Question 1

A four-stroke 2.5 L direct injection automobile engine is tested on a dynamometer at a speed of 2500
rpm. It produces a torque of 150 Nm, and its volumetric efficiency is measured to be 0.85. The inlet air
pressure and temperature are 75 kPa and 40 ℃.
What is the brake power 𝑊ሶ 𝑏 , and the mass airflow rate 𝑚ሶ 𝑎 through the engine?

Solution:
2500
𝑊ሶ 𝑏 = 2𝜋 ∙ 𝜏 ∙ 𝑁 = 2𝜋 × 150 × = 39.3 𝑘𝑊
60
Air is an ideal gas:
𝑃 75 × 103
𝜌𝑖 = = = 835 𝑔/𝑚3
𝑅𝑇 0.287 × 313
𝑚ሶ 𝑖
𝜂𝑣 =
𝜌𝑖 ∙ 𝑉𝑑 ∙ 𝑁/2
Direct injection engine, therefore:
1
𝑚ሶ 𝑎 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑖 = 𝜂𝑣 ∙ 𝜌𝑖 ∙ 𝑉𝑑 ∙ 𝑁 = 37 g/s
2
Question 2
Deduce the brake power equation:
𝐴𝐹𝑅
𝑊ሶ 𝑏 = 𝜂𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ ∙ 𝜂𝑖_𝑡ℎ 𝑞0 ∙ 𝜂 𝜌 𝑉 𝑁/2
1 + 𝐴𝐹𝑅 𝑣 𝑖 𝑑

Solution:
𝑚ሶ 𝑖
𝜂𝑣 =
𝜌𝑖 ∙ 𝑉𝑑 ∙ 𝑁/2
Therefore, we have the intake mass flowrate (including both fuel and air) as:
𝑁
𝑚ሶ 𝑓 + 𝑚ሶ 𝑎 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑖 = 𝜂𝑣 𝜌𝑖 ∙ 𝑉𝑑 ∙
2
𝑚ሶ 𝑓
We knew the fuel-air ratio is: 𝐴𝐹𝑅 = 𝑚ሶ
𝑎
𝐴𝐹𝑅 𝐴𝐹𝑅
Therefore, we have 𝑚ሶ 𝑓 = 1+𝐴𝐹𝑅 𝑚ሶ 𝑓 + 𝑚ሶ 𝑎 = 1+𝐴𝐹𝑅 ∙ 𝜂𝑣 𝜌𝑖 𝑉𝑑 𝑁/2
Lastly
𝐴𝐹𝑅
𝑊ሶ 𝑏 = 𝜂𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ 𝑊ሶ 𝑖 = 𝜂𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ ∙ 𝜂𝑖_𝑡ℎ 𝑄ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 = 𝜂𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ ∙ 𝜂𝑖_𝑡ℎ 𝑚ሶ 𝑓 𝑞0 = 𝜂𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ ∙ 𝜂𝑖_𝑡ℎ 𝑞0 ∙ 𝜂𝑣 𝜌𝑖 𝑉𝑑 𝑁/2
1 + 𝐴𝐹𝑅
Question 3
A four stroke 3 L V6 spark ignition engine has a maximum power output of 100 kW at 5500 rpm, and
a maximum torque of 236 Nm at 3000 rpm. The minimum BSFC is 0.09 kg/MJ at 3000 rpm, and the
air flow rate is 0.068 m3/s. The engine mechanical efficiency is 90%. The intake air condition is 20 ℃
and 1 bar.
(1) Calculate the power output at 3000 rpm and the torque at 5500 rpm.
Solution:
𝑊ሶ 𝑏 = 2𝜋 ∙ 𝜏 ∙ 𝑁
3000
At 3000 rpm: 𝑊ሶ 𝑏 = 2𝜋 ∙ 236 ∙ = 74.14 𝑘𝑊
60×1000
60 60
At 5500 rpm: 𝜏 = 𝑊ሶ 𝑏 × = 100 × 1000 × = 173.6 𝑁𝑚
2𝜋𝑁 2𝜋×5500
Question 3
(2) Calculate the BMEP and the IMEP for both engine speeds.
Solution:
𝑊ሶ 𝑏 4𝜋 ∙ 𝜏
𝐵𝑀𝐸𝑃 = =
𝑉𝑑 ∙ 𝑁/2 𝑉𝑑
4𝜋×236
At 3000 rpm: 𝐵𝑀𝐸𝑃 = = 988,554 𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 9.89 𝑏𝑎𝑟
3×10−3
𝐵𝑀𝐸𝑃
𝐼𝑀𝐸𝑃 = = 10.89 𝑏𝑎𝑟
𝜂𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ
100×1000
At 5500 rpm: 𝐵𝑀𝐸𝑃 = = 727,272 𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 7.27 𝑏𝑎𝑟
3×10−3 ×5500/(2×60)
𝐵𝑀𝐸𝑃
𝐼𝑀𝐸𝑃 = = 8.08 𝑏𝑎𝑟
𝜂𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ
Question 3
(3) What is the air/fuel ratio at 3000 rpm?
Solution:
𝑚ሶ 𝑓 𝑘𝑔 𝑔
𝐵𝑆𝐹𝐶 = = 0.09 = 323.7
ሶ
𝑊𝑏 𝑀𝐽 𝑘𝑊ℎ
𝑚ሶ 𝑓 = 𝐵𝑆𝐹𝐶 ∙ 𝑊ሶ 𝑏 = 0.09 × 10−3 × 74.14 × 103 = 6.673 𝑔/𝑠

