College of Criminology

Elementary Statistics
Module 3

The focus of this lesson is how to summarize data where in most important features
stand out. This lesson will lay out several ways of summarizing data and how to interpret
these tools.

Learning Outcomes:
1. Present data through texts, tables, and graphs
2. Organize data sets using frequency distribution table
3. Represent data in frequency distributions graphically using histograms, frequency
polygons, and ogives
4. Represent data using graphs, Pareto charts, time series graphs, and pie graphs
5. Draw a stem and leaf plot and scatter plot
6. Interpret a stem and leaf plot and scatter plot

Learning Resources:

Textbook:
[1] Bluman, 2009, Elementary Statistics, A Step-by-step Approach 10th Edition, McGraw-Hill
Education
[2] Larson et. al, 2012, Elementary Statistics, Pearson Education, Inc.
[3]Illowsky et.al, 2018, Introductory Statistics, Rice University,
https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-statistics
[4] Navidi, 2015, Statistics for Engineers and Scientist Fourth Edition, McGraw-Hill Education
[5] Navidi et. al, 2016, Elementary Statistics 3rd Edition, McGraw-Hill Education

Online Resources:
[1] Admin, 2021, Tabular presentation of data - main parts of table. BYJUS.
https://byjus.com/commerce/tabular-presentation-of-data/
[2] Admin, 2021, Graphical representation - types, rules, principles and merits. BYJUS.
https://byjus.com/maths/graphical-representation/
[3] GeeksforGeeks, 2023, Textual presentation of data Meaning suitability and drawbacks.
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/textual-presentation-of-data-meaning-suitability-and-
drawbacks/
[4] Admin. (2021a, March 25). Scatter Plot | Definition, graph, uses, examples and
correlation. BYJUS. https://byjus.com/maths/scatter-plot/

Pre-Competency
1. Enumerate and explain the methods used to organize, summarize and present data.
Explore
1. Below is a link about creating histogram using excel
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1sLJxwxR8jc
Discussion Board
I. Data Presentation
1. Tabular Method – One of the most popularly used forms of data presentation. In
this method, data is arranged in rows and column. This method helps represent a
large amount of data in an easy to ready and organized manner.
Sample template

2. Graphical Method – presents ideas, information, relation between ideas and

concepts in a diagram in an easy-to-understand manner. There are different types
of graphical representation. Some of the graphs are as follows:
o Line Graphs – Line graph or the linear graph is used to display the
continuous data and it is useful for predicting future events over time.
o Bar Graphs – Bar Graph is used to display the category of data and it
compares the data using solid bars to represent the quantities.
o Histograms – The graph that uses bars to represent the frequency of
numerical data that are organized into intervals. Since all the intervals are
equal and continuous, all the bars have the same width.
o Line Plot – It shows the frequency of data on a given number line. ‘x ‘is
placed above a number line each time when that data occurs again.
o Frequency Table – The table shows the number of pieces of data that
falls within the given interval.
o Circle Graph – Also known as the pie chart that shows the relationships
of the parts of the whole. The circle is considered with 100% and the
categories occupied is represented with that specific percentage like 15%,
56%, etc.
o Stem and Leaf Plot – In the stem and leaf plot, the data are organized
from least value to the greatest value. The digits of the least place values
from the leaves and the next place value digit forms the stems.
o Box and Whisker Plot – The plot diagram summarizes the data by
dividing into four parts. Box and whisker show the range (spread) and the
middle (median) of the data.
3. Textual Method - data is a part of the text of the study or a part of the
description of the subject matter of the study. It is usually preferred when the
quantity of data is not very large. Data can be understood with the help of a
simple text and no table or pie diagram is required for the same.
II. Organizing Data
1. Frequency Distribution Table - is a table that shows classes or intervals of data
entries with a count of the number of entries in each class. The frequency f of a
class is the number of data entries in the class.

Constructing a Frequency Distribution from a Data Set

1. Decide on the number of classes to include in the frequency distribution. The

number of classes should be between 5 and 20; otherwise, it may be difficult to
detect any patterns.
2. Find the class width as follows. Determine the range of the data, divide the
range by the number of classes, and round up to the next convenient number.
3. Find the class limits. You can use the minimum data entry as the lower limit of
the first class. To find the remaining lower limits, add the class width to the
lower limit of the preceding class. Then find the upper limit of the first class.
Remember that classes cannot overlap. Find the remaining upper-class limits.
4. Make a tally mark for each data entry in the row of the appropriate class.
5. Count the tally marks to find the total frequency f for each class

Example:
The following sample data set lists the prices (in dollars) of 30 portable global
positioning system (GPS) navigators. Construct a frequency distribution that
has seven classes.
90 130 400 200 350 70 325 250 150 250
275 270 150 130 59 200 160 450 300 130
220 100 200 400 200 250 95 180 170 150
Solution:
1. The number of classes (7) is stated in the problem.

