Atoms, Molecules and Ions

Chapter 2

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 A Look Ahead…
• The Atomic Theory
• The Structure of the Atom; Electrons, Protons & Neutrons
• Atomic Number, Mass Number, & Isotopes
• The Periodic Table
• Molecules and Ions
• Chemical Formulas; Molecular, & Empirical Formulas
• Naming Compounds; Ionic Compounds, Molecular
Compounds, Acids & Bases, Hydrates
• Introduction to Organic Compounds

2
 The Atomic Theory

In the fifth century B.C.

the Greek philosopher
Democritus said matter
consists of very small
indivisible particles,
named atomos
(meaning uncuttable or
indivisible).

3
 The Atomic Theory

1808 - English
scientist and school
teacher, John Dalton,
formulated a precise
definition of the
individual building
block of matter that
we call atom.

4
 Dalton’s Atomic Theory (1808)
Marked the beginning of modern era of chemistry, based on
four hypothesis:
1. Elements are composed of extremely small particles called
atoms.
2. All atoms of a given element are identical, having the same
size, mass and chemical properties. The atoms of one
element are different from the atoms of all other elements.
3. Compounds are composed of atoms of more than one
element. In any compound, the ratio of the numbers of atoms
of any two of the elements present is either an integer or a
simple fraction.
4. A chemical reaction involves only the separation,
combination, or rearrangement of atoms; it does not result in
their creation or destruction.
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Dalton’s Atomic Theory (Hypothesis no. 2, 3, & 4)

16 X + 8Y 8 X 2Y

Law of Conservation of Mass

“matter can be neither created nor destroyed”
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 Dalton’s Atomic Theory (Hypothesis no. 3)

Law of Definite Proportions

(Joseph Proust 1799)

“different samples of the same compound always contain its

constituent elements in the same proportion by mass”
− the ratio of the masses of different elements in a given
compound is fixed,
− the ratio of the atoms in the compound is also constant.
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 Dalton’s Atomic Theory (Hypothesis no. 3)

Oxygen in
CO &CO2

Law of Multiple Proportions

“if two elements can combine to form more than one compound,
the masses of one element that combine with a fixed mass of
the other element are in ratios of small whole number”
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 The structure of the Atom
Dalton imagined an atom,
a) as the basic unit of an element that can enter
into chemical combination
b) and both extremely small and indivisible
Later investigations (radiation, the emission and
transmission of energy through space in the form of waves)
showed that atoms are made up of even smaller
particles, called subatomic particles.
Three fundamental subatomic
particles are:
1) Electrons,
2) Protons, and
3) Neutrons 9
 The Electron

Joseph John Thomson

(1856 – 1940), British
physicist received the
Noble Prize in Physics
in 1906 for discovering
the electron.

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 Cathode Ray Tube

+ve charged -ve charged

A = mf on
C = ef on J. J. Thomson, measured charge/mass of e-
B = both off (1906 Nobel Prize in Physics)
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Cathode Ray in a Discharged Tube

12
Cathode Ray Tube Experiment

13
 The Electron

Robert Andrew
Millikan (1868 – 1953),
American physicist
received the Noble
Prize in Physics in 1923
for determining the
charge of the electron.

14
 Millikan’s Experiment

Measured charge of e-
(1923 Nobel Prize in Physics)

Millikan’s e- charge = -1.60 x 10-19 C

Thomson’s charge/mass of e- = -1.76 x 108 C/g
e- mass = 9.10 x 10-28 g
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Millikan’s Experiment

16
 Types of Radioactivity

Pierre Curie Marie Curie

Radioactivity:
Spontaneous
emission of
particle and/or
radiation.

(uranium compound)

α particle = 2p+2n; (He2+)

β particle = high speed e-
γ ray = electromagnetic
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radiation
 Thomson’s Model

J. J. Thomson

pulm-pudding model

Thomson believed that the electrons were like plums

embedded in a positively charged “pudding,” thus it was
called the “plum pudding” model.
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 Class Work – 2.7
The diameter of a neutral helium atom is about
1 x 102 pm. Suppose that we could line up helium
atoms side by side in contact with one another.
Approximately how many atoms would it take to
make the distance from end to end 1 cm?
(1 pm = 10−12 m, 100 cm = 1 m)
Ans:

19
 The Proton and the Nucleus

Ernest Rutherford
(1871 – 1937), New
Zealand Physicist
worked in England
received the Noble
Prize in Chemistry in
1908 for discovering
the structure of
atomic nucleus.

