Year 9 Revision notes

1 a) Characteristics of Living Organisms

Movement: Animals move but so do plant organs in a process called tropism

Respiration: - The breakdown of glucose to release energy as ATP (not breathing)
Sensitivity: - Responding to a change in the internal or external environment.
Homeostasis: - The maintenance of a constant, or nearly constant, internal environment of
e.g. water; blood glucose; body temperature (always use an e.g.)
Growth: - A permanent increase in size and dry mass size and increase in complexity
through cell differentiation.
Reproduction: - Producing offspring, making more of the organism. (sexual or asexual)
Nutrition: - Ingesting nutrients, such as organic substances and mineral ions, into the body,
either heterotrophic (feeding off other organisms) or autotrophic (photosynthesis)

Question “. All living organisms have certain characteristics. Describe what is meant by the following
characteristics:
(i) respiration (2)
(ii) control of their internal conditions (2)

1 b) Variety of Living Organisms and 2b) cell structure

Organisms are grouped from their common features. More cells structures can be found here
Also click on hyperlinks for more diagrams and explanations, also this excellent video from Cognito

Organism Description Examples (learn

 these)
Animals Multicellular; covered by a cell membrane; cytoplasm; DNA; store food in Mammal (i.e.
form of glycogen; store lipids as a layer of fat below the skin or around human) and insect
the organs as a store of energy. (i.e. housefly).
Plants Multicellular; covered by a cell wall; cytoplasm; DNA; photosynthesis; Flowering plant,
vacuole and chloroplasts; store carbohydrates as starch or sucrose such as cereal (i.e.
maize) and
Herbaceous Legume
(i.e. peas, beans).
Fungi Multicellular (Mucor) but some are single-celled (yeast); covered by a cell Yeast (single-celled)
wall made of chitin; cell membrane; saprotrophic nutrition cytoplasm; and Mucor (typical
DNA; vacuole. hyphal structure).

Other key words: hyphae, mycelium, spores

Bacteria Single-celled; covered by a cell wall; cell membrane; cytoplasm; DNA; Lactobacillus
plasmid bulgaricus and
Pneumococcus.
Protoctists Single-celled or multicelled; do not have similar features; may ne animal Amoeba looks like
5’22’’ like or plant like, thus may have a cell wall or not. an animal cell but is
found in ponds,
Chlorella has
chloroplasts
Viruses Covered by a protein coat; DNA or RNA; envelope Influenza virus
(causing flu), HIV
virus (causing AIDS).
Tobacco Mosaic
Virus

Pathogen - An organism that causes disease in another living organism. Pathogens may be fungi, bacteria,
protoctists and viruses.

Is a Virus a Living Organism?

Viruses are infective particles made of a protein coat surrounding a nucleic acid, either DNA or RNA.
Outside other living organisms, viruses behave like simple crystalline chemicals. However, inside a host,
viruses infect a cell and change the way the cell works, causing it to make millions of copied of the virus.
They do not move independently, they “move” by droplet infection or gravity. They do not respire, excrete
or respond to external or internal stimuli because they have no cell structure or cytoplasm.
Some extra notes

Fungi

 Some fungi are single-celled, but most have a structure of fine threads
called hyphae. Each hypha contains many nuclei, and several hyphae
form a mycelium.
 The cells walls are made of chitin, a fibrous carbohydrate (as opposed
to cellulose in plants).
 Fungi do not contain chlorophyll; so do not carry out photosynthesis.
They obtain energy by saprotrophic nutrition. They secrete digestive
enzymes outside the cell onto living or dead animal or plant material
and absorb the digested nutrients.
 Fungi contain mitochondria, which are in cells that need a lot of energy. They carry out some of the
reactions of respiration to release energy that the cell can use.