2. The minimum data entry is 59 and the maximum data entry is 450, so the range is
450-59=391. Divide the range by the number of classes and round up to find the class
width. 391 = 55.86. Round up to 56.
7

3. The minimum data entry is a convenient lower limit for the first class. To find the
lower limits of the remaining six classes, add the class width of 56 to the lower limit of
each previous class. The lower limits will be 59, 115, 171, 227, 283, 339, 395. The
upper limit of the first class is 114, which is one less than the lower limit of the second
class. The upper limits of the other classes are 114, 170, 226, 282, 338, 394, 450. The
lower and upper limits for all seven classes are shown.

4. Make a tally mark for each data entry

in the appropriate class. For instance, the
data entry 130 is in the 115–170 class, so
make a tally mark in that class. Continue
until you have made a tally mark for each
of the 30 data entries.

5. The number of tally marks for a class is

the frequency of that class. The frequency
distribution is shown in the following
table. The first class, 59–114, has five
tally marks.
2. Histogram - is a graph that displays the data by using contiguous vertical bars
(unless the frequency of a class is 0) of various heights to represent the
frequencies of the classes.

Constructing Histogram

a) Draw and label the x and y axes. The x axis is always the horizontal axis, and
the y axis is always the vertical axis.
b) Represent the frequency on the y axis and the class boundaries on the x axis.
c) Using the frequencies as the heights, draw vertical bars for each class.

Example: Draw a frequency histogram for the

frequency distribution below.

Solution:

First, find the class boundaries. Subtract 0.5 to the

lower limit to get the low-class boundary. Add 0.5
to the upper limit to get the upper-class boundary.

Choose the frequency for the y-axis or the vertical

scale and the class boundary for the x-axis or the
horizontal scale.

On the right is the

histogram of the
frequency table above.

3. Frequency Polygon - frequency polygon is a graph that displays the data by using
lines that connect points plotted for the frequencies at the midpoints of the classes.
The frequencies are represented by the heights of the points.

Constructing Frequency Polygon

a) Find the midpoints of each class. Recall that midpoints are found by adding
the upper and lower boundaries and dividing by 2.
b) Draw the x and y axes. Label the x axis with the midpoint of each class, and
then use a suitable scale on the y axis for the frequencies.
c) Using the midpoints for the x values and the frequencies as the y values, plot
the points.
d) Connect adjacent points with line segments. Draw a line back to the x axis at
the beginning and end of the graph, at the same distance that the previous
and next midpoints would be located.
 Example: Draw a frequency polygon for the frequency
distribution below.

Solution:
Compute the midpoint for each class. To solve the for the
midpoint, add the lower limit and the upper limit then divide
it by 2.
The midpoints will be as follows: 86.5, 142.5, 198.5, 254.5,
310.5, 366.5, 422.5.
Then let the y-axis or the vertical scale represent the
frequency and the x-axis or the horizontal scale be the class
midpoints.

The frequency polygon

should begin and end in the
horizontal axis. Extend the
left side to one class width
before the class midpoint and
extend the right side to one
class width after the last class
midpoint.

4. Ogive - cumulative frequency

graph, or ogive is a line graph that displays the cumulative frequency of each class
at its upper-class boundary. The upper boundaries are marked on the horizontal
axis, and the cumulative frequencies are marked on the vertical axis.

Constructing an Ogive (Cumulative Frequency Graph)

1. Construct a frequency distribution that includes cumulative frequencies

as one of the columns.
2. Specify the horizontal and vertical scales. The horizontal scale consists of
upper- class boundaries, and the vertical scale measures cumulative frequencies.
3. Plot points that represent the upper-class boundaries and their corresponding
cumulative frequencies.
4. Connect the points in order from left to right.
5. The graph should start at the lower boundary of the first class (cumulative
frequency is zero) and should end at the upper boundary of the last class
(cumulative frequency is equal to the sample size).

Example: Draw an ogive for the frequency distribution below.

Solution:
The cumulative frequency of the given frequency distribution
is as follows: 5, 13, 19, 24, 26, 27, 30.
Then take note of the upper-class boundaries: 114.5, 170.5,
226.5, 282.5, 338.5, 394.5, 450.5
Let the upper-class boundaries represent the horizontal scale
and let the cumulative frequencies represent the vertical
scale.
 Then, plot the cumulative
frequency at each upper-
class boundary.

On the right is the ogive that

represents the frequency table
above.

III. Other Types of Graph

1. Pareto Chart - is used to represent a frequency distribution for a categorical

variable, and the frequencies are displayed by the heights of vertical bars,
which are arranged in order from highest to lowest.

Constructing Pareto Charts

Example: The average traffic volume in Manila per year, from 2018-
2022 in millions. (table shown on the left) (SOURCE: Statista. (2023,
July 5). Average daily traffic volume Metro Manila Philippines
2018- 2022.https://www.statista.com/statistics/1276518/philippines-
average- daily-traffic-metro-manila/)

1. Arrange the data from the largest to the

smallest according to the number of traffic
volume (in millions)
(Table shown on the right)
2. Draw and label x and y axes.
3. Draw the vertical bars according to the
number of the traffic volume (in millions).
4.
 2. Time-Series Graph - represents data that occur over a
specific period of time.
Constructing Time-Series Graph
Example: The data shows the number of livebirths (in millions) in the
Philippines in a span of 10 years (Table shown on the left)
1. Draw and label the x and y axes.
2. Label the x-axis for years and y-axis for the number of livebirths
in millions.
3. Plot each point for the values shown in the table.
4. Draw line segments connecting adjacent points. Do not try to fit
a smooth curve through the data points.