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 Rutherford’s Experiment
(1908 Nobel Prize in Chemistry)

α particle velocity ~ 1.4 x 107 m/s

(~ 5% speed of light)

• Atoms positive charge is concentrated in the nucleus, a dense

central core within the atom
• Proton (p) has opposite (+) charge of electron (-)
• Mass of p is 1840 x mass of e- (1.67 x 10−24 g)
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 Rutherford’s Atom
• Mass of nucleus constitutes
most of the mass of the entire atom
• Nucleus occupies only about 1/103 of
the volume of the atom
Atomic radius ~ 100 pm, nuclear radius ~ 0.005 pm
• If an atom were the size of a sprots stadium, then the
nucleus is a marble on the goal line
• Protons are confined to the nucleus but the electrons
are spread out about the nucleus
• Atoms do not have a well-defined
boundary

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Rutherford’s Experiment

23
 The Neutron

James Chadwick
(1891 – 1972),
British physicist
received the Noble
Prize in Physics in
1935 for discovering
the neutrons.

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Chadwick’s Experiment (1932)
(1935 Noble Prize in Physics)

H atoms - 1 p; He atoms - 2 p
mass He/mass H should = 2
measured mass He/mass H = 4

a + 9Be 1
n + 12C + energy
neutron (n) is neutral (charge = 0)
n mass ≈ p mass = 1.67 x 10-24 g

25
Subatomic
Particles
• Protons and neutrons are
packed in extremely small nucleus.
• Electrons are shown as “clouds”

mass p ≈ mass n ≈ 1840 x mass e-

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 Class Work – 2.8
Roughly speaking, the radius of an atom is about
10,000 times greater than that of its nucleus. If an
atom were magnified so that the radius of its nucleus
became 2.0 cm, about the size of a marble, what
would be the radius of the atom in miles?
(100 cm = 1 m, 1 mi = 1609 m)
Ans:

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 Atomic number and Mass number
Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in nucleus
Mass number (A) = number of protons + number of neutrons
= atomic number (Z) + number of neutrons

Mass Number A
ZX
Element Symbol
Atomic Number

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 Isotopes
Atoms of a given element do not all have the same mass.
Isotopes are atoms of the same element (X) with different
numbers of neutrons in their nuclei.

Hydrogen Deuterium Tritium

235 238
92 U 92 U
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 Counting Protons, Neutrons, & Electrons

14
How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are in 6C ?

6 protons, 8 (14 - 6) neutrons, 6 electrons

11
How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are 6C
?
in
6 protons, 5 (11 - 6) neutrons, 6 electrons

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 Class Work – 2.16
Indicate the number of protons, neutrons, and
electrons in each of the following species:
15 33 63
7
N S Cu
16 29
Ans:

31
 Class Work – 2.17
Write the appropriate symbol for each of the
following isotopes:
(a) Z = 11, A = 23;
(b) Z = 28, A = 64
Ans:

32
 Noble Gas
33

Halogen
The Modern Periodic Table

Group
Period
Alkali Earth Metal
Alkali Metal
 Class Work – 2.26

Group the following elements in pairs that

you would except to show similar properties:
K, F, P, Na, Cl, and N.
Ans:
K and Na are Group 1A elements.
F and Cl are Group 7A elements.
P and N are Group 5A elements.

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 Chemistry In Action
Natural abundance of elements in Earth’s crust.

Natural abundance of elements in human body.

35
 Class Work – 2.71
Fill in the blanks in the following table:

Symbol

Protons 5 79 86

Neutrons 6 16 117 136

Electrons 5 18 79

Net charge −3 0

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 Class Work – 2.71(Ans)
Fill in the blanks in the following table:

Symbol

Protons 5 26 15 79 86

Neutrons 6 28 16 117 136

Electrons 5 24 18 79 86

Net charge 0 +2 −3 0 0

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 Molecules and Ions

Of all the elements, only the six noble gases in Group 8A

exist in nature as single atoms, called monatomic gases.

Most matter is composed of molecules or ions formed

by atoms.
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 Molecules: diatomic & polyatomic
A molecule is an aggregate of two or more atoms in a
definite arrangement held together by chemical forces.

H2 H2 O NH3 CH4
A diatomic molecule contains only two atoms.

H2, N2, O2, Br2, HCl, CO

diatomic elements
A polyatomic molecule contains more than two atoms.
O3, H2O, NH3, CH4
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 Ions: cation & anion
An ion is an atom, or group of atoms, that has a net
positive or negative charge.
Cation – ion with a positive charge: If a neutral atom loses
one or more electrons it becomes a cation.

