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Chapter

Soybean Production, Versatility,

and Improvement
Zachary Shea, William M. Singer and Bo Zhang

Abstract

Soybean is one of the most widely planted and used legumes in the world due
to its valuable seed composition. The many significant agronomic practices that
are utilized in soybean production are highlighted with an emphasis on those used
during the pregrowing season and growing season. The various pests of soybeans
and the pest management strategies used to control them are described with
special attention to insects, weeds, bacteria, fungi, and nematodes. The multitude
of soybean uses for livestock and human consumption, and its industrial uses are
discussed in this chapter. Additionally, the conventional breeding and genetic
engineering attempts to improve soybean protein, oil, and sucrose content as well as
eliminate the antinutritional factors, such as trypsin inhibitors, raffinose, stachy-
ose, and phytate, are examined. In this chapter, the various management practices,
uses, and breeding efforts of soybean will be discussed.

Keywords: agronomic practices, pest management, soybean uses, breeding, genetic

engineering

1. Introduction

Soybean (Glycine max) is one of the most valuable, versatile, and nutritionally
important legumes globally. It can be grown in a multitude of environments, using
a variety of management practices, and for diverse end-user purposes. In 2018,
roughly 398 million tons of soybeans were produced worldwide which accounted
for 61% of overall oilseed production and 6% of the world’s arable land use [1–3].
The United States, Brazil, and Argentina constituted approximately 81% of interna-
tional soybean production, producing 34, 32, and 15%, respectively [4, 5]. Soybean
seed composition and its main components, meal and oil, are the driving forces
behind crop production that has increased nearly 350% since 1987 [5]. Soybean
meal is intricately connected to the food supply through direct food consumption
and indirect consumption as a large source of livestock feed. Soy oil provides great
versatility with uses in food and beverage, wax, construction, cosmetics, plastics,
and fuel.
Soybean originated in East Asia and has been cultivated in China for millennia. It
is estimated that the domestication event from wild soybean (Glycine soja) occurred
during the Shang Dynasty, 1700–1100 B.C. [6]. While no longer the largest producer,
China and other Asian countries continue to incorporate large quantities of traditional
and innovative soy foods into their diet. In 2018, China was the largest customer for
United States whole soybeans, importing over $3 billion worth [7]. The United States

1
Legume Crops

and western countries mainly utilize soybean indirectly in the food supply as livestock
feed and food ingredients such as textured vegetable protein and protein isolates.
However, as more consumers are looking for plant-based protein in their diet, soy foods
will become a globally viable alternative to animal protein. As the soybean appetite
has increased and transformed, scientific developments have also improved soybean
production through agronomic, management, and genetic methods to meet demand.

2. Agronomic practices

2.1 Pregrowing season practices

Soybeans are one of the most flexible crops in terms of production methods, geo-
graphical growing regions, and end use versatility. Therefore, there are multiple agro-
nomic practices to consider when preparing a field for soybean production. While
tillage and fertilization practices are common among producers, technique speci-
fications can vary greatly due to preferences, environmental conditions, and cost.
Historically, mechanized and non-mechanized tillage was considered a vital practice
to maximize crop yield and value [8]. While tillage is still a useful tool, contemporary
research has corroborated the dangers of over-tilling and the potential benefits from
soil conservation and no-till operations. No-till practices and conservation tillage
for soybean are wide-spread in areas of highly-erodible soil, and some research has
shown that soybean yields remain the same or increase with decreased tillage [9–12].
However, other research has shown that rotational tillage practices will provide higher
crop value than no-till practices, specifically because of herbicide costs and equip-
ment requirements [13–15]. Given the need for proper soil maintenance, conservation
tillage (<30% crop residue left on the soil surface) is a popular compromise, especially
in herbicide tolerant soybean production [16, 17]. Research has further elucidated the
benefits of conservation tillage and no-till practices on soil health by showing positive
correlations with rhizobia and nematode populations [18, 19].
Pre-plant fertilization for a variety of macro and micronutrients is another
common practice in soybean production. Soil fertility programs are designed to
provide sufficient nutrients for a crop’s needs which maximizes crop yield and
farm efficiency while also minimizing environmental impact. To prepare a field for
soybean planting, a farmer must start by determining what nutrients are already
present in the soil; this can be accomplished by a variety of soil sampling and
analysis methods [20]. The primary macronutrients, nitrogen (N), phosphorous
(P), and potassium (K), should be examined first alongside critical secondary
macronutrients and micronutrients such as sulfur (S), calcium (Ca), magnesium
(Mg), zinc (Zn), manganese (Mn), boron (B), iron (Fe), and copper (Cu). General
field nutrient requirement guidelines for soybean production are summarized in
Table 1. While soybeans require a large amount of nitrogen, fertilization is usually
unnecessary because of the symbiotic relationship with Bradyrhizobium japonicum,

