Foundation of Special and Inclusive Education responsibility of all.

These also consistent with what UNESCO

UNIFYING FRAMEWORK pushes for in terms of getting every stakeholder involved.
In 2002, Booth and Ainscow came up with an Index for Inclusion, o BUILD KEY PEOPLE
which aims to direct educational institutions toward developing - The government recognizes the need for teacher training,
their own next steps and actions plans if they want restructure both in special needs education and general education
into becoming more inclusive. levels. It also pushes for the use of evidence-based
"It takes on the social model of disability as its starting point, teaching frameworks, provision of student assistance, and
builds on good practice, and then organizes the index work access to instructional materials. Most importantly calls are
around a cycle of activities which guide schools through stages made for continuing research and forming policies to be
of preparation, investigation, development, and review" initiated by agencies such as DepEd to further refine the
(UNESCO, 2005) inclusive process and have it tailored to fit to the needs of
1. CREATING INCLUSIVE CULTURES children with educational needs.
2. PRODUCING INCLUSIVE POLICIES - Educational frameworks cannot just be lifted and copy-
3. EVOLVING INCLUSIVE PRACTICES pasted with the expectations that what worked for one
UNIFYING FRAMEWORK country will work for another.
Booth and Ainscow (2002) explained that these three dimensions o IDENTIFY AND ERADICATE BARRIERS
- creating inclusive cultures, evolving inclusive practices, and - UNESCO's Guide for Inclusion (2005) advocates for the
producing inclusive policies are interconnected and "chosen to identification and removal of obstacles that have to do
direct thinking about school change" with transforming prevailing attitudes and values on a
DIMENSION A: CREATING INCLUSIVE CULTURES systematic level. Common barriers to inclusion; Attitudes,
This dimension creates a secure, accepting, collaborating, and values system, misconceptions, and societal norms,
stimulating community, in which everyone is valued as the physical barriers, curriculum, lack of teacher training and
foundation for the highest achievements of all. It develops low teacher efficacy, poor language and communication,
shared inclusive values that are conveyed to all new staff, lack of funding and policies, organization of educational
students, governors, and parents/carers. The principles and systems, and too much focus on performance-based
values, in inclusive school cultures, guide decisions about policies standards.
and moment to moment practice in classrooms, so that school DIMENSION B: PRODUCING INCLUSIVE POLICIES
development becomes continuous process. • This dimension makes sure that inclusion permeates all
In educational reform, stakeholders are those who are "invested school plans. Policies encourage that participation of
in the welfare and success of a school and its students". These students and staff from that moment they join the school,
are teachers, administrators, school staff, officials and other reach out all students in the locality, and minimize
workers, the parents and their families, the community, and the exclusionary pressures. All policies involve clear strategies for
government. They may also be collective entities like local change. Support is all activities which increase the capacity
businesses, advocacy groups, the media, sociocultural of a school to respond to student diversity. All forms of
institutions, and other organizations that have direct and indirect support are developed according to inclusive principles
involvement in education. and are brought together within a single framework.
In 2017, UNESCO reported that there has been significant global • UNESCO (2005) realistically acknowledges that a societal
improvement in accessing education, specifically in the primary change in attitude needs to be initially present in a
level for the last 15 years. However, its 2016 Global Education community before inclusion can be fully practiced. Without
Monitoring Report reveals that there are still an estimated 263 this realization, difference in standards and quality of
million children and youth aged 6-17 around the world who are education may surface as potential problems.
not still at school. • INVOLVE OTHER SECTORS OF THE SOCIETY
• WHAT STAKEHOLDER CAN DO - Current training and awareness campaigns seems to limit
The rights-based approach to educational programming "insists the movement of inclusion to mere home-school
that no right can exist without a corresponding governmental relationship. At most, these are extended to the
obligation" (Van den Brule-Balescut & Sandkull, 2009). Thus, departments for social welfare and health.
governments and communities are starting to understand how - However, for an inclusive set-up to truly be successful,
they are accountable to children with additional needs in active involvement of the entire community must be
fulfilling their right to education and providing access to quality ensured. For instance, those in business, commercial,
education that is also safe, welcoming, and inclusive. security, and religious sectors must also be given
representation in trainings wide enough and specific.
o SET PARAMETERS FOR INCLUSION • COLLABORATE
- The government has identified key people and professions - Whether creating an academic program specific to a
and highlighted important factors leading to the success child with additional needs or creating a new legislative bill
of inclusive education placement process, committees, for the PWD community, collaboration is crucial. Each
staffing and responsibilities, teacher training and member of the inclusive education team would have their
compensation, incentives for private sector participations, own strengths and weaknesses, and these must be used
and collaboration if the DepEd with other branches of wisely to benefit the child with additional needs. True
government. collaboration would guarantee an inclusive program that
- These clearly show not just an attempt to centralize would cover as many areas as possible.
inclusive practices, but an initiative to make the welfare • RECOGNIZE THE SHIFT IN ROLES OF THE TEACHERS
and development of children with additional needs the - With the shift to inclusive education, the role of SPED
teachers suddenly seems to be reduced to only "as
 needed." As a result, the SPED teacher's role no longer - It is best used in general education classroom where
becomes that of an implementer but that of a consultative learners are different. Through the provision of delivering
nature instead. content and allowing student construct learning in more
- It also becomes the responsibility of the general education than one way, UDL ensures that all students learn genuinely.
teacher to know what to do when faced with a learner There are three elements to UDL:
with additional needs in his or her classroom. 1. Multiple means of representation
- The SPED teacher's role must neither be diminished nor 2. Multiple means of actions and expression
disregarded but to ensure a good inclusive program is 3. Multiple means of engagement
provided to children with additional needs. General UDL PRINCIPLES ADAPTED FROM SALEND (2011)
education teachers must go through skills training and In UDL, teachers are supposed to present information and
capacity building workshops to ensure that they are materials in many ways taking into consideration that some
supporting all types of learners. students may have not fully absorbed the lessons.
• INCLUDE TRANSITIONS IN PLANNING UNIVERSAL DESIGN FOR LEARNING (UDL)
- An abrupt systematic change that is not well-planned or (Fix the Lesson)
that disregard practices - whether existing or implied - may • A proactive approach that designs flexible goals, methods,
hinder the shift to inclusion and cause resentment from all materials, and assessment by anticipating the full range of
stakeholders. Instead, current practices must be respected learner needs from the outset.
and honored to facilitate a gradual shift to inclusive. • Plan the lesson in anticipation to student needs.
- Booth and Ainscow (2002) recommend that schools reflect Principle 1: Equitable Use
on their current policies and practices to check their - Inclusive practices are designed to be useful appealing,
readiness for an inclusive set-up. A move that would and safe for all students, families, and professionals to use.
greatly help in informing policy would be to examine Individual differences and various contexts are respected.
different aspects of the school and the delivery of its Principle 2: Flexible Use
services. Specifically, schools may look at the following: - Inclusive practices are designed to accommodate the
✓ Student admission individual preferences, abilities, and needs of all students’
✓ Accessibility to utilities and facilities families, and professionals. Flexibility on providing choices
✓ Supports available to students, parents, and school for methods and pacing are exercised.
personnel Principle 3: Simple and Intuitive Use
✓ Learner accommodations - Inclusive practices are designed to be easy for all to use
✓ Exclusionary or discriminatory incidents and understand.
✓ Number of bullying cases Principle 4: Perceptible Information
✓ Faculty and staff promotions - Inclusive practices are designed so that they
DIMENSION C: EVOLVING INCLUSIVE PRACTICES communicate valuable information to all through various
• This dimension develops school practices which reflect the formats.
inclusive cultures and policies of the school. Lessons are Principle 5: Tolerance of Error
made responsive to student diversity. Students are Principle 6: Low Physical Effort
encouraged to be actively involved in all aspects of their Principle 7: Size and Space for Approach and Use
education, which draws on their knowledge and - Inclusive practices are designed to be used comfortably
experience outside school. Staff identify material resources and efficiently without much effort from all.
and resources within each other, students, parents/carers, Principle 8: Community of Learners
and local communities which can be mobilized to support Inclusive practices are designed to promote social interaction
learning and participation. and communication for all.
• Evolving inclusive practices is the third dimension to Booth Principle 9: Inclusive Environment
and Ainscow's framework for schools (2002), where Inclusive practices are designed to foster acceptance and a
administrators must first try to create an inclusive culture sense of belongingness for all.
among its stakeholders, then build better and a more all- DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION
encompassing policy. - According to Tomlinson (2010), differentiated (or
• The goal of the first two steps is to ascertain habit-forming differentiating) instruction is a teacher's response to
conditions, which make procedures that are otherwise students' varying needs, interests, and learning styles.
unfamiliar feel like second nature to us. - "It refers to a systematic approach to planning curriculum
• Two effective evidence-based inclusive practices that can and instruction for academically diverse learners. It is a
be used in the classroom are Universal Design for Learning way of thinking about the classroom with the dual goals of
(UDL) and Differentiated Instruction. honoring each student's learning needs and maximizing
• UNIVERSAL DESIGN FOR LEARNING student's learning capacity."
