Chapter One: Understanding Civics and Ethics

Defining Civics, Ethics, Morality

1.1.1.Civic Education: What does civic education mean?

 Creating a good citizen has been the prior concern of many

MORALEthiopia.
States, including AND CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION
This is because good(MCED 1012)
citizens
are made ,not born.
 So, civic education is a discipline used to cultivate
citizens' to be good and love their country.
Con…
The subject assumed different names and purposes
depending on country’s ‘ideologies’ and thus the definition
of the discipline vary across States.
For example:-
Right Education (in South Africa),
Citizenship Education (in United States of America and
Germany),
Citizenship and Character Education (in Singapore),
Civics and Ethical Education (in Ethiopia) are just a few
examples that can be found in the literature.
Accordingly, different writers define it in many ways.
For instance,
Con…
 Patrick (1986) defines civic education as the knowledge of
the constitutions, the principles, values, history and
application to contemporary life. Citizenship education can
be understood as the knowledge, means, and activities
designed to encourage students to participate actively in
democratic life, accepting and exercising their rights and
responsibilities.
 UNDP, 2004) defines civic education as a way of learning
for effective participation in a democratic and
development process.
Con…
 Aggarwal (1982) linked civic education to the development
of ideas, habits, behaviors and useful attitudes in the
individual which enables him to be a useful member of the
society.
Generally, The minimal concept of civic education is
content-led, teacher-based, whole-class teaching and
examination-based assessment while the maximal concept
of civic education is comprised of knowledge, values and
skills, and aims to prepare students for active, responsible
participation(is all about real life).
 2.The

Definition and Nature of Ethics and Morality

A. What Ethics is?
 Ethics is a branch of philosophy that attempts to understand
people‘s moral beliefs and actions.
NB:-Generally, Ethics is:


The critical examination and evaluation of what is good, evil,
right and wrong in human conduct (Guy, 2001).


A specific set of principles, values and guidelines for a
particular group or organization (Guy, 2001).


is the study of goodness, right action and moral responsibility, it
asks what choices and ends we ought to pursue and what moral
principles should govern our pursuits and choices (Madden,
2000).
Con…
B. What is Morality?
Of course, morality is a complex concept and is a
commonly used word in most cultures.
It can be viewed from different perspectives.
For example:
 from a dictionary definition (from Latin moralitas
―manner, character, and proper behavior‖) or
refers to the concept of human action which pertains
to matters of right and wrong.
Terms such as morality and ethics are often used
interchangeably in everyday speech as referring to
justified or proper conduct.
Con…
 But, Morality is used to refer to what we would call moral
conduct while ethics is used to refer to the formal study of
moral conduct. It can be claimed that morality is related to
practice, but ethics is related to theory.
Morality is principles and values that actually guide, for
better or worse, an individual‘s personal conduct (Guy,
2001).
 Is the informal system of rational beings by which they
govern their behavior in order to lesson harm or evil and
do good(Madden, 2000)
 1.3. Ethics and Law

As against morals and ethics, laws are norms,

formally approved by state, power or national or
international political bodies.
 Many laws are instituted in order to promote
well-being, resolve conflicts of interest, and
promote social harmony. However, there are
several reasons why ethics is not law.
Con…
 First, some actions that are illegal may not be unethical. For
example Speeding is illegal, but one might have an ethical
obligation to break the speed limit in order to transport
someone to a hospital in an emergency.

 Second, some actions that are unethical may not be illegal. For
example lying is unethical but lying is only illegal under certain
conditions, e.g. lying on an income tax return, lying when giving
sworn testimony, etc.
Con…
 Third, laws can be unethical or immoral. The United States for
example had laws permitting slavery in the 1800s but most
people today would say that those laws were unethical or
immoral.
 Fourth, we use different kinds of mechanisms to express,
teach, inculcate, and enforce laws and ethics.