Table 1.
Estimated nutrient uptake and accumulation for 3500 kg/ha−1 (52 bu/ac) soybean yield [21–23].

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Soybean Production, Versatility, and Improvement
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91778

a bacterium that performs nitrogen fixation and provides plant available nitrogen
[9, 21, 22]. Depending on field conditions, 25–75% of nitrogen in mature soybeans
can originate from symbiotic nitrogen fixation [24]. Excess nitrogen has been linked
to negative plant physiological conditions and inhibited rhizobia activity [25]. Thus,
the best solution to limited field nitrogen is sometimes soil or seed-applied bacterial
inoculation [21, 22, 25]. Soil pH is also a vital component of field management. It
is well-documented that all nutrients have varying availability to plants depending
on pH [22, 26, 27]. Generally, soybeans prefer a slightly acidic soil ranging from 6
to 7 pH [9, 22]. Liming a field is the optimum technique to raise pH, while the most
common practice for lowering pH is elemental sulfur application.
While yield is the driving factor for fertilization, recent market changes have
adjusted soybean valuation with increased focus on seed composition quality. Amino
acid profiles as descriptors for protein quality in human food and livestock feed as well
as high oleic acid soybeans for increased functionality and performance are just two
examples of possible premiums producers can receive through soybean seed composi-
tion. Research has shown that agronomic practices coupled with location-dependent,
environmental variables can directly impact those premiums [28–30]. Nitrogen fertil-
ization plays a limited role in seed composition as it is rarely needed due to the bacterial
nitrogen fixation. However, excess nitrogen has been shown to decrease the levels of
sulfur-containing amino acids and has an inconsistent effect on fatty acid concentra-
tions [31, 32]. Phosphorous applications can increase protein quantity without adjust-
ing the amino acid profile but also has a positive correlation with higher phytic acid
and isoflavone concentrations [33–35]. Additionally, phytic acid has been shown to
increase alongside zinc concentrations [33]. Pre-plant potassium applications have lim-
ited return on investment in regard to yield and seed composition; however, potassium
deficient soybean plants are at a greater risk to insect pests, specifically aphids [36,
37]. Limited yield response is observed with sulfur applications. Although researchers
have found the use of sulfur fertilizers to be economically viable, particularly on coarse
soils, sulfur fertilization is rarely recommended [9, 21, 38]. Soil sulfur levels have also
been shown to greatly impact the ratio between 11S and 7S seed storage proteins [39].
As markets continue to change and value differing soybean seed compositions, it will
be critical for producers to fertilize with both yield and seed components in mind.

2.2 Growing season practices

Soybean producers make decisions throughout the year that impact final yield,
value, and profit from their annual crop. Many of the most critical decisions
occur at the beginning of and throughout the growing season. From the moment a
soybean seed is planted to harvest, producers choose (or decide against) a multitude
of practices including crop rotation, row spacing, population density, irrigation,
post-emergence fertilization, and pest management. Maximizing a potential soy-
bean crop is directly connected to previous field usage. Crop rotation or the process
of growing different crops in sequenced seasons within the same field is a common
practice in soybean production. Corn (Zea mays) and soybean rotations are advan-
tageous because of corn’s high nitrogen demand which can be alleviated through
Bradyrhizobium japonicum nitrogen fixation in soybean nodules. Corn and soybean
rotations also exhibit beneficial energy balance and grain yield improvement [13, 40].
Rotations including corn and soybeans as well as wheat (Triticum), oats (Avena
sativa), barley (Hordeum vulgare), cotton (Gossypium), and forageable pasture have
also shown potential for economic and environmental gains [22, 41, 42]. Although
depending on crop sequences, new management practices may be needed. For
example, alfalfa or clover following soybeans would require liming for maximum
production as those crops prefer a slightly higher pH [43].