- In architecture, universal designs refer to structures that - When teachers differentiate instruction, they use a variety
were made in such a way that they can be used by of teaching and learning strategies that are necessary to
customers or clients with a wide range of needs (Dukes & meet the diverse needs of students in any class.
Lamar-Dukes, 2009). - HOW IS INSTRUCTION DIFFERENTIATED?
- Such is the mechanics of a Universal Design for Learning As a teacher:
(UDL) approach to instruction. UDL refers to the design of 1. You must know your curriculum.
instructional materials and activities to make the content 2. You must know your students.
information accessible to all children. 3. You must identify and plan what and how to
differentiate your material
DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION (DI) - Analysis of child's academic output (error analysis,
(Fix the Student) portfolio assessment, and criterion referenced and
- A proactive approach that responds to specific student curriculum-based assessment)
assessment information regarding students' readiness, • If despite provision of additional support, struggles and
interests, and learning preferences difficulties persist, then the child is referred for assessment
- Modification in response to learner needs of preferences either within the school, if such services are available, or
as they are identified during and after instruction. referred to a professional for further assessment.
DIFFERENTIATION STRATEGIES • What is essential at this point, is that teachers have
CONTENT implemented a variety of approaches and practices to
• What is taught? ensure that support is provided before formal assessment.
• What is learned? ASSESSMENT
PROCESS ▪ Assessment is the process of collecting information about a
• How is taught? child's strengths and needs. It uses a problem-solving
• How is it learned? process that involves a systematic collection as well as
PRODUCT interpretation of data gathered (Salvia et al., 2013).
• How is it assessed? Teachers and administrators make instructional decisions
• How is learning demonstrated based on the assessment results.
LEARNING ENVIRONMENT ASSESSMENT PURPOSE
• How is the classroom arranged? ▪ The results of an assessment are used to decide in a child's
COMPONENTS OF SPECIAL AND INCLUSIVE EDUCATION educational placement and to plan instructional programs
CHILD FIND THROUGH A PRE- REFERRAL PROCESS for a child identified to have educational needs.
- Referral for evaluation and special education services ▪ Progress monitoring and evaluation of teaching programs
begins by identifying students who have additional needs and services. To determine the effectiveness of programs
and who may be at risk for developmental disabilities. are to assist the inclusive teacher and the special education
- School guidance counselors, early childhood teachers, teacher (Guiliani & Pieranglo 2012)
primary school teachers, and community-based daycare METHODS OF ASSESSMENT
workers are often the first to notice such developmental ▪ TESTS. School psychologists, educational diagnosticians, and
delays in children. In other instances, the parents other related professionals use a variety of assessment tools
themselves notice the delays and seek consultations with to ensure that results are RELIABLE AND VALID.
pediatricians and other specialists. ▪ A test is used to examine someone's knowledge of
PRE-REFERRAL PROCESS something to determine what that person knows or has
- Children with noted developmental delays and difficulties learned. It measures the level of skill or knowledge that has
are identified through observations and use of norm- and been reached. An evaluative device or procedure in which
criterion-referenced tests. a sample of an examinee's behavior in a specified domain
- Overy young students who are at-risk or suspected to have is obtained and subsequently evaluated and scored using a
additional needs may also be identified through standardized process (The Standards for Educational and
community- based screening. Child development and Psychological Testing, 1999)
social workers use developmental screening tools such as ▪ NORM-REFERENCED TESTS
Early Childhood Care and Development (ECCD). - These are standardized assessments that compare a
- Once program of pre-referral intervention has been child's performance with a representative sample of
designed, implementation and evaluation follow to students of the same chronological age.
determine how effective it is. - Results are reported in percentile ranks, age, and
• Initial Identification grade equivalent scores. (Examples: Intelligence tests
- Recognition of potential problems and achievement tests)
- Parent or teacher Observation - While such quantitative reporting makes it easier to
- Review of school records, classroom observations compare the test performance of children in a class, it
• Determination of Teaching Areas and Strategies has its limitations in terms of use in instructional planning.
- Small group instruction ▪ CRITERION-REFERENCED TESTS
- Direct instruction - These tests compare a child's performance based on
• Implementation of Teaching Programs established standards and competencies and can be
- Additional in-class or after-school support used to describe student performance (Jennings et al.,
- Modification of classroom environment and behavior 2006)
- Modification of instruction to address potential needs - Scores are typically reported as simple numerical scores,
• Evaluation of Teaching Programs percentage of score responses, letter grades, or
- Determine effectiveness of programs on learning and graphic score reports. Such assessment data are more
behavior. useful and relevant as these provides specific skills a
• Examples of pre-referral strategies are: child has mastered and those that need additional
- Observation of child's behavior (interaction with instruction (Gargiulo, 2012).
parents, teachers, and peers) - These tests allow students' performances to be
- Interview of parents and teachers compared to criterion or benchmarks to determine
- Review of school records mastery of a skill or standard.
- This type of assessment is typically pass/fail based on
whether students meet the predetermined criteria.
 - The student scores are usually shown as percentages - Providing such instructional and assessment supports
- Examples: allows them to access the same learning experiences
• District Common Formative Assessments developed as other students in a general education classroom.
around the Common Core State Standards • SETTING ACCOMMODATIONS
• Everyday Math Unit Assessments - Changes in the location or conditions of the
▪ Norm-Referenced Tests educational setting or environment may be necessary
- These tests allow us to compare students' performances for students who need support in terms of behavior,
with each other. attention, and organization of space and materials.
- Are students performing how children their age is - Accommodation is a setting may allow a child who
normally expected to perform? gets easily distracted to work in a quiet corner of the
- Percentiles, scaled scores, stanines, and grade classroom in his own study carrel so that he will not be
equivalents. are the norms often used. sidetracked by environmental stimuli. Or a child who is
- Examples: still unable to read fluently may be allowed to take
▪ STAR Reading Assessment silent reading comprehension test with a supervising
▪ STAR Math Assessment adult in a separate room.
▪ WI Forward Exam • SCHEDULING ACCOMMODATIONS
▪ INFORMAL ASSESSMENT - Changing time allotment, schedule of tasks and
- Professionals also use informal or non-standardized assessments, and management of time are some types of
assessments, which are considered more authentic and scheduling accommodations. Some examples of
thus can be used primarily to describe performance accommodations that can modify scheduling are:
and inform instruction. 1. Extending time for assignments and assessments
- Such assessments can be curriculum-based, or 2. Providing breaks in between tasks
performance based, such as the teacher made 3. Providing visual schedule or a checklist of individual
instruments used in classrooms and portfolio responsibilities
assessments. 4. Providing predictable routines and procedures
ACCOMMODATIONS AND CURRICULAR MODIFICATIONS 5. Providing an electronic device with alarms and cues
ACCOMMODATIONS MODIFICATIONS
• Accommodations are supports provided to students to help • Curriculum modifications are provided for students with
gain full access to class content and instruction, without significant or severe disabilities where content is altered,
altering the curriculum standards and competencies and the performance outcomes are changed in relation to
expected and to demonstrate actively what they know. what are expected of typically developing students of the
• Examples of accommodations are altering instruments, toys, same age.
or materials, changing the room during specific activities, • Curriculum modifications include changes in instructional
providing time extensions or allowances for tests and tasks, level, content, and performance criteria, as well as the
and changing response formats in worksheets. breadth and depth of content being learned by students.
• Accommodations may be provided both during assessment Students with disabilities or additional needs may be given
and instruction, depending on the learning profile and more, less, or different content and resource materials
needs of a child and may vary in terms of presentation, altogether.
response, setting, and scheduling. • They may also be assessed using different standards that
• PRESENTATION ACCOMMODATIONS are more appropriate to the student's needs and abilities,
- Children with disabilities may need specialized such as being provided with fewer objectives, shorter
presentation formats especially those with sensory lessons, or a smaller number of vocabulary words to learn.
impairments so they can learn the same content • PARENT INVOLVEMENT
alongside typically developing peers. - This is anchored on Bronfenbrenner's Human Ecological
• VISUAL SUPPORT Theory, which states that there are five environmental
- Minimize visual distraction, Visual cues, larger print systems that comprise a child's social context.
materials, sing language, and videos w/ closed - For this purpose, focus is given on the microsystem, where
captioning. the child and his/her family belong, along with peers,
• AUDITORY AND COMPREHENSION SUPPORT schools, and immediate community.