 However, Laws are expressed publicly in statutes, penal codes,

court rulings, government regulations, and so forth. Although
ethics and morals are sometimes made explicit in religious
texts, professional codes of conduct, or philosophical writings,
many ethical and moral standards are implicit (not directly
expressed).
Con…
 Finally, we use the coercive power of government to enforce
laws. People who break certain laws can be fined, imprisoned,
or executed. People who violate ethical or moral standards do
not face these kinds of punishments unless their actions also
violate laws. Often we ―punish‖ people who disobey moral or
ethical obligations by simply expressing our disapproval or by
condemning the behavior.
 Why moral education is given in higher institutions of Ethiopia?

to instill citizens about their rights and duties or the Need for
Participant Political Culture(parochial cultures, subject cultures,
and participant cultures(Almond and Verba ,1963))

to promote in students core moral, ethical, democratic, and

educational values, such as Respect for life, Respect for
reasoning, Fairness, Concern for the welfare of others, Respect
for diversity, Peaceful resolution of conflict.
Con…
In sum the goals of teaching civics and ethics
at any level of educational institutions is to
produce competent, high moral standard
society and responsible citizens who can ask
and use their rights and fulfill their obligations in
accordance with the laws of their respective
country.
 Chapter Two: Approaches to Ethics

 Approaches to ethics can be either Normative or Non-normative

2.1. Normative Ethics:

 The ultimate concern of the normative theory of

obligation is to guide us in the making of decisions and
judgments about actions in particular situations.
 A main concern, of course, is to guide us in our
capacity as agents trying to decide what we should
do in this case and in that.
Normative ethics: - Offers theories or accounts of the
best way to live.
Con…
 These theories evaluate actions in a systematic way, i.
e., they may focus on outcomes, duties or motivation
as a means of justifying human conduct.
 Includes ethical theories or approaches like:-
utilitarianism, deontology, virtue ethics, principlism,
narrative ethics and feminist ethics.
Con..
 Normative ethics:- poses questions of the following
kind:-


Are there general principles or rules that we could
follow which distinguish between right and wrong? Or:


Are there virtues and/or relationships that we can
nurture, in order to behave well?
 2.1.1.Teleological-Ethics(Consequentialism)

 What is teleological/Consequentialist ethics?

It is referred as ―the end justifies the means.

It believes in purpose, ends or goals of an action, it
stress that the consequences of an action determines
the morality or immorality of a given action.
Thus, an act is right if and only if it or the rule under
which it falls produces, will probably produce, or is
intended to produce at least as great a balance of
good over evil as any available alternative; an act is
wrong if and only if it does not do so.
 Con…
 An act ought to be done if and only if it or the rule under which
it falls produces, will probably produce, or is intended to
produce a greater balance of good over evil than any available
alternative.

Teleologists have often been hedonists, identifying the

good with pleasure and evil with pain, and concluding
that the right course or rule of action is that which
produces at least as great a balance of pleasure over
pain as any alternative would.
 Con…
 Deontological theories: Deny what teleological
theories affirm.

 They deny that the right, the obligatory, and the

morally good are wholly, whether directly or indirectly,
a function of what is non-morally good or of what
promotes the greatest balance of good over evil for
self, one's society, or the world as a whole.
Con…
 To put the matter in yet another way:
a deontologist contends that it is possible for an action or
rule of action to be the morally right or obligatory one even
if it does not promote the greatest possible balance of
good over evil for self, society, or universe.
Teleologists:- differ on the question of whose good it is that
one ought to try to promote.
Hence, sub theories like Ethical Egoism and Ethical
universalism become adopted independently holding its
philosophical base.
 con,…
Ethical egoism:- holds that one is always to do what
will promote his own greatest good -- that an act or rule of
action is right if and only if it promotes at least as great a
balance of good over evil for him(Self) in the long run as
any alternative would, and wrong if it does not.

 This view was held by Epicurus, Hobbes, and Nietzsche,

among others.
Con…
Ethical universalism, or what is usually called utilitarianism,
takes the position that the ultimate end is the greatest
general good -- that an act or rule of action is right if and
only if it is, or probably is, conducive to at least as great a
balance of good over evil in the universe as a whole as any
alternative would be, wrong if it is not, and obligatory if it is
or probably is conducive to the greatest possible balance
of good over evil in the universe.
Con…
 The so-called utilitarians, for example, Jeremy Bentham
and John Stuart Mill, have usually been hedonists in their
view about what is good; asserting that the moral end is
the greatest balance of pleasure over pain.
 But some utilitarians are not hedonists, for example, G. E.
Moore and Hastings Rashdall, and so have been called "
Ideal" utilitarians.
 2.1.2. Egoism:- Ethical and psychological
Egoism

2.1.2.1. Ethical Egoism

 The theory implies that we ought to be selfish. Or, to put it
more gently, we ought to be self-interested.