Shown on the right

the Time-series graph
of the number of
livebirth in millions in
a span of 10 years.

IV - Graphs

3. Pie Chart - is a circle that is divided into sections or wedges according to the
percentage of frequencies in each category of the distribution. It is used extensively
in statistics. The purpose of the pie graph is to show the relationship of the parts to
the whole by visually comparing the sizes of the sections.
Constructing a Pie Chart
Example: This frequency distribution shows the number of
pounds of each snack food eaten during the Super Bowl.
1. Since there are 360° in a circle, the frequency for each
class must be converted to a proportional part of the
circle. This conversion is done by using the formula
𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠 =
𝑓
(360°), where f = frequency, n is the sum of all
𝑛
frequencies. Take note, the degrees should sum to 360
degrees.
𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑜 𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑝𝑠 = 11.2
(360°) = 134°
30
𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎 𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑝𝑠 = 8.2
(360°) = 98°
30
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑧𝑒𝑙𝑠 = 43 (360°) = 52°
30
𝑃𝑜𝑝𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑛 = 38 (360°) = 46°
30
𝑆𝑛𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑠 = 2.5 30
(360°) = 30°
 2. Each frequency must also be converted to a percentage.
𝑓
% = (100)
𝑛
𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑜 𝐶ℎ𝑖𝑝𝑠 = 11.2
(100) = 38%
30
8.2
𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎 𝐶ℎ𝑖𝑝𝑠 = (100) = 27%
30
43
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑧𝑒𝑙𝑠 = (100) = 14%
30
38
𝑃𝑜𝑝𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑛 = (100) = 13%
30
𝑆𝑛𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑁𝑢𝑡𝑠 = 2.5
(100) = 8%
30

3. Next, using protractor and a compass, draw the graph, using the appropriate
degree measures found in the first step, and label each section with the name
and percentages.
4. Stem-Leaf Plot – also known as stem plot, it is a data plot that uses part of the
data value as the stem and part of the data value as the leaf to form groups or
classes.

Constructing Stem-Leaf Plot

Example: At an outpatient testing center, the number of cardiograms performed
each day for 20 days is shown. Construct a stem and leaf plot for the data.
25 31 20 32 13
14 43 02 57 23
36 32 33 32 44
32 52 44 51 45
1. Arrange the number in ascending order.
2. Separate the data according to the first digit, as shown.
02 13, 14 20, 23, 25 31, 32, 32, 32, 32, 33, 36
43, 44, 44, 45 51,
52, 57
3. A display can be made by using the leading
digit as the stem and the trailing digit as the
leaf. For example, for the value 32, the
leading digit, 3, is the stem and the trailing
digit, 2, is
the leaf. For the value
14, the 1 is the stem and the 4 is the leaf.

5. Box Plot – also known as Box-and-Whiskers Plot, is an exploratory data

analysis tool that highlights the important features of a data set. To graph a box-
and- whisker plot, you must know the following values: minimum value,
maximum value, first quartile, median or the second quartile, and the third
quartile.

Constructing Box Plot

1. Find the five-number summary of the data set.
2. Construct a horizontal scale that spans the range of the data.
 3. Plot the five numbers above the horizontal scale.
4. Draw a box above the horizontal scale from to and draw a vertical line in
the box at
5. Draw whiskers from the box to the minimum and maximum entries.

V. Paired Data and Scatter Plot

Paired Data – are data sets which corresponds with each other. When an entry in
a data set corresponds to an entry in the second data set. For example, a data set
contains the costs of an item and the second data set contains the sales amount for the
item at each cost. Since the costs corresponds to a sales amount the data is said to be
paired. One way to graph a paired data is by using scatterplot.

Scatterplot - the ordered pairs are graphed as points in a coordinate plane. It is used
to show the relationship between two quantitative variables.

Post Competency

1. Twenty-five army inductees were given a blood test to determine their blood
type. The data set is
A B B AB O
O O B AB B
BBOAO
A O O O AB
AB A O B A
Construct a frequency distribution for the data.
2. Construct a histogram, frequency polygon and ogive using the data given in #1.
3. While Exercising Construct a Pareto chart for the following data on exercise.
Calories burned per minute
Walking, 2 mph 2.8
Bicycling, 5.5 mph 3.2
Golfing 5.0
Tennis playing 7.1
Skiing, 3 mph 9.0
Running, 7 mph 14.5

4. The popular vehicle car colors are shown (in millions). Construct a pie graph for
the data.
White 19
Silver 18
Black 16
Red 13
Blue 12
Gray 12
Other 10

5. The average global temperatures for the following years are shown. Draw a time
series graph and comment on the trend.
Year 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Temperature 57.98 58.11 57.99 58.01 57.88