𝑃𝑉 1 × 105 × 0.068
𝑚ሶ 𝑎 = = = 80.865 𝑔/𝑠
𝑅𝑇 0.287 × 293
Therefore, the air/fuel ratio is:
𝑚ሶ 𝑎 80.865
𝐴𝐹𝑅 = = = 12.12
𝑚ሶ 𝑓 6.673
Question 4
A six-cylinder four-stroke automobile engine is being designed to produce 75 kW at 2000
rpm with a BSFC of 300 g/kWh and a BMEP of 12 bar. The engine is to have equal bore
and stroke, and fuelled with gasoline with a heat of combustion of 44,510 kJ/kg.
(1) What should be the design displacement volume and bore?
(2) What is the mean piston speed at the design point?
(3) What is the fuel consumption per cycle per cylinder?
(4) What is the brake thermal efficiency?
Question 4
Solution:
(1)
𝑊ሶ 𝑏
𝐵𝑀𝐸𝑃 =
𝑉𝑑 ∙ 𝑁/2
75 × 10 3
𝑉𝑑 = = 3.75 × 10 −3 𝑚3 = 3.75 𝐿
12 × 105 × 2000/120

𝜋 2
𝑉𝑑 = 𝑛𝑐𝑏 𝑠
4 1
4𝑉𝑑 1 4 × 3.75 × 10−3 3
𝑏=𝑠=( )3 = = 92.7 𝑚𝑚
𝑛𝑐 𝜋 6×𝜋
Question 4
(2) The mean piston speed is:
2000
𝑈𝑝 = 2 ∙ 𝑁 ∙ 𝑠 = 2 × × 92.7 × 10−3 = 6.18 𝑚/𝑠
60
(3) The cycle average fuel consumption rate per cylinder is:
𝑊ሶ 𝑏 75
𝑚ሶ 𝑓 = 𝐵𝑆𝐹𝐶 × = 300 × = 62.5 𝑔/𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑛𝑐 6 × 60
*How much fuel injected into one cylinder each cycle?

(4) The brake thermal efficiency is:

𝑊ሶ 𝑏 1 1
𝜂𝑏 = = = −3
= 26.96%
𝑚ሶ 𝑓 ∙ 𝑞0 𝐵𝑆𝐹𝐶 ∙ 𝑞0 300 × 10 × 44510/3600
Question 6
What is the engine power required for an automobile to travel up a hill with a 10° slope at 50
mph?
Assume a vehicle frontal cross-sectional area 𝐴𝑣 of 2.0 m2, 𝐶𝑑 = 0.3, 𝐶𝑟 = 0.015, 𝑚𝑣 = 1500 kg.
Solution:
1
𝑊ሶ 𝑣 = 𝐶𝑟 𝑚𝑣 𝑔 ∙ cos 𝛼 + 𝐶𝑑 𝜌0 𝐴𝑣 𝑈𝑣2 + 𝑚𝑣 𝑔 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑈𝑣
2
1 2
= ቈ0.015 × 1500 × 9.8 × cos 10° + × 0.3 × 1.293 × 2 × 50 × 1609.34/3600 + 1500
2
× 9.8 × sin 10° ቉ × 50 × 1609.34/3600 = 66.1 𝑘𝑊
Question 7
What is the difference of performance curves between
diesel and gasoline engines?
What impact of turbocharger may bring to engines?
• Diesel engine works over a narrower speed range
• Diesel engine achieves highest power and torque at
lower engine speed
• Turbocharger leads rapid torque and power increase
at relative low engine speed range
• Turbocharger makes engines down speeded:
meaning – achieving highest power and torque at
slightly lower speed compared to naturally aspirated
engines
Question 1
Deduce the piston displacement equation:
𝑟2
𝑥 = 𝑟 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡
2𝑙
Question 2
Describe a typical valve timing clock for a gasoline engine.
Explain how different valve timings would affect the engine performance.
Further explain how valve timings could affect emissions.
Question 3
A 4-cylinder car engine’s each piston is 950 g, each conrod is 720 g, and each crank has an
equivalent weight of 1000 g at the conrod big end. The conrod weight centre is at the one third of
the total length from the big end. Calculate the equivalent counterweight at each web if the
crankshaft uses the integrated counterweight design. (𝑎/𝑏=2/3, 𝑟𝑝 /𝑟=1/2)
Solution:
Calculate the equivalent weight of a part of the conrod and the crank:
2
𝑚𝑟 = 720 × + 1000 = 1480 𝑔
3
𝑎
𝑚𝑝2 𝜔 𝑟𝑝 = 𝑚𝑟 𝜔2 𝑟
2
𝑏
The counterweight at each web is:
𝑎𝑟 2×2
𝑚𝑝2 = 𝑚 = × 1480 = 1973.3 𝑔
𝑏 𝑟𝑝 𝑟 3 × 1
You may further think the counterweight saving using this design.
Question 4
A 4-cylinder car engine’s each piston is 950 g, and each conrod is 720 g. The conrod weight centre is at
the one third of the total length from the big end. The crank radius is 50 mm. The length ratio between
the conrod and the crank is 3. The engine speed is presumed to be 5000 rpm.

If the crank angles of the 4 cylinders’ crank train are:

𝜑, 𝜑 + 180°, 𝜑 + 360°, 𝜑 + 540°, 𝑚𝑝
(1) Deduce the total reciprocating inertia force. 𝑚𝑟_𝑟𝑒𝑐

(2) Deduce the balance force from each balance shaft.

(2) Explain the rotation speed and directions of the
balance shafts.