 Calling the theory-ethical‖ does not suggest that there

might be a decent way to be selfish; it just means that
ethical egoism is a theory that advocates egoism as a
moral rule.
Con…
You should look after your self ?
-this is their strong arguments.
 Ethical egoist insisted that if you don‘t take advantage of a
situation, you are foolish.
 The claim that it makes good sense to look after yourself,
and morality is a result of that self –interest.
 If I mistreat others, they mistreat me, so I resolve to behave
myself.
 This is a rather twisted version of the Golden Rule (Do un to
others as you would have them do unto you).
Con…
 So, do unto others so that you will be done unto in a
similar way.
 The following are some method to apply the principle of
ethical egoism to a particular situation.
 List the possible acts
 For each act, see how much net good it would do for you.
 Identify the act that does the most net good for you
Con…
Some important things to be noticed about
ethical egoism:

It does not just say that, from the moral point
of view, one‘s own welfare counts as well as
that of others.

it says that, from the moral point of
view, only one‘s own welfare counts, and
others‘ does not, when one is making a moral
decision about how to act.
Con…

Ethical egoism does not forbid one to help
others, or require one to harm others.


It just says that whatever moral reason
you have to help others, or not harm them,
‘must ultimately stem for the way in which
helping them or not harming them helps
you’.
Con…

Ethical egoism:- does not say that one ought
always to do what is most pleasurable, or
enjoyable.


It acknowledges that one‘s own self–interest
may occasionally require pain or sacrifice.
Con…
2.1.2.2. Psychological Egoism

The main argument that has been used as a

basis for ethical egoism is a psychological one,
an argument from human nature.
We are all so constituted, it is said, that one
always seeks one's own advantage or welfare,
or always does what he thinks will give him the
greatest balance of good over evil.
Con…
 In Butler's terms, this means that "self-love" is the only basic "
principle" in human nature; in one set of contemporary terms, it
means that "ego-satisfaction" is the final aim of all activity or
that "the pleasure principle" is the basic "drive" in
every individual.
 Generally, Egoistic and particularistic
consequentialism only takes into consideration how
the consequences of an act will affect oneself or a
given group – e.g. one‘s family, fellow citizens/
compatriots, class or race. Moral rightness depends
on the consequences for an individual agent or a
limited group.
Con…
2.2.Utilitarianism:Producing the best consequences
That action is best, which procures the greatest happiness
for the greatest numbers.
2.2.1. Classic Utilitarianism
The classical expressions of utilitarianism, though,
appear in the writings of two English philosophers
and social reformers Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832)
and John Stuart Mill (1806–1873).
They were the nonreligious ancestors of the
twentieth-century secular humanists, optimistic
about human nature and our ability to solve our
problems without recourse to God.
Con…
2.2.2. Jeremy Bentham: Quantity over Quality
There are two main features of utilitarianism, both of which
Bentham articulated:


The consequentialist principle (or its teleological aspect):
states that the rightness or wrongness of an act is
determined by the goodness or badness of the results that
flow from it. It is the end, not the means that counts; the
end justifies the means. and
Con…

The utility principle (or its hedonic aspect): states that the
only thing that is good in itself is some specific type of
state (for example, pleasure, happiness, welfare).


Hedonistic utilitarianism views pleasure
as the sole good and pain as the only evil.
 There are major hedonic ideas postulated by
Bentham:

Psychological Hedonism:-some times called

“Sovereign masters”.
 It implies that individuals expect only about increasing
pleasure and decreasing pain.
Hedonistic calculus:-
 assume that, pleasure can be accurately measured.
Ethical hedonism:
 accordingly, a person should always do that which
produces the greater good for the greatest number
Brief characteristics of Bentham’s utilitarianism

good is equal with pleasure

Human material concern are ultimately the
bases of all concern or subject to two masters(
pain and pleasure).
All pleasure is constantly measured
The things to be measured is amount of
pleasure, not types.
Happiness is a matter of experiencing
pleasure and lack of pain.
Con…
 An act is right if it either brings about
more pleasure than pain or prevents pain,
and an act is wrong if it either brings
about more pain than pleasure or prevents
pleasure from occurring.
Bentham invented a scheme for
measuring pleasure and pain that he
called the hedonic calculus:
Cont….
The quantitative score for any pleasure or pain
experience is obtained by summing the seven
aspects of a pleasurable or painful experience:
Those are:-
1. intensity,
2. duration,
3. certainty,
4. nearness,
5. fruitfulness,
6. purity, and 7.Extent.
 Proper sanctions that prevent excessive individualism