3
Legume Crops

Protecting and revitalizing the soil through non-harvested crops planted between
soybean growing seasons or cover cropping is also beneficial. Cover crops protect
the soil that would otherwise be farrow and replenish nutrients assimilated into the
soybean plant [9, 22, 43]. Furthermore, cover crops can beneficially reduce weed
pressure, lessen soil compaction, and improve water conservation [44–46]. However,
cover crops increase annual cost and have not been shown to increase soybean yield
which can negatively impact certain producer’s net profit [47]. Many farmers who
receive enough growing degree units throughout the year also limit farrow fields by
double cropping with soybean. Soybean and wheat double crop systems have exhib-
ited high economic returns for producers in both field and modeling research [48, 49].
Double cropped soybeans exhibit lower yield due to late planting and decreased leaf-
area-index potential, but this can be mitigated with early maturing varieties [50, 51].
Intercropping or growing at least two crops simultaneously is another, less-common
option for soybean production. Corn and soybean intercropping can increase yields
for both crops with the proper seeding rates [52, 53]. Wheat and soybean intercrop-
ping also displays positive yield response [54, 55]. Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum)
and soybean interspecific relationships increase sugarcane yield and improves rhizo-
spheric activity while reducing soybean yield [56]. While intercropping can enhance
value for soybean producers, it is unsuitable for most large-scale production systems.
After choosing a cropping system, soybean producers must then determine the
proper row spacing and population density for their environment. The appropriate
balance between row space and plant density is critical for maximum soybean produc-
tion and reliable economic returns. Narrow rows and high plant densities both cor-
relate with quickened canopy closure and weed suppression [57–60]. Increased plants
per field also increase cost; however, subsequent increased yield and profit overcomes
the cost [61–63]. As soybeans emerge and grow, the next consideration for producers
is irrigation. This localized decision can be based upon historical precipitation records,
predicted forecasts, day-to-day weather events, or a combination of factors. In the
absence of natural precipitation, irrigation is vital to soybean production as water
deficiencies inhibit yield potential [64–67]. Irrigation can also be optimized spatially
throughout a field with variable rate techniques and temporally across the growing
season by targeting specific growth stages [68, 69]. Fertigation applications can be used
to combine applications of post-emergent fertilizer with irrigation. Other methods of
post-emergent fertilization including foliar spray and direct-to-soil applications are
more common solutions for growing season nutrient issues. Plant tissue sampling and
analysis can be coupled with soil samples to determine in-season soil deficiencies and
to prescribe further applications [9, 21, 26]. As soybean increases nitrogen uptake dur-
ing reproductive stages when bacterial fixation may be diminishing, soil or foliar nitro-
gen applications are typical yet usually ineffective. While limited yield increases can be
seen from supplemental nitrogen applications or various nutrient combinations, the
economic returns generally fail to cover the cost of application [70–73]. Foliar nutrient
applications have shown minor impacts on seed protein and oil content; however, these
results are inconsistent amongst experiments [74, 75]. A location-specific, comprehen-
sive nutrient management plan that accounts for all other agronomic practices is the
best method for maximizing yield and economic returns in soybean production.

3. Pest management

3.1 Insect pests

Insect and insect-like pests of soybean vary greatly ranging from aphids to
stinkbugs to loopers to beetles. Which insects are the major pests and potential pest

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Soybean Production, Versatility, and Improvement
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91778

impact on soybean varies significantly from year to year and depends on the region
the soybean crop is grown. Total damage by insects is a little ambiguous but yield
losses of up to 80% have been reported [76]. Some prominent insect pests include
soybean aphids (Aphis glycines), Japanese beetle (Popillia japonica Newman),
Mexican bean beetle (Epilachna varivestis Mulsant), two-spotted spider mites
(Tetranychus urticae), brown marmorated and red banded stinkbug (Halyomorpha
halys and Piezodorous guildinii), bean leaf beetle (Cerotoma trifurcata), and kudzu
bug (Megacopta cribraria Fabricius) [76–81].
Insecticides constitute a large portion of insect management as they are used to
control most insect pests and in some cases are the primary method of control [80].
Integrated pest management (IPM) is becoming more common among growers
due to its ability to reduce pesticide use, non-pests affected, workers’ exposure to
pesticides, and the likelihood insecticide resistance [82, 83]. Additionally, it has
been found to be effective at reducing damage done by pests equivalent to conven-
tional methods [84]. IPM works similarly for all pests. It involves monitoring fields
to determine which pests are present, determining which pesticides can and should
be used, and incorporating cultural management practices [83]. For insects, trap
cropping and sweep nets are used to monitor and determine which insect pests are
present [85, 86]. The cultural practices used in insect management include altering
planting date and row spacing, using no-till fields, and using resistant soybean
cultivars [76–81].