- Reading aloud, audio books, text-to-speech software, - Microsystems, a child has direct interactions (parents,
advance organizer, or story guide, highlighting or color teachers, peers, and others)
coding. - Mesosystem refers to the linkages or relationships between
• LISTENING AND FOCUSING microsystems such as connections between family
- Advance organizer, explicit verbal or visual cues, experiences and school experiences, and between family
repeat/clarify directions, note taking support, copy of and peers.
directions. - Parent involvement has been found to be directly related
• RESPONSE ACCOMMODATIONS academic achievement and improvements in the school
- Response accommodations allow students with performance of children. Educational support and
disabilities and additional needs a variety of ways to collaboration with teachers have been found to promote
complete assignments, written tests, performance tasks, child success in school. Moreover, programs for children
and other activities. with disabilities become more effective and successful
when children and families are involved.
HOME SCHOOL COMMUNICATION
1. PARENT-TEACHER CONFERENCES 2. REVERSIBILITY. During this stage of concrete operations, the
2. WRITTEN COMMUNICATION child can now follow those certain operations can be done in
3. DIGITAL COMMUNICATION reverse.
4. HOME - SCHOOL CONTRACTS 3. CONSERVATION. This ability to know that certain properties of
OTHER WAYS TO INVOLVE PARENTS objects like number, mass, volume, or area do not change in
1. PARENT EDUCATION appearance. Because of the development of the child's ability
2. PARENT SUPPORT GROUPS of decentering and reversibility, child can now judge rightly.
CHILD DEVELOPMENT THEORIES 4. SERIATION. This refers to the ability to order or arrange things in
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY BY JEAN PIAGET a series based on one dimension such as weight, volume, or size.
• SCHEMA. Piaget used the term to refer the cognitive STAGE 4: FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE
structures by which individuals intellectually adapt to and BETWEEN 12 TO 15 YEARS OLD
organize their environment. It is the individual's way to In this final stage of formal operations, thinking becomes more
understand or create meaning about a thing or experience. logical. They can now solve abstract problems and can
• ASSIMILATION. This is the process of fitting a new experience hypothesize. This stage is characterized by the following:
into an existing or previously created cognitive structure or 1. HYPOTHETICAL REASONING. This is the ability to come up with
schema. different hypothesis about a problem to gather and weigh data
• ACCOMMODATION. This is the process of creating a new to make a final decision or judgement.
schema. 2. ANALOGICAL REASONING. This is the ability to perceive the
• DEQUILIBRATION. Achieving proper balance between relationship in one instance and then use that relationship to
assimilation and accommodation. When our experiences narrow down possible answers in another similar situation or
do not match, we experience COGNITIVE DISEQUILIBRIUM. problem.
STAGE 1: SENSORY-MOTOR STAGE 3. DEDUCTIVE RESONING. This ability is to think logically by
BIRTH TO INFANCY applying a general rule to a particular instance or situation.
This is the stage when a child who is initially reflexive in grasping, SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY BY LEV VYGOTSKY
sucking, and reaching becomes more organized in his • SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY
movement and activity. This focuses on the prominence of the - This theory believes that children learn actively through
senses and muscle movement through which the infant comes hands-on experiences. Vygotsky highlights the importance
to learn. of other people such as parents, caregivers, and peers in
- OBJECT PERMENANCE the development of children.
This is the ability of the child to know that an object still exists - Interaction with others allows learning to be integrated in
even without of sight. the child’s understanding of the world. Also included in the
STAGE 2: PRE-OPERATIONAL STAGE theory is the zone of proximal development, which is the
TWO TO SEVEN YEARS OLD (PRESCHOOL YEARS) portion between what one can do on his or her own and
Intelligence at this stage is intuitive in nature. In this stage, the with help.
child can now make mental representations and is able to SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY BY ALBERT BANDURA
pretend, the child is now ever closer to use of symbols. This stage • theory believes that learning takes place through
is highlighted by the following: observation and modeling. As a child observe the actions of
1. SYMBOLIC FUNCTION. This is the ability to represent objects the people in his or her environment, new information and
and events, new skills are developed.
2. EGOCENTRISM. This is the tendency of the child to only see his • Social Learning Theory
point of view and to assume that everyone also has his same Attention Retention
point of view. The child cannot take the perspective of others. - Stimuli Focus - Rehearse encode
3. CENTRATION. This refers to the tendency of the child to only Motor Reproduction Motivation
focus on one aspect of a thing or event and exclude other - Practice Feedback - Reward reinforce
aspects. PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY BY ERIK ERIKSON
4. IRREVERSABILITY. Pre-operational children still have the inability • Erikson's theory outlines 8 stages of psychosocial
to reverse their thinking. development from infancy to late adulthood. At each
5. ANIMISM. This is the tendency of children to attribute human stage, individuals face a conflict between two opposing
like traits or characteristics to inanimate objects. states that shapes personality. Successfully resolving the
6. TRANSDUCTIVE REASONING. Reasoning that is neither inductive conflicts leads to virtues like hope, will, purpose, and
nor deductive. Reasoning appears from particular to.
STAGE 3: CONCRETE- OPERATIONAL STAGE
BETWEEN 8 TO 11 YEARS OLD (ELEMENTARY SCHOOL)
This stage is characterized by the ability of the child to think
logically but only in terms of concrete objects. The concrete-
operational stage is marked by the following:
1. DECENTERING. This refers to the ability of the child to perceive
the different features of objects and situations. No longer is the
child focused or limited to one aspect or dimension. This allows
the child to be more logical when dealing with concrete objects
and situations.
 integrity. Failure leads to outcomes like mistrust, guilt, role MIDDLE CHILDHOOD (9 TO 11 YEARS)
confusion, and despair. - This is a stage that brings various changes in a child's life.
TYPICAL AND ATYPICAL DEVELOPMENT OF A CHILD Independence is a characteristic that children in this
• TYPICAL AND ATYPICAL DEVELOPMENT stage asserts. Developing friendships is another milestone
- The development of a child usually follows a predictable that is evident in this stage.
pattern. There are certain skills and abilities that are ADOLESCENCE (12 TO 18 YEARS)
absorbed to gauge a child's development and are called - This is a period where puberty begins. By the end of this
developmental milestone. Example, sitting, babbling, and stage, most will have completed puberty. The child is now
following directions However, each child is unique. With this, called a teen during this stage.
not all reach a milestone at the same time, thus the terms TYPES, CHARACTERISTICS, AND IDENTIFICATION OF GIFTED AND
typical and atypical development. TALENTED LEARNERS
- TYPICAL DEVELOPMENT - refers to the normal progression • DEFINITION OF GIFTEDNESS
where children grow by acquiring knowledge, skills, and - The terms "gifted" and "talented" covey different
behavior called milestones at a certain time frame meanings to different people. Nevertheless, it is
- ATYPICAL DEVELOPMENT - is a term used when considered acceptable to use the terms, such as when
development does not follow the normal course When a we say "gifted learners" or "talented learners" when
child is developing atypically when he/she reaches a pertaining to the same person (Davis, Rimm, and Siegle,
milestone earlier or later than other children his/her age. 2014).
- There is no clear way to identify is a child is developing - For uniformity, we will refer gifted and talented learners as
typically or atypically. However, there are three commonly "gifted learners" and we will refer to their characteristics as
accepted principles of child development that one should "giftedness"
investigate. • FIVE CATEGORIES OF GIFTEDNESS
- The principles are as follows: (DAVIS ET AL., 2014; STANKOWSKI, 1978)
1. Rate of development differs among children. 1. AFTER-THE-FACT DEFINITION.
2. Development occurs in a relatively orderly process. - Those who consistently perform outstandingly and
3. Development takes place gradually. achieve in a valuable are considered gifted and
DOMAINS OF DEVELOPMENT talented
• The developmental milestones are categorized into four 2. IQ DEFINITIONS.
domains namely, physical, social, and emotional, language, - Those who get scores above a certain cut-off point in
and cognitive. an intelligence test are considered gifted or talented.
➢ Physical domains refer to the development of physical Examples Binet-Simon test by Alfred Binet (Father of
changes such as size and strength. The development occurs Modern IQ Test) and Theodore Simon today is call
in both gross and fine motor skills. The development of the Stanford-Binet Test. Limitations of IQ Tests:
senses and their uses are also part of the physical domain a) It focuses on traditionally defined intelligence, and
which is influenced by illness and nutrition. ignores creative and artistic gifts
➢ A child's experience, expression, and management of b) It does not consider gifts in specific areas.
emotions along with the ability to establish positive c) It discriminates against disadvantaged students
relationships with others refer to the social-emotional d) Students who are just a few points below the cut-off
development. This includes both the intrapersonal and score are automatically not considered gifted.
interpersonal processes. 3. PERCENTAGE DEFINITIONS.