𝑚𝑟_𝑟𝑜𝑡
Schematic of balance shafts

𝑚𝑐
Question 4
Solution:
(1) Calculate the equivalent reciprocating mass of each cylinder:
𝑚𝑟𝑒𝑐 = 𝑚𝑝 + 𝑚𝑟_𝑟𝑒𝑐 = 950 + 1/3 × 720 = 1190 𝑔
Based on the acceleration of the piston
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑟
2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜑
= 𝑟𝜔
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑙
we could deduce the reciprocating inertia force of the first cylinder is:
2
𝑑2 𝑥 2𝜋𝑁 𝑟
𝐹𝑖_𝑟𝑒𝑐_1 = 𝑚𝑟𝑒𝑐 2 = 𝑚𝑟𝑒𝑐 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜑
𝑑𝑡 60 𝑙
2
2𝜋 × 5000 1
= 1.19 × 0.05 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜑
60 3
1
= 16312 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜑
3
Question 4
For the other three cylinders, only crank angles are different:
1
𝐹𝑖_𝑟𝑒𝑐_2 = 16312 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 + 180° + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2(𝜑 + 180°
3
1
𝐹𝑖_𝑟𝑒𝑐_3 = 16312 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 + 360° + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2(𝜑 + 360°
3
1
𝐹𝑖_𝑟𝑒𝑐_4 = 16312 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 + 540° + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2(𝜑 + 540°
3
As
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 + 180° = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 + 360° = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 + 540°
And
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜑 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2(𝜑 + 180° = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2(𝜑 + 360° = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2(𝜑 + 540°
We have the total reciprocating inertia force:
16312
𝐹𝑖_𝑟𝑒𝑐_𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 4 × × 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜑 = 21749.3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜑
3
Question 4
(2) As we will introduce two identical balance shafts, each balance shaft will balance half of the total
reciprocating inertia force:
𝐹𝑏𝑠 = −0.5 × 21749.3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜑 = 10,874.6 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜑 + 180°

(3) To avoid extra transverse inertia forces introduced by the balance shafts, the two balance shafts
will rotate in opposite directions. Since the engine speed is:
𝜑 = 𝜔𝑡
𝜑𝑏𝑠 = 2𝜑 = 2𝜔𝑡
Both of the balance shafts operate at the double speed of the engine.
Question 5
• How to balance the inertial forces for an in-line 4 cylinder engine?

Solution:
Crankshaft with integrated counterweights Please refer to the lecture slides.
Answer the question from two aspects:
(1) Rotating inertia force balance
(counterweight on the web etc.)
(2) Reciprocating inertia force balance
(balance shafts etc.)

Balance shaft with counterweights

Question 1
Compare the series and the parallel hybrid powertrain configurations.
(1) Elaborate their pros and cons.
(2) Explain if Toyota Prius use either the series or the parallel architecture.
Solution:
(1) See slides
(2) Toyota Prius uses a brilliantly designed power-split type series–Parallel hybrid architecture (You
may need further elaborate the architecture with a diagram and some comparison).
Question 2
• In terms of the four torque profiles shown in the diagram, describe what types of powertrain
systems they represent (each curve represents a different powertrain configuration).
• If you would design a vehicle (depending on its type and functions), which powertrain
configuration among the above four would you like to use in the vehicle?
 Tutorial Week 5: Gearbox Design
Question 1:
A car of mass 1200 kg is attempting a hill start on an incline of 10° (figure 1). The
engine produces a maximum torque of 200 Nm. The gearbox ratio for 1st gear is
4:1 and the gearbox ratio for 2nd gear is 2.5:1. A final drive ratio of 4:1 is used,
and tyre diameter is 550 mm. Assume a mass factor of 1.3, a gearbox efficiency
of 97 % and acceleration is not traction limited.

a) Determine the acceleration for 1st gear and if the vehicle drive off?
b) Determine the acceleration for 2nd gear and if the vehicle drive off?

10°

Figure 1. Vehicle attempting a hill start.

Question 2:
At high-speed circuits such as Monza, F1 cars need to be geared for top speed
along the straights. In order to be competitive, a top speed of 340 km/h must be
reached. For the top speed to be reached, the maximum engine power must be
geared to match with the maximum vehicle velocity.
If the engine produces a peak power of 746 kW at 11,000 rpm and the tyres
have a maximum diameter of 660 mm with a final drive/differential ratio of 4:1,
then calculate:

a) The gear ratio for 8th gear (top gear).

b) The tractive force/torque transferred to the wheels in 8th gear at
11,000 rpm.
c) At the start of the race the F1 car is in first gear with a gearbox ratio
of 4:1 accelerating with an engine speed of 11,000 rpm. Calculate
the acceleration of the F1 car if the mass is 798 kg with a mass
factor of 1.2.

Assume that the output shaft rotation from the gearbox and differential are in
the same direction as the input shaft and that gearbox efficiency is 100 % and
there is no incline on the circuit.

Question 3:
Increasing the distance between the main shaft and lay shaft reduces the
contact stress on the gears and reduces the life. However, larger distances
between the two shafts increases gearbox mass and size. Estimate the length
between the main shaft and layshaft for the two following vehicles (Assume a Kc
value of 10 for both gearboxes, a 1st gear ratio of 4:1 for both gearboxes and a
gearbox efficiency of 98 %):

a) A tractor with an engine producing a maximum torque of 525 Nm

b) A hatchback with an engine producing a maximum torque of 120 Nm
c) What are some suggestions that could be made to reduce the contact
stress and noise from either gearbox?