3.2 Weeds

Weeds are considered one of the most damaging, if not the most damaging
pests, in soybean [87]. About 37% of global production of soybean is affected by
soybean, while 23% of global production is affected by other pests [88]. In the
United States alone, it has caused losses of several million US dollars each year [87].
Weeds pose a problem for soybean crops since they compete for nutrients, space,
and other resources [89]. There are many different weed pests that compete with
soybean, some of which include common waterhemp (Amaranthus rudis), Canadian
horseweed (Conyza canadensis), giant ragweed (Ambrosia trifida), ivy-leaf morning
glory (Ipomea hederacea), common cocklebur (Xanthium strumarium), Johnsongrass
(Sorghum halepense), and pigweed (Amaranthus spp.) [90, 91]. It is important to
note that which weeds are found in a particular field depends largely on where the
soybean crops are grown.
Management of weeds is largely done through integrated pest management. This
involves using herbicides along with herbicide resistant soybean varieties and cul-
tural practices [87, 92]. There are many different classes of herbicides that include
enzyme inhibitors, lipid synthesis inhibitors, photosystems diverters, nucleic acid
inhibitors, and auxin inhibitors [93]. Historically, herbicides have been a large
part of weed management and will most likely remain significant due to effective-
ness and limited efficiency through other individual methods [87]. Furthermore,
herbicide effectiveness can be improved by using herbicide resistant soybean, such
as glyphosate resistant Roundup Ready soybean. Although since weeds can develop
resistance to herbicides, it is important to incorporate other management practices
[87]. One such method is herbicide spray timing. A common management practice
involves pre- and postemergence herbicide applications. This involves spraying
herbicides before and a few days after the soybean plants have emerged to reduce
any damage to the soybean plants [94]. Additionally, cultural control practices are
used including crop rotations, planting in narrow rows and proper fertilization to
promote crop competition, and cultivation [92]. Crop rotations allow for different
herbicides to be used which in turn helps to prevent the development of herbicide

5
Legume Crops

resistant weeds [92]. Promoting crop competition through planting density allows
soybean plants to grow enough to create a canopy to maximize shading of weeds
[92]. Cultivation is an effective and economical way to control weeds to help
minimize herbicide use [92]. All of the aforementioned management practices are
parts of integrated weed management and will continue to play a significant role in
control of weeds.