➢ Language domain refers to the processing of acquiring - Those who belong to fixed proportion that school districts
language in consistent order without the need for explicit sets are considered gifted or talented. Example, school
teaching from environment. districts considering the top 5%. Challenges, different
➢ Construction of thought process which includes school districts may set different standards.
remembering, problem solving, and decision making refers 4. TALENT DEFINITIONS.
to the cognitive domain. - Those who excel in specific aesthetics, arts and music, or
• STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT academic areas, science and math, area considered
- Stages, along with age are used as ranges to mark gifted or talented.
significant periods in a human development timeline. In 5. CREATIVITY DEFINITION.
each stage, growth and development occur in the four - Those who possess superior creative abilities are
domains. The stages are as follows: considered gifted or talented. However, whether creativity
A. Infancy (birth to 2 years) is an acceptable selection criterion for giftedness is still
B. Early Childhood (3 to 8 years) debatable.
C. Middle Childhood (9 to 11 years) IMPORTANCE OF RECOGNIZING GIFTED LEARNERS
D. Adolescence (12 to 18 years) a) When gifted learners’ needs are not met, the student
INFANCY (BIRTH TO 2 YEARS) might become demotivated to work, which could lead
- This is a critical stage in child development because to resistance or working in a sloppy and careless
growth is rapid. Manny believe that this stage is the most manner.
important stage in one's life since the changes that occur b) Frustrations may also arise as one may perceive regular
in infancy will affect later stages of development. class pace to be slow.
- This stage is also known as the building block for the c) Because of the high need to understand, one may ask
succeeding stages in the attainment of crucial d) embarrassing questions or questions why things need to
knowledge, skills, and behaviors. be done in a certain way.
 e) A student may become impatient and a tendency to between one's needs and the expectations of one's
become intolerant of one's own or other's imperfections. parents and teachers.
f) May act bossy, refuse to conform, and may rebel and TYPE 4: THE AT-RISK
not cooperative with others. - The giftedness needs of this learner have not been met,
g) A possibility of monopolizing class discussion. resulting to defensiveness and anger toward adults or
CHARACTERISTICS OF GIFTED LEARNERS oneself. This could lead to symptoms of depression and
• Intellectual Characteristics withdrawal as well as acting out. This learner usually
❖ Having reasoning ability. develops interests that are outside of the school's regular
❖ Being curios intellectually. curriculum and has a poor self-concept.
❖ Learning quickly. TYPE 5: TWICE EXCEPTIONAL
❖ Being able abstractions. - This learner possesses giftedness at the same time as being
❖ Having complex thought process. physically or emotionally challenged. Because of learning
❖ Having vivid imaginations abilities or poor verbal abilities, this learner is not typically
❖ Shows early moral concern identified as gifted. Since school programs usually do not
❖ Has passion for learning attend to his learner's needs, it could lead to one being
❖ Has the ability to concentrate. discouraged, frustrated, rejected, helpless, powerless, or
❖ Thinks analytically and creatively. isolated.
❖ Has keen sense of justice. TYPE 6: THE AUTONOMOUS LEARNER
❖ Has a capacity to reflect deeply - This learner adapts easily to the school system and can
• Non - Intellectual Characteristics create oneself new opportunities. This learner has positive
❖ May not always follow rules. self-concept and receives positive regard from adults and
❖ Tend to be domineering and argumentative. peers and is often put at leadership roles. This learner is
❖ Tends to tune-out and is excessively competitive. independent and self-directed, which is usually the end
❖ Be excited very easily. goal for all learners.
❖ May have a sharp sense of humor. PRINCIPLES AND STRATEGIES OF TEACHING AND DESIGNING IEP
❖ And usually has the tendency to become a collector. FOR GIFTED AND TALENTED LEARNERS
• Personality Wise • The Department of Education through DepEd Order no. 72, s.
❖ ls insightful. 2009, also known as the Inclusive Education as Strategy for
❖ Has a strong need to understand and to be stimulated Increasing Participation Rate of Children, organized a
mentally. comprehensive inclusive program for learners with
❖ Has a possibility towards perfectionism. disabilities, giftedness, and talents the following components:
❖ One may demand for explanations as to why thing works • CHILD FIND
that way due to high need for precision and logic. - It is about locating learners with disabilities, giftedness and
❖ May also entail having excellent sense of humor as well as talents who are not in school, through the family mapping
sensitivity to others. survey, advocacy campaigns and networking with local
❖ May also show intensity, perseverance, and have acute health workers, to be enrolled in SpEd centers or schools
self- awareness nearer to their home.
❖ May exhibit non-conformity, tendency to question • ASSESSMENT
rules/authority, and become an introvert. - This is a continuous process of identifying the strengths and
PROFILES OF GIFTED LEARNERS limitations of learners with disabilities, giftedness, and
• Betts and Neihart (2004; 2007) did a profiling of gifted, talents using formal and informal tools for level placement,
talented, and creative learners and were able to arrive at with the help of existing SpEd centers.
six types. • PROGRAM OPTIONS
TYPE 1: THE SUCCESSFUL - Schools, with or without trained SpEd teachers, shall make
- Most gifted and talented learners fall under this type. This education accessible to learners with disabilities, giftedness,
type of learner discovers that "sells" at home and at school. and talents. The program options are as follows:
This learner is a convergent thinker who learns easily and a) Self-contained class for learners with similar disabilities
excels in exams, one who is eager to gain the approval of or conditions.
parents and teachers, and to be liked by peers. This learner b) Inclusion or placement of learners in general education
also possesses positive self-concept but is unaware of or regular class
deficiencies. c) Resource room
TYPE 2: THE CREATIVE • CURRICULUM MODIFICATIONS
- This learner is divergently gifted. However, it can be - This means adaptations and accommodation in classroom
challenging when this learner's needs are not met. There is instructions and activities, and delivery options.
a tendency for one to go unidentified, question authority, • PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT
and be nonconforming. Due to the little recognition this - This is involving parents or guardians in observing the child's
type of learner receives, one usually experiences self- performance, volunteering aide in the classroom, and
esteem issues and is at high risk for eventual drop out from serving academic, moral, and spiritual support to their
school. child.
TYPE 3: THE UNDERGROUND • PROGRAM OPTIONS
- Due to social pressure, this learner may hide giftedness to - There are many types of programs and services designed
fit in with non-gifted friends. This could lead to a sudden to fit in the education needs of those gifted and talented
decline in grades, and this learner may experience conflict
 learners. According to Davis, Rimm, and Siegle (2014) this to 20 regular students. This grouping is handled by a trained
includes several ways: professional teacher and could be divided further in
1. A teacher providing additional instructional materials to individual groups.
teach those who finish lesson's tasks easily. - Enrichment activities are used in this kind of grouping
2. Enriching the curriculum by teacher supplying extra time which include in-depth lessons on content on
for bright students to work at resource centers or interest- metacognitive skills, collaboration, and independent
based projects. learning activities which include research presentation or
3. Part-time acceleration to a higher grade for one or two mastery of advanced skills in math, music, and others.
subjects. 2.1 FULL-TIME HETEROGENOUS GROUPING CLUSTER GROUPS
4. Full-time acceleration or grade-skipping. - Cluster grouping refers to placing five to ten high ability
5. Cluster grouping of all gifted learners at each grade students in one regular class per grade, along with ither 15
level in a single classroom for special services. to 20 regular students. This grouping is handled by a trained
6. Implementing school-wide plans to accommodate professional teacher and could be divided further in
every gifted learner in every regular classroom. individual groups.
7. Implementing pullout programs - Enrichment activities are used in this kind of grouping
8. Conducting part-time special gifted classes. which include in-depth lessons on content on
9. Assigning full-time special gifted classes at every grade metacognitive skills, collaboration, and independent
level. learning activities which include research presentation or
10. Opening special schools for the gifted mastery of advanced skills in math, music, and others.
• ACCELERATION 2.2 FULL-TIME HETEROGENOUS GROUPING HETEROGENOUS
- It the advance placement of learners from a current level CLASSES
to higher level. - These classes combine prescribed and differentiated
• ENRICHMENT curriculum for the benefit of both regular and gifted
- Learners are taught of topic's depth and intensity of students. Kaplan (2001) through paralleling and clustering.
content that go beyond their prescribed grade-level - PARALLELING. Covering both prescribed and differentiated
curriculum, without providing them advance placement. curriculum in tandem.
- Reis, Westberg, Kulikovich, and Purcell (1998) underscored - CLUSTERING. Is using core concepts and skills of the
four principle of enrichment teaching and learning: prescribed curriculum as the centerpiece, while
a) Each student is different. differentiated skills and concepts reinforce the core.
b) Learning is more effective when students enjoy what they 3. PART-TIME AND TEMPORARY GROUPING PULLOUT
do. PROGRAMS
c) Learning is more meaningful when students learn content - In this setup, learners are pulled out of their regular
and while solving a real problem. mainstreamed classes once or twice a week to spend two
d) Whereas some formal instruction is necessary, a major to three hours per session in special enrichment activities
goal is promoting knowledge and thinking skills via the guided by a teacher of gifted and talented education.
application of what students have learned; they - The session usually takes place in a resource room or center
construct their own meaningfulness. where supplementary materials are provided. Through the
Both acceleration and enrichment strategies require grouping pullout activities, gifted and talented learners acquire
gifted and talented learners. Three grouping options provided to knowledge and skills apart from the regular curriculum
these learners are: which helps them strengthen their creativity, metacognitive
1. FULL-TIME HOMOGENOUS GROUPING SPECIAL SCHOOLS skills, communication, and other personal areas of
FOR THE GIFTED development.