Question 4:
A vehicle is travelling with a constant velocity of 50 mph and has a wheel
diameter of 520 mm. The maximum fuel efficiency of the engine is achieved at
2,500 rpm. The gearbox layout is 3 speed (figure 2). The number of teeth on
each wheel are A: 15, B:25, C: 20, D: 25, E: 15, F: 25, G: 10, H: 30. The
vehicle has a final drive ratio of 3.75. Gears G-H are 1st gear, gears E-F are 2nd
gear, gears C-D are 3rd gear.

Figure 2. Gearbox Layout

Based on this information calculate:

a) The optimum gear (1st, 2nd, or 3rd) for this vehicle speed.
b) The range of gear ratios for this gearbox.
c) How this gearbox could be adjusted to improve vehicle efficiency and
performance.

Question 5:
An articulated lorry and trailer of mass 44 tonnes is driving up an incline of 15°
at a speed of 30 mph (figure 3). The wheel diameter is 750 mm. The engine is
currently outputting a torque of 500
700 Nm, the gearbox ratio is 5.00 and the final
drive ratio is 4.00. Calculate whether the truck is accelerating, maintaining
speed or decelerating. Is the current gear suitable or should the driver change
gear?

15°

Figure 3. Truck driving up 15deg incline.

Assume the rolling resistance is 0 N and the aerodynamic drag force at 30 mph
is 2.5 kN.
 Question 1: Answer:
Draw a FBD and calculate tractive effort required at this condition…

Mg sin(θ) = 11,772 N sin(10°) = 2,044 N

10°

mg = 1200 kg * 9.81 m/s2 = 11,772 N

In order for the vehicle to drive off the tractive force needs to be greater than the tractive effort.
The tractive effort is calculated using Newtons Second Law. But the force of the mass down the
incline also must be considered.

F = ma

F = ma + 2,044 N

F = (1.3*m)a +2,044 N

As the acceleration is unknown, the tractive force for both the 1st gear start and 2nd gear start
need to be found.

1st gear start (GB ratio 4:1):

Total gear ratio is 4 x 4 = 16:1

Maximum engine torque is 200 Nm which translates to 3,104 Nm at the wheels after the gearbox.

200 Nm * 16 = 3200 Nm

3200 Nm * 0.97 = 3,104 Nm

A maximum drive torque of 3,104 Nm relates to a tractive force at the wheels of 11,287 N

3,104 Nm / 0.275 m = 11,287 N

2nd gear start (GB ratio 2.5:1):

Total gear ratio is 2.5 x 4 = 10:1

Maximum engine torque is 200 Nm which translates to 3,104 Nm at the wheels after the gearbox.

200 Nm * 10 = 2,000 Nm

2000 Nm * 0.97 = 1,940 Nm

A maximum drive torque of 1,940 Nm relates to a tractive force at the wheels of 11,287 N

1,940 Nm / 0.275 m = 7,055 N

Using the tractive forces for each gear start, the acceleration can be found…

1st gear start: F = (1.3*m)a +2,044 N

11,287 N = (1.3*1,200 kg)a + 2,044 N

9,243 N = 1,560 kg a

a = 5.925 m/s2
2nd gear start: F = (1.3*m)a +2,044 N

7,055 N = (1.3*1,200 kg)a + 2,044 N

5,011 N = 1,560 kg a

a = 3.212 m/s2

Answer: Yes, the vehicle can drive off in both 1st and 2nd gear but acceleration for the 2nd gear
start is considerably less.

Question 2: Answer
The tyre rotational speed of the car at 340 km/h can be calculated using the tyre dimension: (340
km/h → 94.4 m/s) (660 mm → 0.66 m (diameter) → 0.33 m (radius))
m
V = ωr → 94.4 = ω 0.33 m → ω = 286 rad/s
s

The final drive ratio can then be used to calculate the angular velocity of the output shaft from the
gearbox:
ωpre−diff ωpre−diff
G= → 4= → ωpre−diff = 1,144 rad/s
ωpost−diff 286 rad/s

The engine speed for maximum power and speed before the differential are known so the gear
th
ratio for 8 gear can be calculated.

ωEngine 1,152 rad/s

G8th gear = → G8th gear = → 𝐆𝟖𝐭𝐡 𝐠𝐞𝐚𝐫 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟕
ωPost−gearbox 1,144 rad/s

Calculate engine torque from power and angular velocity.

11,000 rpm x 2π
Ẇ = nT → 746 kW = ( )T → T = 648 Nm
60

The gear ratio for the gearbox was calculated (1.007:1) and the ratio for the differential was 4:1
which gives a total transmission ratio of 4.028.

Assuming that the direction of rotation for the wheels is the same as the crankshaft of the engine
the transmission ratio can be used to calculate the torque.

Twheels Twheels
Gtransmission = → 4.028 = → Twheels = 2,610 Nm
Tengine 648 Nm

With the torque calculated then the tractive force can be worked out from the wheel radius.

T=Fxr→ 2,610 Nm = F x 0.33 m → 𝐅 = 𝟕, 𝟗𝟏𝟎 𝐍

First, the new driving force needs to be recalculated using the new gear ratio. The total
transmission ratio is the gearbox ratio multiplied by the final drive ratio.

Gtransmission = Ggearbox x Gfinal drive → Gtransmission = 4 x 4 → Gtransmission = 16

Now the torque at the wheels can be calculated using the transmission ratio and engine torque.

Twheels Twheels
Gtransmission = → 16 = → Twheels = 10,368 Nm
Tengine 648 Nm

From the torque and the wheel radius the tractive force can be calculated.