3.3 Diseases

Similar to the insect pests, there is a wide variety of diseases in soybean. Most
diseases are caused by fungal and bacterial diseases and can be vectored by nema-
todes. Fungal diseases have been known to reduce yield up to 50%, while bacterial
diseases have been known to cause yield loss of anywhere between 15 and 60%
[76]. Which disease is the most devastating depends on the region and the year,
but the most prevalent diseases include Heterodera glycines, Phytophthora sojae,
Colletotrichum truncatum, Septoria glycines, and Phakopsora pachyrhizi [76]. Of these
five diseases, Heterodera glycines, or soybean cyst nematode is the most economic
damaging disease being found in all countries that grow soybean and causing up to
90% yield reduction in some areas [76]. Table 2 provides an overview of some of
the main soybean diseases.
From Table 2, it is evident that chemical pesticides still play a large role in
treatment strategies against all major diseases in soybean. However, there has been
a rising interest to incorporate other methods that prevent and treat diseases in
soybean due to the harmful environmental and health effects of pesticides. Some
other methods to control soybean diseases are seen in cultural control practices,
such as increasing or decreasing tillage and crop rotation, drainage, and using
resistant cultivars [103]. While the treatments listed in the above table are usually
effective, there is continual research to find innovative ways to improve the control
of plant diseases. One such example is the development of using hyperspectral
bands for early detection of charcoal rot in soybean [104]. These researchers
developed a method that involves analyzing spectral and spatial information of
infected and healthy soybean in order to find wavebands that signify a soybean
plant that is infected with charcoal rot [104]. This process identified six wavebands
that were specific to plants infected with charcoal rot and can potentially allow for
the detection of charcoal rot in crops in three days [104]. By being able to identify
disease earlier, growers can minimize the damage done by that disease by removing
infected plants and incorporating treatment strategies, such as pesticides or cultural
controls.
The research above shows that there is interest in developing early detection for
soybean pathogens. One of the other major areas of research for soybean diseases, is
identifying resistance genes to promote resistant cultivars. Given that soybean cyst
nematode is one of the most devastating soybean diseases there has been a lot of
research done to identify genes involved with resistance to soybean cyst nematode.
The main resistance gene in soybean to cyst nematode is the Rhg1 gene, which
encodes an amino acid transporter [105, 106]. This gene confers partial resistance
and has been shown to reduce reproduction of soybean cyst nematode and improve
yield in fields that are infected with soybean cyst nematode [78]. Even though there
are resistant cultivars available, they do not permanently stop diseases. For soybean
cyst nematode, it is advised to utilize cultural practices, such as using multiple
resistant cultivars and rotating with non-host crops that are resistant to cyst
nematode, and other methods [107]. This is a classic example of how integrated pest
management involves continuously incorporating new methods to control diseases
to prevent the disease from overcoming any pesticides and resistant cultivars.

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Table 2.
Overview of 7 prevalent diseases in soybean [95–102].

4. Soybean utilization and products

4.1 Livestock feed

Soybean is a valuable crop worldwide mainly because of soybean meal’s nutri-

tional efficacy as a food and feed ingredient. A high protein content, balanced essen-
tial amino acid profile, and the presence of other beneficial nutrients all contribute
to its economic and nutritional value. Soybean meal constitutes 70% of seed value
while only being roughly 35% of seed dry weight [108, 109]. Furthermore, in the
United States, 97% of soybean meal is used for livestock feed [109]. This overwhelm-
ing usage rate as a livestock protein source is mainly due to the presence of essential
amino acids. While some livestock require other amino acids, most livestock need
nine essential amino acids: histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phe-
nylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine [110]. All nine of these amino acids
are found in some quantity in soybean meal [111]. For this reason, soybean meal can
maximize livestock production in cattle, swine, poultry, and aquaculture. Generally,
soybean meal and other soy byproducts use are limited to a supplementary or finish-
ing role for cattle due to feed ration complications from other seed components [110,
112, 113]. Soybean meal use is highly prevalent in monogastric livestock production
such as swine and poultry and is increasing in popularity for aquaculture [114, 115].

7
Legume Crops

However, soybean as feed has two main obstacles: methionine deficiency and trypsin
inhibitor proteins. Albeit present in soybean, methionine content is deficient for
livestock needs, is considered the first limiting amino acid for soybean meal and
requires producers to supplement with synthetic methionine [116–120]. This has a
variety of negative economic and environmental impacts, including increased cost
and poor nitrogen-use efficiency [121, 122]. Trypsin inhibitor proteins are an antinu-
tritional factor present in raw soybean that decreases feed efficiency and can harm
the livestock. There are a variety of industrial processing methods used to overcome
trypsin inhibitors in soybean such as thermal and infrared treatment [123]. In the
future, soybean methionine deficiencies and trypsin inhibitor levels may both be
solved via breeding and transgenic efforts.