A) Physical Sanction:- physical pain that

result from physical excess.
B) Political or legal sanction- the way that
laws imposing punishment
C) Social or moral sanction:- Society can
enforce social disapproval through ostracism.
D) Religious sanction:- The fear of God or
eternal punishment
Cont…

In political terms, “ greatest good for greatest

number” includes requiring:
a) Abolition of slavery
b) Universal suffrage
c) One person-one vote
d) Freedom of speech & press, etc.
 2.2.3. John Stuart Mill: Quality over Quantity

 John Stuart Mill, sought to distinguish happiness from

mere sensual pleasure.
 His version of the theory is often called eudemonistic
utilitarianism (from the Greek eudemonia, meaning
―happiness‖).
 He defines happiness in terms of certain types of higher
order pleasures or satisfactions such as intellectual,
aesthetic, and social enjoyments, as well as in terms of
minimal suffering.
 That is, there are two types of pleasures.
Con…
 The lower, or elementary, include eating, drinking, sexuality,
resting, and sensuous titillation. (physical pleasure)
 The higher include high culture, scientific knowledge,
intellectuality, and creativity.(mental pleasure)
2.2.4. Act- And Rule-Utilitarianism
 There are two classical types of utilitarianism: act- and rule-
utilitarianism.
 Act-utilitarianism(Bentham’s theory) argues that an act is
right if and only if it results in as much good as any
available alternative.
Con…
 Rule-utilitarianism( Mill’s theory): An act is right if and only if
it is required by a rule that is itself a member of a set of
rules whose acceptance would lead to greater utility for
society than any available alternative. Human beings are
rule-following creatures.
Hedonism was qualified by different types of pleasure, not
just different amount of it.
So, pleasure can differ in quality and quantity, and pleasure
that are rooted in one’s higher faculties should be weighted
more heavily than bases pleasure.
Happiness can measured by pleasure
Cont…..
2.2.5. Altruism
 In altruism an action is right if the consequences of
that action are favorable to all except the actor.

 Butler argued that we have an inherent psychological

capacity to show benevolence to others. This view is
called psychological altruism and maintains that at
least some of our actions are motivated by instinctive
benevolence.
 2.3.Deontological Ethics (Non- Consequentialist)

Deontology: What duty asks of us?

 It is referred as ―the means justifies the end‖. It is coined as
―deontics‖.
 It is an emphasis on the intentions, motives, moral principles
or performance of duty rather than results, as the sign of
right action/morality and immorality.

 It is a duty based and according to this theory, the

consequences or results of the action has nothing to do with
their rightness or wrongness.

 Some duty based theories are the followings:

 2.3.1. The Divine Command Theory

 According to (DCT), ethical principles are simply the

commands of God.
 We can analyze the DCT into three separate theses:


Morality (that is, rightness and wrongness) originates with
God.


Moral rightness simply means ―willed by God,‖ and moral
wrongness means ―being against the will of God.‖

Because morality essentially is based on divine will, not on
independently existing reasons for action, no further reasons
for action are necessary.
2.3.2. Rights Theory
A second duty-based approach to ethics is rights theory.
 It is refers to moral or legal rights.
 Moral rights are generally conceived of as rights that a being is
born with or possess by virtue of their nature.
 Legal rights is independent of moral rights or are government
recognized laws established & upheld to protect some interests.
 So,, a "right" is a justified claim against another person's
behavior - such as my right to not be harmed by you.
Rights and duties are related in such a way that the rights of one
person imply the duties of another person.
 For example, if I have a right to payment of $10 by Smith, then
Smith has a duty to pay me $10.
Con…
 The most influential early account of rights theory is that of 17th
century British philosopher John Locke, who argued that the laws
of nature mandate that we should not harm anyone's life, health,
liberty or possessions.
 There are four features traditionally associated with moral rights.