Twheels = F x r → 10,368 Nm = F x 0.33 m → F = 31,418 N

With the tractive force calculated the acceleration can be found using Newton’s Second Law
(F=ma) remembering to multiply the vehicle mass by the mass factor.
𝐦
F = (FM x m) x a → 31,418 N = (1.2 x 798 kg) x a → 𝐚 = 𝟑𝟐. 𝟖
𝐬𝟐
Question 3: Answer
The estimation for distance between the main shaft and layshaft is…

L = K A 3 √Te max G1 ηg

a) Tractor gearbox:

L = 103 √525 𝑁𝑚 ∗ 4 ∗ 0.98

L = 127.2 mm

b) Compact vehicle gearbox:

L = 103 √120 𝑁𝑚 ∗ 4 ∗ 0.98

L = 77.8 mm

c) Increasing the distance between the layshaft and the main shaft will reduce the contact
stress. In modern gearboxes contact stress and noise is reduced through the use of helical
gears.

Question 4: Answer:
First calculate the wheel angular velocity…

50 mph ≈ 80 kph = 22.22 m/s

22.22 m/s / 0.26 m = 85.46 rad/s = 816 rpm

Gearbox output shaft angular velocity can be found using the final drive ratio…

816 rpm * 3.75 = 3,060 rpm

Now the optimum gear ratio can be found between gearbox input and output speed.
ωin 2,500 rpm
G= → G= → G = 0.82
ωout 3,060 rpm

Next calculate the gear ratios from the number of teeth and find the closest to the optimum gear
ratio.

1st gear: AB – GH
𝑡𝐵 25
𝐺𝐴𝐵 = → 𝐺𝐴𝐵 = → GAB = 1.67
𝑡𝐴 15

𝑡𝐵 30
𝐺𝐺𝐻 = → 𝐺𝐺𝐻 = → GGH = 3.00
𝑡𝐴 10

Total first gear ratio = GAB x GGH = 5.01

2nd gear: AB – EF
𝑡 𝐵 𝑡𝐹 25 25
𝐺𝐴𝐹 = → 𝐺𝐴𝐹 = → 𝐺𝐴𝐹 = 3.33
𝑡 𝐴 𝑡𝐸 15 15

Total second gear ratio = 3.33

3rd gear: AB - CD
𝑡𝐵 𝑡𝐶 25 25
𝐺𝐴𝐷 = → 𝐺𝐴𝐷 = → 𝐺𝐴𝐷 = 2.08
𝑡𝐴 𝑡𝐷 15 20

Total third gear ratio = 2.08

Answer:

a) 3rd gear would be the optimum gear for this vehicle speed condition and engine as it is
closest to the 2,500 rpm engine speed. A gear ratio of 0.82 would give an engine speed of
2,500 rpm whilst 3rd gear in this gearbox would cause the engine to operate at 6,365 rpm.
This is would overstress the engine hence additional gears with an overdrive ratio are
required.

b) The range of gear ratios is the ratio between the top gear ratio and the lowest gear ratio.
𝑅𝑇 2.08
𝑅𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 = → 𝑅𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 = → Rgears = 0.415
𝑅𝐿 5.01

c) If this car was to operate at higher vehicle speeds or increased efficiency additional gears
would be recommended i.e. a four or five speed gearbox.

Question 5: Answer
Draw FBD and calculate the tractive effort.

Mg sin(θ) = 431,640 N sin(15°) = 111,717 N

15°

mg = 44,000 kg * 9.81 m/s2 = 431,640 N

If the tractive effort is now greater than the tractive force the vehicle will start to decelerate. The
total tractive effort is the sum of the forces acting against the forward motion of the truck.

Tractive effort = 111,717 N + 2,500 N = 114,217 N

The tractive force is calculated from the engine torque, gear ratio, final drive ratio and wheel
diameter.

Total transmission ratio = 5.00 * 4.00 = 20.00

Wheel torque = 700 Nm * 20 = 14,000 Nm

Tractive force = 14,000 Nm / 0.375 m = 37,333 N

Comparing the tractive effort and the tractive force it is clear that the effort is higher than the
force which leads to an imbalance in the force. A net force of -76,884 N is acting on the truck.

Using Newton’s Second Law the deceleration of the truck can be calculated.

F=ma

-76,884 N = 44,000 kg * a

a = -1.75 m/s2

Answer: The truck is decelerating, and the driver should change down a gear to increase the
tractive force at the wheels to either overcome the tractive effort (accelerate) or equal the tractive
effort (maintain the same speed).
 Tutorials (Week 7):

a The load distribution on the axles of a car, when stationary, is 1000kg (front, Nf) and 800kg
(rear, Nr). The centre of gravity of the car is 0.45 m (h) above ground level and it has a
wheelbase (L) of 2.8 m.

(i) Determine the distance of the centre of gravity from the front axle.

(ii) Determine the load distribution when the car is given a forward acceleration of 5 m/s 2.

b Explain the term mass factor in relation to the acceleration capacity of a vehicle.

c The above car is powered by an engine which produces a maximum torque of 220 Nm at
a speed of 4500 rpm. Tyre radius is 0.35 m.

(i) At what road speed will the car generate maximum torque in third gear given that the
transmission speed ratio in third gear is 2.4:1 while the final drive ratio is 2.8:1?

(ii) Determine the power-limited acceleration of the vehicle on level ground assuming a mass
factor of 1.3.

d Explain how the rolling resistance is generated and its definition.

e Explain what the affecting factors of rolling resistance are.