- These schools cater to elementary or secondary gifted 3.1 PART-TIME AND TEMPORARY GROUPING PART-TIME SPECIAL
learners with a curriculum that include both prescribed CLASSES
academic content that is based on DepEd guidelines and - This school-within-a-school concept can also be offered in
requirements, with a special enriched and accelerated part-time basis. In this option, gifted and talented learners
training in academic, scientific, artistic, and other areas of enjoy 50% to 70% of prescribed curriculum in the regular
development the school opted to highlight, classes and attend differentiated curriculum in special
- An example of this school is the Philippine High School for classes.
the Arts that implements a general secondary level - Part-time special classes include independent projects and
program, combined with special curriculum for the arts. research, accelerated subjects, and small group
1.1 FULL-TIME HOMOGENOUS GROUPING SPECIAL CLASSES collaboration that aim to heighten creativity and higher-
- These are school-within-a-school concept here gifted level thinking skills.
children of the same level attend a class together in a full- 3.2 PART-TIME AND TEMPORARY GROUPING ENRICHMENT
time basis. In the public school system, under DepEd, CLUSTERS
special classes usually occur at the elementary level, - This kind of grouping works for different level learners with
jumping from grade three to five, where their curriculum common interests such as journalism, literature, engineering,
covers prescribed grade level objectives and extending baking, and others.
beyond them with variety of enrichment, personal - These group of learners meet with experts in the interest
development, and advanced classes. area at designated times for 6-12 weeks. The topic of
2. FULL-TIME HETEROGENOUS GROUPING CLUSTER GROUPS interest is explained in depth.
- Cluster grouping refers to placing five to ten high ability 3.3 PART-TIME AND TEMPORARY GROUPING SPECIAL INTEREST
students in one regular class per grade, along with ither 15 GROUPS AND CLUBS
- This type of grouping is more common among secondary - This strategy involves the process of creating the best
students where enrichment activities in different clubs exist, possible lesson and making it fit based on the learners' levels
such as drama, chess, math, religious, and others. of readiness. The levels could be divided into three or five,
• CURRICULUM MODIFICATIONS paralleled with corresponding tasks or with a partner and
- Differentiation strategies is a least intrusive intervention that present their own works reflecting the best practices in the
helps gifted and talented learners the best environment for content are.
their high abilities and achievement.
• DIFFERENTIATION
- It is an effective teaching strategy for inclusive special
education, which involves giving all learners in the regular
classroom choices based in how best they could achieve
their greatest potentials, not creating a separate level for
each student.
- Tomlinson & Jarvis (2009) emphasized that differentiation is
being proactive in planning curriculum and instruction that
fit students' learning profiles, interests, and learning levels.
- "it is a process of creating multiple, 'differentiated' learning
ENRICHMENT STRATEGIES
opportunities within a high-quality curriculum, to maximize
• Library and Internet Research Projects
the probability that all students will become engage in
• Scientific and Research Projects
learning, experience efficiency of learning, and experience
• Art, Drama, Creative Writing, and Other Independent Projects
cognitive growth"
• Mentorships
- Ann Lewis (1992) identified 11 forms of differentiation, which
• Peer Tutoring
teachers may use in order to support learning.
• Questioning
1. DIFFERENTIATION OF CONTENT
• This involves the design of different curriculum materials and TRENDS AND ISSUES IN TEACHING GIFTED AND TALENTED LEARNERS
resources. - The gifted learners with learning disabilities are individuals
2. DIFFERENTIATION BY INTEREST with exceptional potentials who have capabilities of
• This is said to be particularly important for poorly motivated performing high ability skills even with the presence of
learners. impairments and/or disabilities.
3. DIFFERENTIATION OF PACE - These conditions are not limited to learning disabilities,
• This means (1) allowing some student more time to complete emotional and behavioral disorders, hearing impairments,
core work; (2) providing for extension activities for others; (3) visual impairments, physical disabilities are often called
sometimes involving teaching certain groups at a very brick twice exceptional, double labeled, or those with dual
pace to accelerate the learning rate of low learners. exceptionalities.
4. DIFFERENTIATION OF ACCESS • GIFTED WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES
• This means allowing learners different pathways (materials or - The prevalence of twice exceptional learners is difficult to
methods) into specific topic. identify, mainly because they are usually clustered with
5. DIFFERENTIATION OF OUTCOME groups of learners with disabilities.
• This involves allowing students to present their responses in - Current research suggests that intellectually gifted learners
different ways. often have learning disabilities, which is often hard to
6. DIFFERENTIATION OF CURRICULAR SEQUENCE recognize. The most common and significant feature of GLD
• This involves changing the order in which sub-topics are is having an inconsistent, unpredictable, and inexplicable
presented. academic performance.
7. DIFFERENTIATION OF STRUCTURE • GIFTED WITH AUTISM
• All learners work on the same topic, but the teacher provides - Another unique intersection happens between giftedness
step- by-step coverage for some learners while others progress and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurological and
more independently. developmental disorder that affects how people interact
8. DIFFERENTIATION OF TEACHER TIME with others, communicate, learn, and behave.
• The teacher will devote more (or less) attention to individual - Some characteristics of these learners include extreme
learners during the lesson and in follow-ups. ability to concentrate, poor social skills, and extraordinary
9. DIFFERENTIATION OF TEACHING STYLE visual talents. Some learners with this condition exhibit
• This involves varying the way in which topics are presented. repetitive motor mannerisms, have an unusual but
10. DIFFERENTIATION OF LEVEL passionate interest on the topic and often lack empathy for
• All learners study the same topic, but the teacher sets different other and may tend to disengage in social activities.
degrees of complexity in what students are asked to do. • GIFTED WITH ADHD
11. DIFFERENTIATION OF GROUPING - Attention Deficit-Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Impulsive-
• This involves using one's knowledge of learner characteristics Hyperactive, and Inattentive types, are the new catch-all
• DIFFERENTIATION TIERED INSTRUCTION diagnoses for children, gifted or otherwise (Rimm, 2008).
- Tiering is an example of instructional strategy. As - Learners with this condition are characterized by difficulty
differentiation starts with assessment of learner skills, learners with concentration, distractibility, impulsivity, and
will then be identified based on how advanced their skills hyperactive. Learners with this condition tend to be
are. disorganized and forgetful.
- Rimm (2008) claims that giftedness may mask ADHD, and
ADHD may mask giftedness.
- Likewise, Flint (2001) gave two important things: (1) that lessened. Vision is also important in telling the distance of
double exceptionality of giftedness and ADHD is common, objects and direction of movement.
and (2) that giftedness does not provide protection from the - SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT AND INTERACTION. Children with visual
difficult symptoms of ADHD. impairment may engage in less play, which could affect
- Just like typical learners with ADHD, they lag two to three their social skills development. Among adolescents, having
years behind their age peers in social and emotional visual impairment may increase social isolation, and more
maturity. effort on the part of individual with visual impairment is
• The combination of giftedness and disability can deliver a needed to be able to make and keep friendships. Their
double disadvantage that can make learners hide their condition also keeps them from benefitting from role models
giftedness, or become unable to know their talents, causing due to their inability to observe them. Due to their lack of
them not to be identified for gifted programs. Moon (2004) vision, it is also difficult for them to see and respond to social
claimed that their high intellectual abilities might mask their signals of others, which reduces opportunities for reciprocal
disabilities, causing them to be overlooks for special interaction.
education programs. In the case of gifted learners with • TYPES AND CAUSES OF VISUAL IMPAIRMENT
learning disabilities, Robinson (2009) argued that students - AMBYOPIA
are doubly at risk because the characteristics of the two ➢ DEFINITION AND CAUSE
categories influence one another, talents must be nurtured o Reduction in or loss of vision in the weaker eye from
and learning strategies must be taught. lack of use, by strabismus, unequal refractive errors, or
TYPES, CHARACTERISTICS, AND IDENTIFICATION OF LEARNERS WITH opacity of the lens or cornea
DIFFICULTY SEEING, HEARING, AND COMMUNICATING ➢ REMARKS AND IMPLICATIONS
• LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY SEEING o Close work may result in eye fatigue, loss of place, or
- There are number of terms that are often used in association poor concentration, seating should favor the functional
with having difficulty seeing Here are the legal definition on eye.
some (Heward, 2017)
• VISUAL ACUITY. Refers to the ability to distinguish forms or
discriminate among details It usually measured by reading
letters, numbers, or other symbols from the Snellen Eye Chart.
When one is said to have a vision of 20/20, this means that
at 20 feet, one can also be considered legally blind.