11 protons 11 protons
Na 11 electrons Na +
10 electrons

Anion – ion with a negative charge: If a neutral atom

gains one or more electrons it becomes an anion.

17 protons 17 protons
Cl 17 electrons
Cl- 18 electrons

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 Monatomic Ions & Polyatomic Ions

A monatomic ion contains only one atom

Na+, Cl-, Ca2+, O2-, Al3+, N3-

A polyatomic ion contains more than one atom

OH-, CN-, NH4+, NO3-

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 Class Work – 2.34
Give two example (name & formula) of each of the
following: (a) a diatomic molecule containing atoms of
the same element, (b) a diatomic molecule containing
atoms of different element (c) a polyatomic molecule
containing atoms of the same elements (d) a
polyatomic molecule containing atoms of different
elements.
Ans:
(a) H2 and F2;
(b) HCl and CO;
(c) S8 and P4;
(d) H2O and C12H22O11 (sucrose)
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Common Ions Shown on the Periodic Table

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 Counting Protons, Neutrons, & Electrons

27 3+
How many protons, neutrons and electrons are in 13 Al ?

13 protons, 14 neutrons, 10 (13 – 3) electrons

78 2-
How many protons, neutrons and electrons are in 34 Se ?

34 protons, 44 neutrons, 36 (34 + 2) electrons

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 Class Work – 2.35
Give the number of protons and electrons for the
following ions:
Na+, Ca2+, Al3+, I−, S2−, and N3−
Ans:

Ion Na+ Ca2+ Al3+ I− S2− N3−

No. of
11 20 13 53 16 7
protons
No. of
10 18 10 54 18 10
electrons

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Formulas and Models

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 Molecular & Empirical Formulas
A molecular formula shows the exact number of atoms
of each element in the smallest unit of a substance.

An empirical formula shows the simplest

whole-number ratio of the atoms in a substance.
Molecular Empirical
H2O H2O
C6H12O6 CH2O
O3 O
O2 O
N2H4 NH2
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 Class Work – 2.45
What are the empirical formula of the following
compounds?
Ans:
Molecular Empirical
C2 N 2 CN
C6H6 CH
C9H20 C9H20
P4O10 P 2 O5
B2H6 BH3

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 Ionic Compounds
Ionic compounds consist of a combination of cations and
an anions.
• The formula is usually the same as the empirical formula.
• The sum of the charges on the cation(s) and anion(s) in each
formula unit must equal zero.
The ionic compound NaCl

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Formula of Ionic Compounds

2 x +3 = +6 3 x -2 = -6

Al2O3
Al3+ O2-

1 x +2 = +2 2 x -1 = -2

CaBr2
Ca2+ Br-

2 x +1 = +2 1 x -2 = -2

Na2CO3
Na+ CO32-
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 Class Work – 2.43 & 2.44
Write the formulas for the following compounds:
(a) Sodium oxide - Na2O
(b) Iron sulphide (Fe2+) - FeS
(c) Cobalt sulfate (Co3+ & SO42−) - Co (SO )
2 4 3
(d) Barium fluoride - BaF
2
(e) Copper bromide (Cu+) - CuBr
(f) Manganese oxide (Mn3+) - Mn O
2 3
2+
(g) Mercury iodide (Hg2 ) - Hg I
22
3−
(h) Magnesium phosphate (PO4 ) - Mg (PO )
3 4 2

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 Naming Compounds
Organic compounds Inorganic compounds
▪ Contain carbon, ▪ All other compounds
usually in are classified as
combination with inorganic compounds,
elements such as H, including, CO, CO2, CS2,
O, N, and S and compounds
containing CN−, CO32−,
and HCO3− groups

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 Naming Compounds

Inorganic compounds are divided into four

categories:
✔ Ionic compounds
✔ Molecular compounds
✔ Acids and bases
✔ Hydrates

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 Chemical Nomenclature
Ionic Compounds
• Often a metal + nonmetal
• Anion (nonmetal), add “ide” to element name

BaCl2 Barium chloride

K2O Potassium oxide
Mg(OH)2 Magnesium hydroxide

KNO3 Potassium nitrate

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 Ionic Compounds

The most reactive metals (green) and the most reactive

nonmetals (blue) combine to form ionic compounds.