Tutorials (Week 8):
(a) The load distribution on the axles of a car, when stationary, is 1000kg (front, Nf) and
1000kg (rear, Nr). The centre of gravity of the car is 0.3 m (h) above ground level and it has
a wheelbase (L) of 2.8 m.
(i) Determine the load distribution when the car is given a deacceleration of 3 m/s2.
(ii) Determine the stopping distance and time applied when the vehicle applies a
deacceleration of 3 m/s2 from the speed of 60 km/h down to zero.

(b) Draw a diagram of the relationship between front brake force and rear brake force and
explain the status of each zone.

(c) Explain the working characteristics of Electronic Brake Distribution.

(d) Explain the main steps of how the anti-lock braking system works.
 Tutorial Week 9: Vibration & Vehicle Ride
Question 1:
a) Typical OEM ride frequencies are between 0.5 Hz – 1.0 Hz. For a vehicle with a corner mass of
500 kg and tyre stiffness of 200 N/mm calculate the maximum and minimum spring rates in
N/mm that would be recommended to keep the ride frequency within this range.

b) Assuming simple harmonic motion and that no damping takes place, what would be the
displacement of the sprung mass over the next 3 seconds for every 0.1 seconds after the
sprung mass was displaced by a maximum amplitude of 100 mm at t = 0 for both ride
frequencies. If possible, plot this and observe the differences in dynamic response (excel
recommended).

Question 2:
Typically the ride rates for the rear axle are 10 % - 20 % higher than the ride rate on the front axle as
this allows the rear axle to “catch up” with the front axle since the rear axle is excited after the front
axle. If a luxury vehicle of total sprung mass 3,500 kg aims to have a total front axle ride rate of 5,000
N/m calculate:

a) The rear axle ride rate and required spring stiffness if it is 15 % higher than the front and the
tyre sidewall stiffness is 180 N/mm.

b) The front spring stiffness.

c) Calculate the angular frequency for both the front and rear axles (assume a 50:50 weight
distribution).

d) Since the ride rates are different for the front and rear axles how much quicker would the rear
axle respond to a displacement (such as a bump in the road) than the front axle – compare
the time period for each axle to complete a full period of oscillation.

Question 3:
A 2-wheeled trailer connected to the back of a vehicle has leaf spring suspension (no dampers) with
an un-sprung mass of 15 kg and a total trailer mass of 40 kg unladed.

a) Assuming there is no tyre damping draw the free body diagram.

b) Write the correct equations of motion for this system in matrix form.

c) Calculate the natural frequency of the trailer body if the tyre stiffness is 210 N/mm and the
leaf spring stiffness is 250 N/mm.

d) If the trailer is now filled with 100 kg of cargo what will the new natural frequency of the trailer
body be.
Question 4:
Formula 1 cars recently changed their tyre design from the 13” rims used up until 2021 to the 18” rims
used from 2022 onwards. As a result, teams had to drastically change their suspension designs to
accommodate for the change. The table below provides some estimated information on the tyre
stiffness and un-sprung mass changes.

Pre 2022 Post 2022

Tyre stiffness 180 N/mm 250 N/mm
Un-sprung mass (per-corner) 20 kg 25 kg
Sprung mass 672 kg 675 kg

For racing cars that reply heavily on downforce for performance the ride frequencies are high. In this
case assume a target natural frequency of 5.0 Hz and calculate the following:

a) Un-sprung natural frequency for both the pre 2022 F1 un-sprung mass and the post 2022 F1
un-sprung mass (for this part assume a suspension stiffness of 280 N/mm).
b) Calculate the spring rates required in order to achieve the target ride frequency of 5.0 Hz for
the pre 2022 F1 car.
c) Calculate the spring rates required in order to achieve the target ride frequency of 5.0 Hz for
the post 2022 F1 car.

Question 5:
The front and rear axles of a car are both displaced by the same bump in the road. The front axle is
excited by the bump 0.4 seconds before the rear axle is. Both axles are undamped and their motion
can be described as simple harmonic motion. If the mass of the vehicle is 1,500 kg with 200 kg being
the total un-sprung mass and the front axle ride rate is 6,000 N/m whilst the rear axle ride rate is 7,000
N/m calculate the following:

a) The angular frequency for the front axle.

b) The angular frequency for the rear axle.
c) The time period for the front axle to complete one full oscillation.
d) The time period for the rear axle to complete one full oscillation.
e) Calculate how long will it take for the rear axle to “catch up” with the front axle and provide
a “flat” and level ride for the driver/passengers.

Question 1: Answer:
Part a)

Low ride frequency (0.5 Hz): The sprung natural frequency is known and can be plugged into the
equation for the natural frequency along with the sprung mass.

𝟏 𝒌 𝟏 𝒌 𝑵
𝒇𝒔 = √ 𝒓
𝟐𝝅 𝒎𝒔
→ 𝟎. 𝟓 𝑯𝒛 = √ 𝒓
𝟐𝝅 𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝒈
→ 𝒌𝒓 = 𝟒, 𝟗𝟑𝟓 𝒎
Now the ride rate has been determined this can be used to find the spring rate/stiffness as the tyre
and suspension stiffness are acting in parallel.
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝑵 𝑵
𝒌𝒓
= 𝒌𝒕
+𝒌 → 𝑵 = 𝑵 +𝒌 → 𝒌𝒔 = 𝟓, 𝟎𝟔𝟎 𝒎 (𝟓. 𝟎𝟔 𝒎𝒎)
𝒔 𝟒,𝟗𝟑𝟓 𝟐𝟎𝟎,𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒔
𝒎 𝒎

High ride frequency (1 Hz): The sprung natural frequency is known and can be plugged into the
equation for the natural frequency along with the sprung mass.