• LEGAL BLINDNESS. Refers to having a visual acuity of 20/200
or less in the better eye with the use of corrective lens When
one's field of vision is restricted to an area no greater than - ASTIGMATISM
20 degrees, one can also be considered legally blind. ➢ DEFINITION AND CAUSE
• The following are educational definition of terms related to o Distorted or blurred vision caused by irregularities in the
having difficulty seeing. cornea or other surfaces of the eye that produce
- When someone has visual impairment, from the educational images on retina not in equal focus.
perspective, that means having impairment in vision that, ➢ REMARKS AND IMPLICATIONS
even with correction, adversely affects a learner's o Loss of accommodation when objects are brought
educational performance. This includes both partial sight close to the face; avoid long periods of reading or
and blindness. close tasks that cause discomfort; child may complain
o Total blindness refers to receiving no useful information of headaches and fluctuation vision.
through the sense of vision. In this case, a learner uses
tactile and auditory senses for all learning.
o Functional blindness means having so little vision that
one learns primarily through tactile and auditory senses.
However, limited vision may still be used to supplement
the information one receives from the other senses
(Heward, 2017)
• CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY SEEING
- The following are the characteristics of learners with
difficulty seeing (Heward, 2017).
- COGNITION AND LANGUAGE. Learners with difficulty seeing
usually perform more poorly compared to those with normal
vision in terms of cognitive tasks that require comprehension - CORTICAL VISUAL IMPAIRMENT (CVI)
or relating various kinds of information. Because of their poor ➢ DEFINITION AND CAUSE
vision, it is more difficult for them to see and understand the o Impaired vision caused by damage to or malfunction
relationships among various experiences. of the visual cortex or optic nerve (or both), causes
- MOTOR DEVELOPMENT AND MOBILITY. Blindness may result to include anoxia, head injury, and infections of the
delays and deficits in motor development for instance, with central nervous system, many children with CVI have
babies, purposeful movements involved reading for objects additional disabilities. such as cerebral palsy, seizure
that they could see Without adequate vision, the motivation disorders, or intellectual disability.
of babies to perform these purposeful movements may be ➢ REMARKS AND IMPLICATIONS
 o Visual functioning may fluctuate depending on lighting
conditions and attention, vision usually does not
deteriorate, improvement sometimes occur over a
period, some children with CVI use their peripheral
vision, some are photophobic, some are attracted to
bright light, may fail to blink at threatening motions,
visual images should be simple and presented singly.
- HYPEROPIA (FARSIGHTEDNESS)
➢ DEFINITION AND CAUSE
o Difficulty seeing near objects clearly but able to focus
on distant objects, caused by a shorter that normal eye
- STRABISMUS
that prevents light rays converging on the retina
➢ DEFINITION AND CAUSE
(refractive error)
o Inability to focus on the same object with both eyes
➢ REMARKS AND IMPLICATIONS
because of an inward or outward deviation of one or
o Loss of accommodation when objects are brought
both eyes; caused by muscle imbalance, secondary to
close to the face; avoid long periods of reading or
other visual impairments.
close tasks that cause discomfort.
➢ REMARKS AND IMPLICATIONS
- MYOPIA (NEARSIGHTEDNESS)
o Classroom seating should favor students’ stronger eye,
➢ DEFINITION AND CAUSE
some students may use one eye for distance tasks,
o Distant objects are blurred or not seen at all but near
frequent rest periods may be needed during close work;
objects are seem clearly, caused by an elongated eve
may need more time to adjust to unfamiliar visual tasks.
that focuses images in front of the retina refractive
femur)
➢ REMARKS AND IMPLICATIONS
o Encourage the child to wear prescribed glasses or
contact lens, for near tasks, child may be more
comfortable working without glasses and bringing work
close to face.

• LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY COMMUNICATING

- Communication refers to all aspects which make up
exchange in meaning, including speech, language, voice,
fluency, and nonverbal and pragmatic communication
- MUSCULAR DEGENERATION behaviors. It is the interactive exchange of information,
➢ DEFINITION AND CAUSE ideas, feelings, needs, and desires.
o Central area of the retina gradually deteriorates, • The elements of communication are message, sender, and
causing loss of clear vision in the center of the visual receiver.
field, common in older adults but rare in children ➢ LANGUAGE is a formalized code used by a group of
➢ REMARKS AND IMPLICATIONS people to communicate with one another. Dimensions
o Task such as reading and writing are difficult, of language:
prescribed low vision aid or closed-circuit TV, provide a) Phonology or the linguistic rules governing a
good illumination, avoid glare. language's sound system. The rules of speech
- NYSTAGMUS sounds.
➢ DEFINITION AND CAUSE b) Morphology or the language's basic units of
o Rapid involuntary back-and-forth movement of the meaning and how these units are combined into
eyes which makes it difficult to focus on objects, when words. The rules of word structure.
the two eyes cannot focus simultaneously the brain c) Syntax or the system or rules that govern the
avoids a double image by suppressing the visual input meaningful arrangement of words. The rules of
from one eye the weaker eye con lose its ability to see sentence structure.
con occur on its own but associated with other visual d) Semantics or the meaning of words and
impairments. combination of words. The rules relating to the
➢ REMARKS AND IMPLICATIONS meaning of language; the actual meaning behind
o Close tasks for extended period can lead fatigue, some each word within a sentence within a message.
children turn or tilt head to obtain the best focus, do e) Pragmatics or the social use of language. The rules
not criticize this. of language that occur within social situations.
• COMMUNICATION DISORDER refers to impairment in the
ability to receive, send, process, and comprehend
concepts or verbal, non-verbal, and graphic symbol systems.
• SPEECH OR LANGUAGE IMPAIRMENT refers to - AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER or ASD refers to persistent
communication disorder, including stuttering, impaired deficits in social communication and social interaction
articulation, language impairment or voice impairment. across various contexts. Those with ASD also have restricted,
• LANGUAGE DISORDER refers to impaired comprehension repetitive patterns of behavior, interest, or activities.
and/or use of spoken, written, and/or another symbol. This ▪ Stereotype or repetitive behavior.
could involve the form of language; the content of ▪ hyper-or hypo-reactivity
language; and/or function of language in communication. DOMAIN: SOCIAL COMMUNICATION IMPAIRMENTS
• SPEECH IMPAIRMENT includes articulation disorders (errors in - Social Difficulties Include
speech sound production), fluency disorders (difficulties with o Demonstrating appropriate play skills
the flow of rhythm), and voice disorders (problem with the o Some may reject or ignore the social approaches of
quality or use of one's voice) others
• DYSARTHIA refers to the lack of ability to execute o Responding to and initiating joint attention for social
movements involved in speech, which is a motor planning purposes
disorder. Dysarthria occurs when a patient's muscles do not o Using and interpreting body language
coordinate together to produce speech. o Staying on topic, turn-taking, asking related or
• APRAXIA is a neurologic disorder that makes it difficult for appropriate questions during conversations
people to perform certain movements and gestures. People o Taking other people's perspective
who live with apraxia have difficulty putting words together DOMAIN: IMPAIRMENTS SPEECH/LANGUAGE
in the correct order or 'reaching' for the correct word while - For those who are nonverbal
speaking. Some examples of apraxia include: o Delay in, or lack of, spoken speech language
▪ Motor apraxia: Difficulty performing everyday tasks like o Lack of an effective way to communicate
making a hot drink - For those who are verbal
▪ Oral apraxia: Excessive drooling, teeth grinding, tongue o Delayed or immediate echolalia
protrusion, and swallowing food without chewing o Stereotyped or repetitive use of non-echolalic language
▪ Constructional apraxia: Difficulty drawing or copying routines
simple diagrams o Use of idiosyncratic speech
▪ Ideomotor apraxia: Inability to perform common motor o Immature grammatical structure
tasks o Abnormal use of pitch, intonation, rhythm or stress
• DELAYED LANGUAGE pertains to the language of a child - For both verbal and nonverbal
who is slow to develop language skills, in the context of o Delayed vocabulary development
typical development of motor and other cognitive skills. o Difficulty following directions
• CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY o Difficulty interpreting language social
COMMUNICATING DOMAIN: RESTRICTED REPETITIVE AND STEREOTYPED PATTERNS OF
- SPEECH SOUND ERRORS. This includes the following: BEHAVIOR, INTERESTS, AND ACTIVITIES
✓ Distortions. When someone produces speech sounds in o Stereotyped or repetitive motor movements such as hand
an imprecise or unclear way. flapping or finger licking
✓ Substitutions. When one sound is used as substitute for o Excessive adherences to routines and sameness
another. o Ritualized patterns of behavior
✓ Omissions. When certain sounds are omitted. o Highly restricted, fixated interests that are abnormal in
✓ Additions. When extra sounds are added. intensity or focus.