Bacteria

 Bacteria have no nucleus, so the single circular chromosome lies free in the cytoplasm inside the
cell.
 Many bacteria have additional circles of genetic material called plasmids.
 Bacteria are smaller than other cells.
 Bacteria re prokaryotes, meaning they have no true nucleus
 Bacteria can be pathogenic e.g. Pneumococcus (which causes pneumonia)

Cell structure

Nucleus: Contains the genetic material, and controls cells functions (see
transcription and translation) . (NOT the brain)
Cytoplasm: This is a jelly like substance that contains enzymes. This is
where all the chemical reactions happen.
Mitochondria: Mitochondria makes energy for the cell through aerobic
respiration. (NOT the powerhouse of the cell)
Ribosomes: Ribosomes make proteins for the cell by translation.
Cell Membrane: This holds the cell together and controls what goes in and
out of the cell.
Permanent Vacuole: This contains salt and sugar for the cell (cell sap)..
(Plants only)
Chloroplasts: Chloroplasts contain a green pigment called chlorophyll (this is what makes leaves green)
that absorbs light for photosynthesis. Photosynthesis makes food for the plant cell. (Plants)
Cell Wall: Cell walls provide structure for the cell, supporting and strengthening the cell. The cell wall is
made out of cellulose. (Plants)

Cell specialisation

Animals

Plants

Type of
cell Function How it is adapted to its function
A long thin 'hair' extends from each cell into the soil
increasing the root's surface area. Each root has
Root hair many thousands of root hairs, which can make the
cell They absorb water and minerals. root look furry.
Dead cells are joined end to end to form a
Xylem They transport water and minerals continuous tube. They have no cytoplasm. Their
cell up the stem to leaves and flowers. walls contain lignin for strengthening.
They transport sugars, amino acids,
other substances both up and down Made of tube-like living cells joined end to end. They
Phloem the stem to leaves, flowers and do have cytoplasm. This means that the cells are
cell roots. living.

2a and b) Levels of Organisation

Organisation helps the body to function more efficiently.

1. Organelle: - A structure within a cell that carries out a particular function. e.g. Nucleus, ribosome

2. Cell: - The building blocks of which tissue are composed. e.g. Onion cell, sperm cell

3. Tissue: - A group of similar cells that have a similar function. e.g. Muscle tissue, palisade tissue
4. Organ: - A group of tissues that work together to carry out a particular function. E.g. Leaf or Heart

5. System: - A group of organs that work together to carry out a particular function. e.g. The respiratory
system. Other systems: digestive; circulatory; skeletal; endocrine; reproductive; nervous

Question Chloroplasts are not found in animal cells.

Explain why some plant cells contain many chloroplasts, some plant cells contain few chloroplasts
and some plant cells contain no chloroplasts (3)

Question

Question; How many different

organ systems do you see in
the diagram on the left?
Circulatory is one, can you find
the other 6?
2b) Movement in and out of cells

Diffusion
Think of all these definitions in chunks.
Diffusion is the movement of particles 1 from an area of high concentration 2 to an area of low
concentration 3 until an equilibrium is reached 4

Any exchange surface wants to speed up diffusion. Examples you need to know are: alveoli, small
intestine, kidneys, leaves, also gills in fish. These are the main points:

1. Large surface area (more diffusion per unit time) but not necessarily faster
2. Thin (gives a short diffusion pathway), this is faster.
3. maintain a high concentration gradient
a. Close network of capillaries (better than “good blood supply” as answer) to remove and bring in
molecules for diffusion.
b. e.g. ventilation in lungs, water movement in gills, peristalsis in small intestine, stomata in leaves
also maintain high concentration gradient, these are both faster
4. optimum temperature (increased kinetic energy), these are both also faster.

Here is a video on diffusion from Youtube

Always give a thorough description of diffusion

e.g. Oxygen is diffusing FROM the alveoli TO

the red blood cells down a conc gradient.

The CO2 diffuses FROM the respring cells TO

the blood plasma.

You may need to explain why these gases are

needed and most of this revolves around
aerobic respiration.

Diffusion questions usually form a small part of much larger questions. Remember to use the word diffuse
rather than move.

Question: The cell on the left is respiring aerobically. Which letter

represents the diffusion of:
1. Oxygen
2. CO2
Be prepared to explain why.