1 𝑘 1 𝑘 𝑁
𝑓𝑠 = √ 𝑟
2𝜋 𝑚𝑠
→ 1 𝐻𝑧 = √ 𝑟
2𝜋 500 𝑘𝑔
→ 𝑘𝑟 = 19,739 𝑚

Now the ride rate has been determined this can be used to find the spring rate/stiffness as the tyre
and suspension stiffness are acting in parallel.
1 1 1 1 1 1 𝑁 𝑁
𝑘𝑟
= 𝑘𝑡
+𝑘 → 𝑁 = 𝑁 +𝑘 → 𝑘𝑠 = 21,900 𝑚 (21.90 𝑚𝑚)
𝑠 19,739 200,000 𝑠
𝑚 𝑚

Part b)

The equation for natural frequency is 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑). The angular natural frequency can be
calculated from the natural frequency, the maximum displacement was given at t=0 so the phase angle
can be ignored.

Calculate the angular frequencies for the maximum and minimum ride frequency:
𝜔 𝑟𝑎𝑑
0.5 𝐻𝑧 = 𝜔 = 3.14 (softer springs)
2𝜋 𝑠
𝜔 𝑟𝑎𝑑
1 𝐻𝑧 = 2𝜋
𝜔 = 6.28 𝑠
(harder springs)

With the angular frequency calculated, the displacement for each time can be calculated – for this
example only one is shown for brevity with all other displacements at the given time presented in the
table.
𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑) → 𝑥(𝑡) = 0.1 𝑚 cos (3.14 𝑠
0.3 𝑠 − 0 𝑠) → 𝑥(𝑡) = 0.059 𝑚
Question 2: Answer
Part a)

As the front ride rate is 5,000 N/m the rear ride rate can be calculated as 15 % higher than this.
𝑁 𝑁
5,000 ∗ 1.15 = 5,750
𝑚 𝑚
Since this is the total ride rate for the rear axle the spring rate/stiffness can be found as the sidewall
stiffness of the tyre is known.
1 1 1 1 1 1 𝑁
𝑘𝑟
= 𝑘𝑡
+𝑘 → 𝑁 = 𝑁 +𝑘 → 𝑘𝑠 = 5,940 𝑚
𝑠 5,750 180,000 𝑠
𝑚 𝑚

Part b)

The ride rate is known so just repeat the second step of part a).
1 1 1 1 1 1 𝑁
𝑘𝑟
= 𝑘𝑡
+𝑘 → 𝑁 = 𝑁 +𝑘 → 𝑘𝑠 = 5,143 𝑚
𝑠 5,000 180,000 𝑠
𝑚 𝑚

Part c)

The axle angular frequency is calculated using the relationship between the mass and the stiffness.
Since the vehicle has a 50:50 weight distribution the corner mass is:
3,500 𝑘𝑔
= 875 𝑘𝑔
4
Both the ride rate and corner mass are both known so the angular frequency was calculated for both
the front and rear axles:

𝑁
𝑘𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 5,000 𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝜔𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 = √ 𝑚
→ 𝜔𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 = √875 𝑘𝑔
𝑚
→ 𝜔𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 = 2.39 𝑠
 𝑁
𝑘𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑟 5,750 𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝜔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑟 = √ → 𝜔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑟 = √ 𝑚
→ 𝜔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑟 = 2.56
𝑚 875 𝑘𝑔 𝑠

Part d)

To calculate the time taken to complete 1 full oscillation the speed is known and the distance for one
full oscillation is 2π so the time period is just distance divided by speed:
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑇𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 = 𝜔 → 𝑇𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑 → 𝑇𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 = 2.63 𝑠
𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 2.39
𝑠

2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑟 = 𝜔 → 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑟 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑 → 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑟 = 2.45 𝑠
𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑟 2.56
𝑠

The rear axle takes 0.18 s less time than the front axle to complete 1 full oscillation.

Question 3: Answer
Part a)

Choose the convention as upwards displacement is positive hence direction of Xs and Xu are defined.
Next draw the masses (one for the wheel/un-sprung and one for the trailer body) and connect these
with springs that represent the elasticity in the system (one for the elasticity of the tyre and one for
the elasticity of the suspension system. As this is just a leaf spring there is no need to add dampers to
the FBD and any damping from friction in the tyres has been neglected.

Xs
Ms

ks

Mu Xu

Ku

If one wishes the forces could also be draw onto the FBD but this will be covered in part b.

Part b)

Starting with the sprung mass the equation of motion is F=ma. Since inertial component of the forces
(ma) is: 𝑚𝑠 𝑥̈ 𝑠 acting in the direction of the selected positive. For the force component there is no
damping force so the total force is the result of the spring restoring force which follows Hooke’s Law
(F=kx) so therefore the force component is: 𝑘𝑠 (𝑥𝑠 − 𝑥𝑢 ) note how the spring force depends on both
the displacement of the sprung mass and the un-sprung mass. This is why the differential equations
are coupled.