- ARTICULATION DISORDER. Inability to correctly produce DOMAIN: SENSORY DIFFERENCES
speech sounds (phonemes) because of imprecise o Visual Input Sensitivities - Staring at spinning objects,
placement, timing, pressure, speed, or flow of movement of being bothered by fluorescent lights.
the lips, tongue, or throat. o Auditory input sensitivities - covering ears during loud
- PHONOLOGICAL DISORDER. When one can produce a given noises, preferring laud music or none
sound but does so inconsistently. o Tactile input sensitivities - disliking getting hands and feet
- STUTTERING. When there is rapid-fire repetitions of messy, avoiding/preferring certain surfaces, textures, or
consonants or vowel sounds. fabrics.
- CLUTTERING. When there is excessive speech rate, o Taste/smell sensitivities - not eating certain foods, licking,
repetitions, extra sounds, mispronounced sounds, and poor or tasting non-food items.
and absent use of pauses. DOMAIN: COMMON LEARNING CHARACTERISTICS
- VOICE DISORDERS. Affect the ability to speak normally. o Demonstrate exceptional rote memory skills
These disorders can include laryngitis, paralyzed vocal cords, o Being better able to process information when presented
and a nerve problem that causes the vocal cords to spasm. visually
➢ Phonation disorder. Voice sounds breathy, hoarse, and o Difficulty with unstructured time or extensive waiting
husky or strained. o Difficulty generalizing learned skill from one setting to
➢ Resonance disorder. Sounds come through the air another
passages of the nose, or not enough resonance of nasal o Difficulty with organization of materials and activities.
passage. o Highly achieving in some specific areas and doing poorly
• LEARNERS WITH AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER in the rest.
- Autism is a developmental disability that affects one's verbal - CAUSES OF AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER
and nonverbal communication and social interaction. This is
usually evident before a child turns 3.
 ➢ The following are the risk factors for autism spectrum background sound for the learners to stay focused only to
disorder (ASD) according to American Psychiatric the speaker.
Association (2013). LEARNERS WITH COMMUNICATION DISORDERS
❖ Environmental risk factors include parental age, • DICRIMINATION ACTIVITIES - These activities are developed
low birth weights, or fetal exposure to substances to help learners produce and discriminate between similar
such as valproate. sounds. (Bin-pin, cheap-jeep, cheese-she's)
❖ Genetic and Physiological - ASD is heritable to • VOCABULARY BUILDING - Specialists as well as classroom
some extent and having a family member with teachers use variety of techniques in building learners'
ASD increased the risk of developing it. However, vocabulary. Among these include development of graphic
there are no clear medical or physiological organizes, mnemonics, repetition, word walls, vocabulary
markers of autism. Most of the cases are idiopathic, journals, and using context clues.
that is, case is unknown. LEARNERS WITH AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER (ASD)
PRINCIPLES AND STRATEGIES OF TEACHING AND DESIGNING IEP • APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS (ABA) - ABA is a therapy
FOR LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY SEEING, HEARING, AND based on the science of learning and behavior with the
COMMUNICATING goal of increasing positive behaviors, through positive
reinforcements, and decreasing harmful ones that
EDUCATIONAL APPROACHES: LEARNERS WITH BLINDNESS negatively affect learning.
• BRAILLE - is a tactile reading and writing system and is the • PICTURE EXCHANGE COMMUNICATION SYSTEM - The PECS
primary means of literacy for learners who are blind. It aims to help learners to request things or activities form
consists of letters, numbers, punctuation marks, and other others with the use of pictures. Learners exchange picture or
systems arranged is raised dots. a symbol representing an item or activity.
• BRAILLE TECHNOLOGICAL AIDS - These are materials that LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY WALKING AND MOVING (TYPES,
develop Braille system made readily available to those CHARACTERISTICS, AND IDENTIFICATION OF LEARNERS WITH
learners with blindness an example is Braille Note that uses DIFFICULTY WALKING AND MOVING)
Perkins-style keyboard, which can translate braille into
synthesized speech or print. TYPES AND CAUSES OF HEALTH IMPAIRMENTS, PHYSICAL
• TACTILE AIDS AND MANIPULATIVES DISABILITIES, AND NEUROLOGICAL CONDITIONS
- These are materials used to describe objects and the world • EPILEPSY
around us. - Epilepsy or seizure disorder that occurs when abnormal
- Experience book is based on the learner's experience such electrical discharges in the brain cause a disturbance
as attending birthday parties and field trips. of movement, sensation, behavior, or consciousness.
- Object book is a book containing real objects taken from There are many possible causes for epilepsy. These
the learner's activities where some materials are pasted on include:
each page of the book. o Cerebral palsy; infections of the brain and central
- Routine book is an organizer of learner's classroom nervous system; metabolic disorders; lesion due to
activities where step- by-step procedure is done. scar tissue from head injury; high fever; interruption
- Theme book is a book that focuses on an area and is used in blood supply in the brain; shaken-baby
to supplementary instruction on topics. syndrome Among the conditions that can trigger
LEARNERS WITH LOW VISION seizures are fatigue, extreme emotion,
• OPTICAL AIDS - These are the most famous aids used by hyperventilation, hormonal change.
learners with low vision where professionals such as
ophthalmologists and optometrists assess, treat and
recommend these aids based on the visual needs. Some
optical aids include glasses, contact lenses, handheld
telescopes, and magnifiers.
• LARGE PRINT MATERIALS - Books, handouts, mast especially
visual aids posted on the board should be readable by all
learners in the classroom. Large print materials are printed or
handwritten with bigger font size, legible font style, with
wider spacing.
• CLASSROOM ADAPTATIONS - Classroom lighting is important
for learners with low vision. Photocopied handouts and
worksheets can also be difficult for them, so it is better to
give them original copies. It is also recommended that • ASTHMA
learners are given freedom in choosing their seats in class. - Asthma is a chronic lung disease. Its symptoms include
LEARNERS WITH HEARING IMPAIRMENT wheezing, coughing, and difficulty breathing.
• HEARING AIDS - This device was developed to improve - An asthma attack is usually caused by allergens, irritants,
hearing of those people with difficulty hearing. Its volume exercise, or emotional stress. During asthma attack, the
and tone could be adjusted to fit in the needs of its user airways in the lungs narrow, and the resistance in the
and can be worn in either one or both ears. airflow in and out of lungs increases.
• ASSISTIVE LEARNING SYSTEM (ALS) - ALS work as amplifiers • CEREBRAL PALSY
directly connected through a radio link from the teacher to - Cerebral palsy is a disorder of movement and posture. It is
the learners. It reduces the unnecessary noise or a disorder that affects a person's ability to move and
 maintain balance and posture. It is a permanent condition - muscular dystrophy is a group of diseases that cause
that results from having a lesion in the brain or abnormality progressive weakness and loss of muscle mass. In muscular
in brain growth. CP affects the cerebral motor cortex. This is dystrophy, abnormal genes (mutations) interfere with the
the part of the brain that directs muscle movement. production of proteins needed to form healthy muscle. MD
- Among symptoms of cerebral palsy are disturbances in is caused by gene mutations that affect muscle proteins.
voluntary motor functions such as paralysis, extreme These mutations are usually inherited, but can also occur
weakness, and lack of coordination involuntary convulsions. spontaneously. There are many types of MD, each
- Triplegia – three limbs are affected affecting specific muscle groups. Signs and symptoms
- Paraplegia – only legs are affected include:
- Double hemiplegia – primarily involves the arms, with less o Weakness in the head, neck, and face
severity of the legs o A long, thin face with hollow temples
o Drooping eyelids
o Frontal balding in men
o Duchenne MD, one of the most common and severe
forms, usually affects boys in early childhood

CHARACTERITICS OF LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY WALKING AND

MOVING
❑Student has unique needs in terms of physical space or has
difficulty using chairs/tables in the classroom or lab.
❑Student needs specialized transportation.
❑Student often physically unable to hold a pen and write for
• SPINA BIFIDA extended periods of time or may experience challenges with
- Spina bifida is a neural tube defect (NTD) that affects the input, output, and information processing.
spine. It occurs when a baby's spine and spinal cord don't ❑Student experiences fatigue and limited mobility when
develop properly in the womb. This causes a gap in the speaking to a person for a long period of time.
spine. Thus, a portion of the spinal cord and nerve ❑Student requires extra time to obtain formats compatible with
controlling muscles and feeling in the lower part of the assistive technology.
body fails to develop normally. Spina bifida is usually ❑Student experiences challenges with daily living activities and
apparent at birth. People with spina bifida may have mobility.
different ways ofgetting around, including: IDENTIFYING LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY WALKING AND MOVING
✓ Walking without assistance • EPILEPSY is usually tested using electroencephalogram
✓ Walking with braces, crutches, or walkers (EGG). A test that measures electrical activity in the brain.