 First, rights are natural insofar as they are not invented or

created by governments.
 Second, they are universal insofar as they do not change from
country to country.
 Third, they are equal in the sense that rights are the same for all
people, irrespective of gender, race, or handicap.
 Fourth, they are inalienable which means that I cannot hand
over my rights to another person, such as by selling myself into
slavery.
 2.3.3. Kant’s Categorical Imperative

The name of the German philosopher, Immanuel Kant

(1724-1804) is identified with the moral theory known
as deontology.
Kant was adamantly opposed to the idea that the
outcome of an action could determine its moral worth.
For deontologists, it is not consequences which
determine the rightness or wrongness of an act, but,
rather, the intention of the person who carries out the
act.
 The Categorical Imperative
 A Kant‘s duty-based theory is emphasizes a single principle
of duty.
 Kant agreed that we have moral duties to oneself and
others, such as developing one‘s talents, and keeping our
promises to others.
 A categorical imperative, he argued, is fundamentally
different from hypothetical imperatives that hinge on
some personal desire that we have. For example, ―If you
want to get a good job, then you ought to go to college.‖
 By contrast, a categorical imperative simply mandates an
action, irrespective of one‘s personal desires, such as
―You ought to do X.‖
Cont…
 the emphasis he places on the idea of good intension.
 Kant believed that nothing was good in itself except a
―good will.‖
 For Kant a will could be good without qualification only
if it always had in view one principle: whether the
maxim of its action could become a universal law.
 Kant believed, then, that there was just one command
or imperative that was categorical, that is, one that
presented an action as necessary of itself, without
regard to any other end.
 He believed that from this one categorical imperative,
this universal command, all commands of duty could
be derived.
Cont…
Kant‘s categorical imperative states that we should act in
such a way that the maxim or general rule governing our
action could be a universal law.
 Notice that Kant is not a utilitarian: he is not arguing that
the consequences of a universal law condoning promise
breaking would be bad and the rule is bad.
 Instead he is claiming that the rule is self-contradictory; the
institution of promise making would dissolve if such a
maxim were universalized. His appeal is to logical
consistency, not to consequences.
 Cont…
Generally, Kantianism formulating the following three
principal guide line to make moral action:- Consistency,
Reversibility and considering human as an end
Cont…
 The 17th century German philosopher Samuel Pufendorf,
classify duties under three headings: duties to God, duties to
oneself and duties to others!

Duties to God:-
A) a theoretical duty:- to know the existence and nature of God,
and
B) a practical duty:- to both inwardly and outwardly worship
God

Duties to oneself:-
(A) duties of the soul:- developing one's skills and talents
(B) duties of the body:- not harming our bodies and not killing
oneself
Cont…
Duties towards others;( these are absolute &
Conditional)
A) Absolute duties are of three sorts:
(a) avoid wronging others;
(b) treat people as equals, and
(c) promote the good of others.
B) Conditional duties involve various types of
agreements, the principal one of which is the duty is to
keep one's promises
Cont…
 Kantianism focuses more on intent and action in itself, as
opposed to the consequentialist focus of utilitarianism.
 Kant considered the "right" superior to the "good"; to him,
the "good" was morally irrelevant.
 Pure practical reason in the process of determining it
dictates what ought to be done without reference to
empirical contingent factors.
 Kant's theory is hinged by his beliefs on autonomy and his
formulation of categorical imperatives.
 He believed that, unless a person freely and willingly makes
a choice, their action has no meaning (and certainly no
moral value).
Cont…
 Kant believed that each individual is rational and capable of
making free choices; thereby relies on autonomous thinking.
 Kant thought that every man, if using reason when looking
at moral dilemmas, would agree with what he called the
Categorical Imperative (the CI).
 Therefore, according to the categorical imperative, murder
is wrong.
 A core aspect of this theory is the concept of intent.
 To Kant, it was the intent that mattered to him.
Cont…
 According to Kant, you haven‘t acted ethically.
 Your action does not make you a better person.
 A moral maxim must imply absolute necessity, which is to
say that it must be disconnected from the particular
physical details surrounding the proposition, and could be
applied to any rational being.
 This leads to the first formulation of the categorical
imperative:
Cont…
A. The Principle of Universality (consistency)

The first maxim states that we should choose our 'codes of

conduct' only if they serve perfect / imperfect duty and are
good for all.

"Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the

same time will that it should become a universal law
without contradiction."
Perfect duties are blameworthy if not met and are the basic
requirements for a human being.
Cont.,..
 An example of perfect duty is the avoidance of suicide.
 Suicide is the end of life and Kant believed that "self-love
impels the improvement of life;" if a person commits
suicide, improvement of life ceases.