Equation of motion for sprung mass:

0 = 𝑚𝑠 𝑥̈ 𝑠 + 𝑘𝑠 (𝑥𝑠 − 𝑥𝑢 )
Moving onto the un-sprung mass the same inertial component is used but this time for the un-sprung
mass and acceleration: 𝑚𝑢 𝑥̈ 𝑢 also acting in the direction selected as positive. As there are two springs
attached to the un-sprung mass both forces will need to be considered. The first one is the un-sprung
spring/tyre stiffness also using Hooke’s law this equals: 𝑘𝑢 𝑥𝑢 . For the second spring this depends on
the displacement of the sprung mass and the un-sprung mass and therefore equals: 𝑘𝑠 (𝑥𝑠 − 𝑥𝑢 )

Equation of motion for un-sprung mass:

0 = 𝑚𝑢 𝑥̈ 𝑢 + 𝑘𝑢 𝑥𝑢 − 𝑘𝑠 (𝑥𝑠 − 𝑥𝑢 )
These can now both be put into the matrix form ready to be solved.
𝑚𝑢 0 𝑥̈ 𝑢 𝑘 + 𝑘𝑠 −𝑘𝑠 𝑥𝑢
0= [ ][ ] + [ 𝑢 ][ ]
0 𝑚𝑠 𝑥̈ 𝑠 −𝑘𝑠 𝑘𝑠 𝑥𝑠
Part c)

To calculate natural frequency of the trailer body the following equation is used:

1 𝑘𝑟
𝑓𝑠 = √
2𝜋 𝑚𝑠

However, first the ride rate/stiffness must be found:

1 1 1 1 1 1 𝑁
𝑘𝑟
= 𝑘𝑡
+𝑘 → 𝑘𝑟
= 𝑁 + 250,000 N/m → 𝑘𝑟 = 114,130 𝑚
𝑠 210,000
𝑚

Now using the sprung mass and the ride rate/stiffness the natural frequency can be calculated.

𝑁
1 𝑘 1 114,130
𝑓𝑠 = √ 𝑟 → 𝑓𝑠 = √ 𝑚
→ 𝑓𝑠 = 12.02 Hz
2𝜋 𝑚𝑠 2𝜋 20 kg

Part d)

With the trailer now fully laden the natural frequency will change. This can be recalculated with the
new mass.

𝑁
1 𝑘 1 114,130
𝑓𝑠 = √ 𝑟 → 𝑓𝑠 = √ 𝑚
→ 𝑓𝑠 = 6.43 Hz
2𝜋 𝑚𝑠 2𝜋 70 kg

Question 4: Answer:
Part a)

To calculate the un-sprung mass natural frequency the following equation is used.

Pre-2022:

𝑁 N
1 𝑘 +𝑘 1 280,000 +180,000
𝑓𝑢 = √ 𝑠𝑚 𝑡 → 𝑓𝑢 = √ 𝑚 m
→ 𝑓𝑢 = 24.14 Hz
2𝜋 𝑢 2𝜋 20 𝑘𝑔

Post-2022:
 𝑁 N
1 𝑘 +𝑘 1 280,000 +250,000
𝑓𝑢 = √ 𝑠𝑚 𝑡 → 𝑓𝑢 = √ 𝑚 m
→ 𝑓𝑢 = 23.17 Hz
2𝜋 𝑢 2𝜋 25 𝑘𝑔

Part b)

For the pre-2022 F1 car the ride rate can be calculated from the desired natural frequency.

1 𝑘 1 𝑘
𝑓𝑠 = √ 𝑟
2𝜋 𝑚𝑠
→ 5.0 𝐻𝑧 = √ 𝑟
2𝜋 168 kg
→ 𝑘𝑟 = 165,809 N/m

Now the required spring stiffness can be calculated to achieve this natural frequency/ride rate:
1 1 1 1 1 1 𝑁
𝑘𝑟
= 𝑘𝑡
+𝑘 → 𝑁 = 𝑁 +𝑘 → 𝑘𝑠 = 2,103,137 𝑚
𝑠 165,809 180,000 𝑠
𝑚 𝑚

Part c)

For the post-2022 F1 car the ride rate can be calculated from the desired natural frequency.

1 𝑘 1 𝑘𝑟
𝑓𝑠 = √ 𝑟 → 5.0 𝐻𝑧 = √ → 𝑘𝑟 = 166,550 N/m
2𝜋 𝑚𝑠 2𝜋 168.75 kg

Now the required spring stiffness can be calculated to achieve this natural frequency/ride rate:
1 1 1 1 1 1 𝑁
𝑘𝑟
= 𝑘𝑡
+𝑘 → 𝑁 = 𝑁 +𝑘 → 𝑘𝑠 = 498,951 𝑚
𝑠 166,550 250,000 𝑠
𝑚 𝑚

Question 5: Answer
Part a)

The angular frequency for the front axle is calculated using the following formula:

𝑘𝑟−𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 6,000 𝑁/𝑚 𝑟𝑎𝑑

𝜔𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 = √ 𝑚𝑠
→ 𝜔𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 = √ 325 𝑘𝑔
→ 𝜔𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 = 4.30 𝑠

Part b)

The angular frequency for the rear axle is calculated using the following formula:

𝑘𝑟−𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑟 7,000 𝑁/𝑚 𝑟𝑎𝑑

𝜔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑟 = √ 𝑚𝑠
→ 𝜔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑟 = √ 325 𝑘𝑔
→ 𝜔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑟 = 4.64 𝑠

Part c)

The equation for the time period has already been explained in a previous question but the equation
below can be used:
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑇𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 = 𝜔 → 𝑇𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑 → 𝑇𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 = 1.46 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠
𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 4.30
𝑠

Part d)

Repeat as per part c but with the angular frequency of the rear axle:
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑟 = 𝜔 → 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑟 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑 → 𝑇𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 = 1.35 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠
𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑟 4.64
𝑠
Part e)

Since the difference in time period between the front and rear axle is 0.11 seconds the rear axle will
“catch up” within less than 4 complete oscillations. If the student would like to plot this it would be
recommended to do so using the same method as Question 1 but with an offset of 0.4 seconds
between the front and rear axles – this can be done with the phasing in the simple harmonic motion
equation.