4.2 Human food

Soybean as human food exists to two different extents that are derived from
geography and cultural tradition. Eastern hemisphere populations incorporate
whole soybeans and processed soy foods into their lives on a daily basis, whereas
Western hemisphere populations generally utilize processed soybeans as food
ingredients. Eastern soy foods are divided into two main categories: fermented
and non-fermented. Non-fermented soy foods include whole seed options such
as whole dry soybeans, soy nuts, and edamame, processed items such as soy flour
and soy milk, and vegetative soy sprouts [115, 124]. Soy milk in its simplest form is
a water extract from soybean that when further processed can make tofu and tofu
byproducts such as okara (soy pulp) and yuba (tofu skin). Fermented soy products
include miso, soy sauce, tempeh, natto, and sufu, and each product has a specific
bacterial species that enables proper fermentation. For example, natto is associated
with Bacillus subtilis, and soy sauce is associated with Aspergillus sp. [115, 124].
Western cultures have assimilated many soy food products, and they are becom-
ing more popular as consumers seek plant-based protein sources. However, the
vast majority of soybeans in western diets consists of food ingredients made from
soybean meal and soy oil. Soybean meal can be processed into ingredients such as
soy flour, protein concentrates, and protein isolates that are used in bakery mixes,
breakfast cereals, baby food, and exercise supplements [114]. Soybean oil is widely
used in vegetable oil and margarine mixes for a variety of cooking purposes. The
importance of traditional and innovative soy food uses has perpetuated because of
the potential health benefits from soy consumption. Soy foods have been shown to
play a role in chronic human disease prevention for conditions such as heart disease,
osteoporosis, and cancer [125–127]. However, isoflavones, one of the most common
seed components linked to disease prevention, is also negatively linked to hormonal
health as a phytoestrogen. While large population subsets are concerned about
isoflavones negatively impacting fertility, summarized data has shown inconsistent
results [128–130]. As consumers continue to seek plant-based protein, soybeans will
be the premier source for historically and culturally significant recipes as well as
healthy, novel animal meat alternatives.

4.3 Industrial uses

Even though soybean is classified as an oilseed, soybean oil has historically been
an afterthought for soybean producers and processors. When markets for soybean
meal would falter, researchers and other stakeholders would turn to soybean oil for
added value or seek alternative uses for meal components. Modern sustainability
and industrial goals have stimulated soy-based product usage in a variety of fields,
as summarized in Table 3. Soybean oil as biodiesel has experienced the largest

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Table 3.
Industrial uses for soybean products [114, 115].

growth with United States consumers using over 2 billion gallons in 2017 [131].
Current biodiesel production methods can create soy-based fuel that perform nearly
equal or equivalent to standard diesel fuels and have the potential to become a truly
renewable resource when coupled with sustainable farming practices [132–134].
Constantly improving processing methods will continue to augment soybean seed
component versatility and create new opportunities for soy-based products.

5. Soybean seed composition improvement

5.1 Breeding efforts

Soybean seed has many beneficial traits, such as high protein, oil, and soluble
sugar content [135]. While soybean seed value is defined by these favorable quali-
ties, past and present breeding attempts have sought further improvement. With
regards to protein content, breeders have worked with soybean to increase total
protein content as well as the amount of sulfur containing amino acids, methionine
and cysteine [135]. Methionine and cysteine are of interest since the seed protein
is naturally deficient, and these two amino acids can improve the nutritional value
of soybean meal [135, 136]. However, some research indicates that total protein
content is negatively correlated with other favorable seed qualities, including yield,
oil content, and potentially methionine and cysteine content [137, 138]. So far, most

9
Legume Crops

breeding efforts to improve protein quality have involved identifying quantitative

trait loci (QTL) that are associated with the amino acid content [139]. QTLs are
regions of DNA that are associated with a particular trait and allow breeders to
select for particular cultivars that have the trait of interest [140]. The composi-
tion of soybean seed oil primarily includes linolenic, steric, palmitic, linoleic, and
oleic acid [141]. There have been breeding attempts mainly to increase oleic acid in
soybean seed while keeping linolenic acid relatively low, due to respective human
health impacts [141, 142]. Lastly, soluble sugar levels, specifically sucrose content,
has also been an area of interest in soybean breeding [135]. While sucrose is the
main sugar found in soybean, fructose and glucose are also present but in trace
amounts [143]. Similar to protein content, multiple QTLs have been identified asso-
ciated with high sucrose [144]. Sucrose is a desirable seed composition trait due to
soy food flavor improvement for human consumption [144]. Overall, conventional
breeding has been used to improve protein quality, oil content, and sucrose content
in soybean seed.
While soybean does have numerous profitable seed traits, it also contains several
unfavorable traits that include trypsin inhibitors (TIs), indigestible carbohydrates,
and phytate [145, 146]. There are two trypsin inhibitors found in soybean, the
Kunitz and Bowman-Birk trypsin inhibitor, and they are antinutritional factors
due to their ability to interfere with protein digestibility and reduce the health of
animals that are fed soybean meal containing these proteins [147, 148]. Currently,
processors can heat the soybean meal in order to inactivate the trypsin inhibitors,
but this step is costly [149]. Due to TIs negatively affecting animal health and
increased cost for inactivation, more breeding efforts are being made to develop
low-TI soybean lines [150]. Indigestible carbohydrates, raffinose and stachyose, that
are found in soybean seed are also a target for soybean breeding since they can cause
flatulence and diarrhea when consumed [144]. There has been progress made in
lowering these carbohydrates, which include identifying QTLs associated with raf-
finose and stachyose [144]. Lastly, while phytate is an antinutritional factor found
in soybean, there is not a lot of work being done anymore to breed low phytate
soybean lines since phytase supplements are an effective, inexpensive way to reduce
the phytate found in soybean meal [151].