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 Transition metal ionic compounds
Indicate charge on metal with Roman numerals

FeCl2 2 Cl- -2 so Fe is +2 Iron(II) chloride

FeCl3 3 Cl- -3 so Fe is +3 Iron(III) chloride

Cr2S3 3 S-2 -6 so Cr is +3 (6/2) Chromium(III) sulfide

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57
✔ Cations ✔ Cations

58
✔ Anions ✔ Anions

59
 Chemical Nomenclature
Molecular compounds
• Nonmetals or nonmetals + metalloids
• Common names
• H2O, NH3, CH4,
• Element furthest to the left in a period
and closest to the bottom of a group on
periodic table is placed first in formula
• If more than one compound can be
formed from the same elements, use
prefixes to indicate number of each kind
of atom
• Last element name ends in “ide”
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 Molecular Compounds

HI Hydrogen iodide

NF3 Nitrogen trifluoride

SO2 Sulfur dioxide

N2Cl4 Dinitrogen tetrachloride

NO2 Nitrogen dioxide

N2O Dinitrogen monoxide

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 Molecular Compounds
Exceptions B 2 H6 Diborane
• Exceptions to the use of
Greek preixes are CH4 Methane
molecular compounds
containing hydrogen SiH4 Silane

• Called by their common NH3 Ammonia

name
• Do not indicate the PH3 Phosphine
number of hydrogen atom
present H2 O Water
• Order of writing elements
in the formulas is irregular H2 S Hydrogen sulfide
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63
Name the following compounds and which
are likely to be ionic or molecular?

CH4 Methane, molelular

NaBr Sodium bromide, ionic

BaF2 Barium fluoride, ionic

CCl4 Carbon tetrachloride, molecular

ICl Iodine (I) chloride, molecular

CsCl Cesium chloride, ionic

NF3 Nitrogen trifluoride, molecular

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 Chemical Nomenclature
Acid and Bases
An acid can be defined as a substance that yields
hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water.

For example: HCl gas and HCl in water

• Pure substance, hydrogen chloride

• Dissolved in water (H3O+ and Cl−),

hydrochloric acid

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66
 Chemical Nomenclature
A base can be defined as a substance that yields
hydroxide ions (OH-) when dissolved in water.

NaOH Sodium hydroxide

KOH Potassium hydroxide
Ba(OH)2 Barium hydroxide
NH4OH Ammonium hydroxide
(NH3 dissolved in water)

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 Class Work – 2.57
Name the following compounds:
(a) KH2PO4 - Potassium dihydrogen phosphate
(b) K2HPO4 - Potassium hydrogen phosphate
(c) HBr (gas) - Hydrogen bromide
(d) HBr (in water) - Hydrobromic acid
(e) Li2CO3 - Lithium carbonate
(f) K2Cr2O7 - Potassium dichromate
(g) NH4NO2 - Ammonium nitrite
(h) HIO3 - Iodic acid
(i) PF5 - Phosphorus pentafluoride
(j) P4O6 - Tetraphosphorus hexoxide

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Hydrates
Compounds that have a specific number of water
molecules attached to them.
BaCl2•2H2O Barium chloride dihydrate
LiCl•H2O Lithium chloride monohydrate
MgSO4•7H2O Magnesium sulfate heptahydrate
Sr(NO3)2•4H2O Strontium nitrate tetrahydrate

CuSO4•5H2O CuSO4

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70
Organic chemistry is the branch of chemistry that deals
with carbon compounds.
Functional Groups
H H H O

H C OH H C NH2 H C C OH

H H H
Methylamine Acetic acid
Methanol

71
72
 Class Work – 2.59
Write the formulas for the following compounds:
(a) Rubidium nitrite - RbNO2
(b) Potassium sulphide - K2S
(c) Sodium hydrogen sulphide - NaHS
(d) Magnesium phosphate - Mg3(PO4)2
(e) Calcium hydrogen phosphate - CaHPO4
(f) Iodine heptafluoride - IF7
(g) Ammonium sulfate - (NH4)2SO4
(h) Silver perchlorate - AgClO4
(i) Boron trichloride - BCl3
(j) Cadmium iodide - CdI2

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 Class Work – 2.63
One isotope of a metallic element has mass number
65 and 35 neutrons in the nucleus. The cation derived
from the isotope has 28 electrons. Write the symbol
for this cation.
Ans:
The number of protons = 65 − 35 = 30. The element
that contains 30 protons is zinc, Zn.
There are two fewer electrons than protons, so the
charge of the cation is +2.
The symbol for this cation is Zn2+.

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