 Imperfect duties are those that do not achieve blame,

rather they receive praise if completed; they are
circumstantial duties such as cultivating talent.
 Examples of imperfect duties are perfecting the ability to
write and produce works.
Cont…
B. The Principle of Humanity as an End, Never as Merely a
Means

 The second maxim states that we should not use humanity

of ourselves or others as a means to an end.
 “Act in such a way that you treat humanity, whether in your
own person or in the person of any other, never merely as a
means to an end, but always at the same time as an end.
Cont…
C. The Principle of Autonomy
 The third maxim states that we should consider ourselves
to be members in the universal realm of ends.
 Therefore, every rational being must so act as if he were
through his maxim always a legislating member in the
universal kingdom of ends.
Cont…
2.3.4. Ross’s Prima Facie Duties or Moral Guidelines
A fourth and more recent duty-based theory is that by
British philosopher William David Ross, which emphasizes
prima facie duties.
 The term prima facie means ―at a first sight‖ or ―on the
surface.‖ By prima facie duties, Ross means duties that
dictate what we should do when other moral factors are
not considered.
 Cont….
It is a moral action that is required unless a greater
obligation trumps it.
 Is on the first impression.
 Is that we have some moral reason to perform or avoid
 Is the way that some one sought immediate impact or
effect on a person’s thought, feelings, or beliefs.
Cont…
 A prima facie duty is a duty that is binding (obligatory)
other things equal, that is, unless it is overridden or
trumped by another duty or duties.
 Ross‘s list the following categories of prima facie
duties is much shorter, which he believes reflects our
actual moral convictions:
Duties of Fidelity: the duty to keep promises and the
obligation not to lie.
Duties of Reparation: This is a duty to make up for the
injuries one has done to others.
Cont…
 Duties of Gratitude: the duty to thank those who help us.
 Duties of Justice: The duty of justice requires that one act
in such a way that one distributes benefits and burdens
fairly.
 Duties of Beneficence: the duty to improve the conditions
of others. The duty to do good to others:
 Duties of Self-improvement: The duty of self-improvement
is to act so as to promote one‘s own good.
Cont…
 Duties of Non-maleficence: The duty of non-injury (also
known as non-maleficence) is the duty not to harm others
physically or psychologically:
 to avoid harming their health, security, intelligence,
character, or happiness. We are obliged to avoid hurting
others physically, emotionally and psychologically.
Cont…
2.3.5. Virtue Ethics
Virtue Ethics: Challenging the adequacy of rule-based theories
 A virtue ethicist will emphasize the fact that providing help
would be charitable or benevolent – charity and benevolence
being virtues.

2.3.5.1. Aristotle’s Ethics

 The ancient Greek philosopher, Aristotle, (384-322 B.C.) first
wrote a detailed discussion of virtue morality in the
Nichomachean Ethics. ‗Virtus‘ he understood as strength.
Correspondingly, specific virtues are seen as strengths of
character. But, many years after Aristotle‘s death, virtue theory
came to be over-shadowed by the development of utilitarianism
and deontology.
Cont…
 Key questions which virtue ethical systems ask include:
 What sort of person do I want to be?
 What virtues are characteristic of the person I want to be?
 What actions will cultivate the virtues I want to possess?
 What actions will be characteristic of the sort of person I
want to be?
 With respect to the good, right, happiness, the good is not a
disposition.
 The good involves a teleological system that involves
actions.
Virtue is the “power to do well”
Cont…
 Virtue is a disposition of character or intellect to think, act
and feel in a certain manner.
 The virtue is a ‘blueprint’ for an individual for what to do in
given situations:
Cont…
The Good Character
A). People have a natural capacity for good character, and it
is developed through practice.
 The capacity does not come first--it's developed through
practice.
B). Virtue, arête, or excellence is defined as a mean between
two extremes of excess and defect in regard to a feeling or
action as the practically wise person would determine it.
 The mean cannot be calculated a priori.
Cont…
Aristotelian Virtues And Vices Vice Of Deficiency Mean Or Virtue Vice Of Excess
Sphere Of Action

Fear cowardice courage foolhardiness

•The mean is relative to the individual and circumstances. For example, consider the following traits:
Pleasure and Pain insensibility temperance self-indulgence

Acquisition (minor) tight wad liberality spendthrift or prodigality

Acquisition (major) undue humility pride or proper ambition undue vanity

Anger unirascibility patience or good temper hotheadedness

Self-Expression Self-deprecating truthfulness boastfulness

Conversation boorishness wittiness buffoonery

Social Conduct cantankerous friendliness obsequiousness

Cont…
2.4. Non-Normative Ethics/Meta-ethics
2.4.1. What is Meta-ethics?