1. A
2. B
O2 used up in respiration so is low in cell. CO2 made by respiration so is
in a high concentration
Osmosis
This is absolutely essential to learn, and to use correctly in questions. It WILL come up and you need to be
confident in using it. The slugs will help you.

Osmosis: - The movement of water1 from an area of high water potential2 to an area of low water
potential3 across a semi permeable membrane4.

You can substitute the word concentration for potential. It works just the same.
Also partially instead of semi. Same thing

Slugs (animal cells)

Pure
water

Slug in distilled water slug in very salty water slug in slightly salt water
Water moves into slug Water leaves slug by osmosis water potential same
By Osmosis cells lose water in slugs and beaker
Cells expand and burst cells shrivel no Net movement
Slug dies. Poor sluggy slug dies. Poor sluggy cells remain same volume
Slug happy!

Replace the slugs with potato chips and the results are different due to the presence of the cell wall.
The cell wall opposed the outward pressure exerted by the water (Newtons Third law in action)

If a potato chip is put into distilled water, the water molecules of the distilled water enter through the
semi-permeable membrane, from their high potential of water into the low potential of water of the
potato. This is osmosis. The potato will expand because of the extra water. It is turgid.

Turgid cells support plants because the cell wall cells prevents turgid cells from bursting. They provide
strength, making the plant stand upright, leaves held out to catch the sunlight. In Animals cells, the cells
would burst.

If a potato chip is put into a sugar solution, the water molecules of the potato chip will leave through its
semi-permeable membrane, from their high concentration of water into the low concentration of water of
the sugar solution. This is osmosis. The potato chip will shrink and shrivel up because lots of water is drawn
out. It is flaccid.
*N.B. ‘High concentration
of solute’ means low
Osmosis in animal cells is a problem: If too much water is drawn concentration of water. in, the cell
will increase in volume and may burst because the cell membrane is not
strong enough. If too much water is drawn out, this prevents reactions
in the cytoplasm of the cell, which require water.

Osmosis in plant cells: The cell wall of plants is completely permeable, allowing water and soluble
molecules to easily pass through. If too much water is drawn out, the whole cells does not shrink because
the cell wall controls the structure of the cell. If too much water enters, the plant cell does not burst
because the strong cell wall provides strength and prevents the cell from expanding any further.

Factors that affect the rate of diffusion and osmosis

 The concentration gradient: - The greater the difference in concentration on either side of the cell
membrane, the more the particles will move and the faster the rate of diffusion and osmosis.

 The temperature: - The higher the temperature the more energy the particles will have, and the
faster the rate of diffusion and osmosis.

 Surface area: - The greater the surface area of the membrane, the more particles will move across
the membrane and the faster the rate of diffusion and osmosis.

*N.B. If you cut a potato chip in half it has a larger surface area.

On a graph “estimate the concentration of the cytoplasm in the potato”. This is when the equilibrium level
in the water and in the potato is equal (no net movement). Find the volume of solution at the start of the
experiment, draw a line across to find the concentratin.

Surface area to volume ratio

As size increases the surface area to volume ratio decreases.

A small organism has a large surface area to volume ratio, and so it can accomplish all the exchange it
needs by simple diffusion across its body surface. However, a large organism has a much smaller surface
area to volume ratio, so it cannot accomplish all the exchange it needs in this way. This is why large
organisms have special adaptations to their organs.

(A large surface area to volume ratio is preferable for because it can carry the out exchange of substances
it needs by simple diffusion).

To calculate the surface area to volume ratio: -

SA = 1 X 6 = 6cm2
V = 1 X 1 X 1 = 1cm3
SA 6
Ratio = Ratio = = 6:1
V 1

Active Transport

Active Transport: - The movement of molecules from an area of low concentration to an area of high
concentration, against the concentration gradient using extra energy from cell respiration.

Active transport occurs when special carrier proteins in the surface of a cell pick up molecules and take
them from one side of the cell membrane to the other, against their concentration gradient.