and may not require curvature.

The standard of alignment selected for a particular section of highway should extend
throughout the section with no sudden changes from easy to sharp curvature. Where sharper
curvature is unavoidable, a sequence of curves of increasing degree should be utilized.
Winding alignment consisting of sharp curves is hazardous, reduces capacity, and should be
avoided. The use of as flat a curve as possible is recommended. Flatter curves are not only
less hazardous, but also frequently less costly due to the shortened roadway. Maximum
curvature should not be used in the following locations:

 High fills or elevated structures. The lack of surrounding objects reduces the driver's
perception of the roadway alignment.
 At or near a crest in grade
 At or near a low point in a sag or grade
 At the end of long tangents

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 At or near intersections, transit stops, or points of ingress or egress
 At or near other decision points

The "broken back" arrangement of curves (short tangent between two curves in the
same direction) should be avoided. This is acceptable only at design speeds of 30 mph or less.
This arrangement produces an unexpected and hazardous situation.

2.1.1 Design of Horizontal alignment

Various design elements to be considered in the horizontal elements are

Design Speed
The design speed is the main factor in which geometric design elements depends.
The design speed of roads depends upon the class of the road and the terrain.

Horizontal Curve
A horizontal highway curve is a curve in plan to provide change in direction to the
central line of a road.The centrifugal frorce on a vehicle negotiating a horizontal curve has two
factors:

1. Tendency to overturn the vehicle outwards about the outer wheels

2. Tendency to skid the vehicle laterally, outwards

Widening of Pavement on Horizontal Curves

On horizontal curves, especially when they are Less than 300m radii, it is common to
widen the pavement slightly more than the normal width. Widening is needed for the following
reasons:

a. An automobile has a rigis wheel base and only the front wheels can be turned, when
this vehicle takes turn to negotiate a horizontal curve, the rear wheel do not follow the
same path as that of the front wheels. This phenomenon is called off tracking.

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 b. While two vehicles cross or overtake at horizontal curve there is psychological tendency
to maintain a greater clearance between the vehicle for safety.

c. For greater visibility at curve, the driver have tendency not to follow the central path of
the lane, but to use the outer side at the beginning of the curve.

d. At higher speed superelevation and lateral friction cannot counteract centrifugal force
and skidding may occur.

3.2 Vertical Alignment

The selection of vertical alignment should be predicated to a large extent upon the
following criteria:

 Obtaining maximum sight distances

 Limiting speed differences (particularly for trucks and buses) by reducing magnitude and
length of grades
 A "hidden dip" which would not be apparent to the driver must be avoided.
 Steep grades and sharp crest vertical curves should be avoided at or near intersections.
 Flat grades and long gentle vertical curves should be used whenever possible.

The vertical alignment of a highway influences:

1. Vehicle speed
2. Acceleration and deceleration
3. Sight distance
4.vehicle operation cost
5. Comfort while travelling at hight speed

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Tangent Grades
Tangent grades are designated according to their slopes or grades. Maximum grades
vary, depending on the type of facility, and usually do not constitute an absolute standard. The
effect of a steep grade is to slow down the heavier vehicles and increase operating costs.
Furthermore, the extent to which any vehicle is slowed depends on both the steepness and
length of the grade. The effect of the slowing of the heavier vehicles depends on the situation,
and is often more a matter of traffic analysis than simple geometric design. Chapter 10, for
instance, discusses the effects of slow-moving vehicles on highway capacity and level of
service. As a result, the maximum grade for a given facility is a matter of judgment, with the
tradeoffs usually being cost of construction versus speed. In the case of railroads, on the other
hand, the tradeoff is an economic one, involving travel time, construction cost, and minimum
power/weight ratios for trains on various grades

Vertical Curves
Changes in grade should be connected by a parabolic curve (the vertical offset being
proportional to the square of the horizontal distance). Vertical curves are required when the
algebraic difference of intersecting grades exceeds the values of maximum change in grade.
Vertical curves used in highway may be classified in to two categories:

 Summit curves or crest curves

Length of summit curve:
- while designing the length the parabolic summit curves, it is necessary to consider ssd
and osd separately.
- length of summit curve for stopping sight distance (ssd):

 Valley curves or sag curves

Length of valley curve:
The important factors to considered in valley curve design are:
a. Impact free movement of vehicles at design speed or comfort to passenger.
b. Providing adequate sight distance under head lights of vehicles for night driving
c. Locating lowest point of valley curve for providing suitable cross drainage facilities

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The valley curve and its length are designed as a transition curve to fulfil two criteria:
1. Allowable rate of change of centrifugal acceleration or comfort conditions
2. Required head light sight distance for night driving

4. Super- elevation
In the design of highway curves, it is necessary to establish a proper relationship
between curvature of the roadway and design speed. The use of superelevation (rotation of
the roadway about its axis) is employed to counteract centrifugal force and allow drivers to
comfortably and safely travel through curves at the design speed. Advantages of providing
Super elevation:
 Super elevation is provided to achieve the higher speed of vehicles.
 It increases the stability of fast-moving vehicles when they pass through a horizontal curve,
and it also decreases the stresses on the foundation.
 In the absence of super elevation on the road along curves, potholes are likely to occur at
the outer edge of the road.
 The Indian Road Congress (IRC) has prescribed the max value of Super Elevation is 1 in
15.

Maximum Super-elevation:

 Indian Roads Congress (IRC) had fixed the maximum limit of Superelevation in plan and
rolling terrains and is snow bound areas as 7.0%
 On hill roads not bound by snow a maximum Super elevation up to 10% is recommended.
 On urban road stretches with frequent intersections, it may be necessary to limit the
maximum super elevation to 4.0%
Minimum Super-elevation:

 From drainage consideration it is necessary to have a minimum cross slope to drain off the
surface water. If the calculated super elevation is equal to or less than the camber of the

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 road surface, then the minimum super elevation to be provided on horizontal curve may be
limited to the camber of the surface.

Although superelevation is advantageous for traffic operations, various factors combine

to make its use impractical in many built-up areas. Such factors include:

 Wide pavement areas

 Need to meet grade of adjacent property

 Surface drainage considerations

 Frequency of cross streets, alleys, and driveway

5. Earthworks
Earthworks are engineering works created through the moving and/or processing of
massive quantities of soil or unformed rock. Earthwork is done to reconfigure the topography of
a site to achieve the design levels. Earthwork involves cutting and filling to achieve the
required topography.

Cutting: Cutting is the process of excavating earth material from a work location to achieve the
desired topography.

Filling: Filling is the process of moving the excavated material or additional earth material to a
work location to achieve the desired topography.

Applications of Earthwork Typically, earthwork is done in the following projects:

 Road works
 Railways
 Irrigation project such as canals and dams
 Other common earthwork applications are land grading to reconfigure the topography of a
site, or to stabilize slopes.

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References:

https://theconstructor.org/transportation/geometric-design-of-highways-factors/20897/ - What is
Geometric Design of Highways and Factors Affecting it? - The Constructor

https://www.slideshare.net/manivelkln-railway-engineering-geometric-design-of-track-Railway
Engineering - Geometric design of track (slideshare.net)

https://www.slideshare.net/namdeoshashank-geometric-design-76549173Geometric design
(slideshare.net)

https://www.vssut.ac.in/lecture_notes/lecture1423182729.pdf

https://www.accessengineeringlibrary.com/content/book/9780071800129/back-
matter/appendix9

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