In meta ethics, we are concerned not with questions which

are the province of normative ethics like 'Should I give to
famine relief?' or 'Should I return the wallet I found in the
street?' but with questions about questions like these.
Meta-ethics tries to answer question, such as:
 What does ―good,‖ ―right,‖ or ―justice‖ mean?
 What makes something good or right?
 Is moral realism true?
 Is morality irreducible, cognitive, or overriding?
 Do intrinsic values exist?
Cont…
Generally, Meta-ethics:
Examines the meaning of moral terms
and concepts and the relationships
between these concepts.
Explores where moral values, such as
‗personhood‘ and ‗autonomy‘, come from.
Considers the difference between moral
values and other kinds of values.
Examines the way in which moral claims
are justified.

 Cont…
Meta-ethics also poses questions of the following kind:
-

What do we mean by the claim, ‗life is sacred‘?

Are moral claims a matter of personal view, religious
belief or social standard, or, are they objective in some
sense?

If they are objective, what make them so?

Is there a link between human psychology and the
moral claims that humans make?
 Chapter Three: Ethical Decision Making and Moral Judgments

3.1. How Can We Make Ethical Decisions And Actions?

 The ethical nature of our action and decision, however,
is very much dependent upon our notion of ``Good‘ and
``Bad, `` Right and`` wrong``.
 Before we see how human beings judge the morality of
their actions, let raise some puzzling questions: What
things are good or bad?
 There are things which we consider good or desirable for their
result-for what they lead to.
 There are also things which we consider good not because of
what they lead to but because of what they are in themselves:
Con…
 The first kind of good is called instrumental good because
the goodness of these things lies in their being instruments
towards the attainment of the other things which are
considered good not simply as instruments.
 The second category of good is called intrinsic good
because we value these things (whatever they may turn out
to be) not for what they lead to but for what they are.
 3.1.1. Ethical Principles and Values of Moral Judgments

 The branch of philosophical study that focuses on ‗ethics‘

is concerned with studying and/or building up a coherent
set of ‗rules‘ or principles by which people ought to live.
 3.1.2. Moral intuitions and Critical Reasoning
 The study of ethics involves reasoning about our feelings.
In other words, it involves making sense of and rationalizing
our intuitions about what is ‗right‘ or ‗good‘.
Con…
3.1.2.1. Rationalization
 Studying ethics, then, involves attempting to find valid
reasons for the moral arguments that we make.
3.1.2.2. Types of reasoning
 Three forms of critical reasoning:
 Reasoning by analogy explains one thing by comparing it to
something else that is similar, although also different.
 In a good analogy, the similarity outweighs the dissimilarity
and is clarifying.
Con…
 For instance, animals are like and unlike humans, as
humans are also animals.
 Is the similarity sufficiently strong to support the argument
that we should ascribe rights to nonhuman animals as we
do to humans?‘
 Deductive reasoning applies a principle to a situation.
 For instance, if every person has human rights, and you are
a person, then you have human rights like every person.‘
Con…
 Inductive reasoning involves providing evidence to support
a hypothesis
 The greater the evidence for a hypothesis, the more we
may rely on it.
 The fact that there is mounting evidence that the burning of
fossil fuels is having a detrimental effect on global climate,
for example, is used to substantiate the argument that we
have a moral duty to reduce carbon emissions.
3.2. Why Should Human Beings Be Moral?

A. Argument from Enlightened Self-Interest

One can certainly argue on a basis of enlightened self-
interest that it is, at the very least, generally better to be
good rather than bad and to create a world and society that
is good rather than one that is bad.
B. Argument from Tradition and Law
This argument suggests that because traditions and laws,
established over a long period of time, govern the behavior
of human beings, and because these traditions and laws
urge human beings to be moral rather than immoral, there
are good reasons for being so.
Con…
C. Common Human Needs
If we examine human nature as empirically and rationally as
we can, we discover that all human beings have many
needs, desires, goals, and objectives in common
 For example, people generally seem to need friendship,
love, happiness, freedom, peace, creativity, and stability in
their lives, not only for them.
THANK YOU

END OF CHATER THREE!