5.2 Genetic engineering efforts

Genetic engineering involves the process of artificially and intentionally

manipulating the DNA of an organism with the purpose of modifying that organ-
ism [152]. Some of the methods used to transform plants include Agrobacterium,
electroporating plant protoplasts, and microparticle bombardment [153]. One
relatively new field within genetic engineering is gene editing which involves
using clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats or CRISPR/Cas9
system [154]. Genetic engineering works by introducing a gene from one organism
into another organism so that it can now express that gene product or by caus-
ing frameshifts or deletions to knockout a particular gene in an organism [152].
CRISPR/Cas9 has been gaining a lot of attention due to its promising ability to
efficiently and effectively improve agronomic traits in crops [155, 156]. Genetic
engineering in soybean was first successfully accomplished in the 1990s [157].
Since this time, genetic engineering has been used frequently in soybean with
about 90.7 million hectares of genetically modified/GM soybean being planted
in 2014 [157]. Most of this genetic engineering has been done to create Roundup
Ready soybean that is resistant to glyphosate herbicides [158]. Roundup Ready
soybean is prevalent because it allows growers to spray herbicides to kill any weeds
in the field while not killing the soybean [158]. Genetic engineering has been used

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to additionally improve the protein quality of soybean by altering biosynthetic

feedback pathways to increase lysine and by expressing zein proteins from corn to
increase sulfur containing amino acids [115, 159]. Besides these examples, genetic
engineering has been used to manipulate soybean oil content by increasing oleic
acid content and decreasing linolenic acid content and to delay flowering time in
soybean [160, 161]. Given the ability of genetic engineering, especially gene edit-
ing, to successfully improve qualities of soybean, it will likely be used to improve
soybean through removing and/or modifying expression of antinutritional
factors. This can be accomplished through genetic engineering by knocking out
particular genes responsible for the antinutritional factors preventing them from
being expressed.

6. Conclusions

Soybean is an essential crop that is grown globally due to its various and diverse
uses. Given its importance, there are many pre-growing practices to prepare the
field for the growing season, including tillage, pre-plant fertilization, and monitor-
ing soil pH. Many agronomic aspects must be considered during growing season to
ensure successful soybean growth including crop rotations, double cropping, cover
crops, irrigation, row spacing, plant density, and post-emergence fertilization.
Additionally, integrated pest management involving the use of pesticides, resistant
soybean cultivars, and cultural practices are vital to control the numerous pests
of soybean. While soybean is highly used in livestock feed due to its high protein
content, it’s methionine deficiency and presence of antinutritional factors still
present problems that need to be solved. Soybean versatility is represented by the
many uses in human consumption, biofuels, and other industrial uses. Traditional
and conventional breeders have been working to increase protein and oil content,
while eliminating antinutritional factors. Genetic engineering and gene editing
show promise to help improve soybean by introducing genes to improve protein and
oil quality and knocking out genes to remove antinutritional factors.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to acknowledge Virginia Tech’s Open Access Subvention
Fund for funding the publishing fee.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

11
Legume Crops

Author details

Zachary Shea*, William M. Singer and Bo Zhang

School of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and
State University, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA

*Address all correspondence to: zacharys@vt.edu

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms
of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/
by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original work is properly cited.

12
Soybean Production, Versatility, and Improvement
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91778

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