✓ Using wheelchairs • ASTHMA. An Asthma and Allergies Symptom test was made
✓ People with spina bifida higher on the spine may have available.
paralyzed legs. • CEREBRAL PALSY. Early diagnoses like tracking child growth,
- One of the most important factors that can increase the developmental screening.
chances of having a child with spina bifida is not having • SPINA BIFIDA can be diagnosed prenatally using blood tests,
enough folic acid during pregnancy. Folic acid, also ultrasound, and amniocentesis. Or postnatally, ultrasound
known as vitamin B9, occurs naturally in some foods, such and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
as: Broccoli, Peas, Brown rice. • MUSCULAR DYSTHROPHY. Enzyme tests, electromyography,
genetic testing, muscle biopsy.
PRINCIPLES AND STRATEGIES OF TEACHING AND DESIGNING IEP
FOR LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY WALKING AND MOVING
• HEALTH PROFESSIONALS
- PHYSICAL THERAPISTS (PTs). These are licensed professional
that use treatment techniques to help promote mobility,
reduce pain, restore function, and prevent further
disabilities of learners with difficulty walking and moving.
PTs motivates learners to be independent as possible and
suggest sitting positions and classroom activities, exercises,
• MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY or programs that both learners with and without disability
can do.
 - OCCUPATIONAL THERAPISTS (OTs). These professionals • BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS. Incidences of behavior problems
determine the learners’ goals in life and help them perform among those with learning disability are higher than usual.
daily activities such as self-help, employment, recreation, Upon adolescence, those with learning disabilities are more
communication, aspects of daily living to reach their goals. likely to show risk taking behaviors such as smoking,
OTs guide learners develop their motor skills through marijuana use, delinquency, aggressiveness, and gambling.
activities such as baking and typing on computer • LOW SELF-ESTEEM OR SELF-EFFICACY. Learners with learning
keyboards. disability are more likely to have low self-efficacy, mood
• ENVIRONMENTAL MODIFICATIONS effort, and hope than their peers.
- Aside from creating barrier-free building, the following are APA (2013) uses the following specifiers in the diagnosis of
ways to make schools accessible to learners with physical learning disorders.
disabilities. • With impairment in reading (dyslexia) – word reading
✓ Have classrooms located in more accessible building accuracy; reading rate or fluency; reading comprehension.
levels • With impairment in written expression (dysgraphia) – spelling
✓ Relocate activities to more spacious areas. accuracy; grammar and punctuation accuracy; clarity or
✓ In grouping activities, let the abled learners move to the organization or written expression.
location of the learner with physical disabilities and make • With impairment in mathematics (dyscalculia) – number
sure that they have enough space to collaborate. sense; memorization or arithmetic facts; accurate or fluent
✓ Adjust desks, chairs, and tables appropriate to the height calculations; accurate math reasoning.
of learners that use wheelchairs. POSSIBLE CAUSES OF LEARNING DISABILITIES
✓ Provide adequate floor space for learners that use • HEREDITY – Learning disabilities often run in the family. It is
wheelchairs. not uncommon for one with learning disabilities to have
• ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGIES parents or other relatives with the same conditions.
- MOBILITY varies with each person. Some can access their • PROBLEMS DURING PREGNANCY AND BIRTH – Learning
devices easily while others cannot. disabilities could be due to illness or injury before birth. Also,
✓ Mouth stick. This is a device manipulated with mouth that it could be caused by low birthweight, lack of oxygen, drug,
allows users to control input. and alcohol use during pregnancy, and premature or
✓ Head wand. This device is like mouth stick, except that the prolonged labor.
head manipulates it. • INCIDENTS AFTER BIRTH – it could also be due to head injuries,
✓ Other mobility aids include scooters, walkers, canes, nutritional deprivation, and exposure to toxic substances
crutches, and orthotic devices. such as lead.
- COMMUNICATION. These are aids used to communicate • ATTENTION-DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER (ADHD) is
either in person or online. defined as a persistent patter on inattention and/or
✓ Speech recognition software. This is a software that hyperactivity-impulsivity that interferes with functioning or
creates text and navigates online by voice commands, development (APA, 2013). Its main symptoms include
usually by learners with limited mobility. inattention and hyperactivity and impulsivity.
✓ Speech generating device. This is a stand-alone device or o INATTENTION manifests in not attending to details;
software that is installed in tablets or phones, where users difficulty keeping one’s attention to tasks or activities;
who are not able to speak on their own can not listening; not following through instructions; disliking
communicate with others. of tasks requiring sustained mental effort, frequent
LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY REMEMBERING AND FOCUSING (TYPES, losing of things, being easily distracted or being
CHARACTERISTICS, AND IDENTIFICATION OF LEARNERS WITH forgetful.
DIFFICULTY REMEMBERING AND FOCUSING) o HYPERACTIVITY AND IMPULSIVITY could cause one to
fidget and become restless. Children who have these
CHARACTERISTICS AND TYPES OF LEARNING DISABILITIES symptoms may climb on furniture and become too
• READING PROBLEM (DYSLEXIA). Learners have difficulties loud or noisy.
with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNERS WITH ADHD
spelling and decoding abilities. • INATTENTION
• WRITTEN LANGUAGE DEFICIT. Learners’ ability in terms of - Having trouble staying focused; easily gets distracted or
mechanics of writing (spelling, punctuating) is way below gets bored with a task before it is completed.
what is expected of their age. They also have problem - Appearing to not listen when spoken to.
communicating their ideas through writing. - Having difficulty remembering things and following
o DYSGRAPHIA. A neurological disorder that affects a instructions; not paying attention to details or making
person's ability to write. It can impact handwriting, careless mistakes.
typing, and spelling. Dysgraphia can make writing slow - Having trouble staying organized, planning, and finishing
and difficult, and the writing may be hard to read. projects.
• POOR SOCIAL SKILLS. They are prone to interpersonal - Frequently losing or misplacing homework, books, toys, or
problem, which often lead to rejection, low social status, other times.
unpleasant interaction with teachers, difficulty making • HYPERACTIVE
friends, and loneliness. - Constant fidgeting or squirming.
• ATTENTION DEFICIT AND HYPERACTIVITY. They have difficulty - Having difficulty sitting still, playing quietly, or relaxing.
paying attention to a particular task or become overly - Moving around constantly, often running or climbing
active. It is possible that a learner who exhibits this may inappropriately.
have attention deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD). - Talking excessively
 - Having a quick temper or “short fuse” - Most common inherited cause of intellectual disability and
• IMPULSIVITY most common clinical type of intellectual disability after
- Acting without thinking down syndrome
- Guessing rather than taking time to solve a problem or
blurting out answers in class without waiting to be called
on or hearing the whole question.
- Intruding other people’s conversations or games.
- Often interrupting others; saying the wrong thing at the
wrong time.
- Inability keeping powerful emotions in check, resulting in
angry outburst or temper tantrums.
LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY WITH SELF-CARE (PRENATAL
CONDITIONS ASSOCIATED WITH INTELLECTUAL DISABILITIES)

• DOWN SYNDROME
• PHENYLKETONURIA (PKU)
- Due to chromosomal disability, having three or the 21st set
- People with PKU cannot break down the amino acid
of chromosomal (trisomy 21) instead of a pair.
phenylalanine - The body uses phenylalanine to produce
- Often results in moderate level of intellectual disability,
the neurotransmitter norepinephrine. This neurotransmitter
although some individual function in mild or severe range.
has many important functions, including helping signals
- Incidence increases with the age of the mother.
travel between the brain and the body's nerve cells.
maintaining an awake or alert state, which then builds up
in their blood and brain. This can lead to brain damage.
- At around 5 days old, babies are offered newborn blood
spot screening to test for PKU and many other conditions.
This involves pricking your baby's heel to collect drops of
blood to test.

• FETAL ALCOHOL SPECTRUM DISORDER (FASD)

- FASD incorporates fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS), feta
alcohol effect (FAE), and alcohol-related
neurodevelopment disorder (ARND)
- Due to mother’s excessive alcohol use during pregnancy.
- Leading cause of intellectual disability, with higher
incidence that down syndrome and cerebral palsy. • PRADER-WILLI SYNDROME
- Aside from cognitive impairments, some children - Prader-Willi syndrome is a complex genetic condition that
experience sleep disturbances, motor dysfunctions, affects many parts of the body. In infancy, this condition is
hyperirritability, aggression, and conduct problems. characterized by weak muscle tone (hypotonia), feeding
difficulties, poor growth, and delayed development.
• Prader-Willi syndrome is a rare genetic condition that affects
a child’s metabolism. This condition causes your child to
have a strong appetite and not feel full after meals.
Supportive therapies and diet management help treat PWS
and prevent complications that can affect your child’s
health.
• They have severe low muscle tone and poor feeding during
early infancy, followed by a tremendous appetite that
develops between 2 and 6 years of

• FRAGILE X SYNDROME
- Fragile X syndrome (FXS) is a genetic disorder. FXS is caused
by changes in a gene called Fragile X Messenger
Ribonucleoprotein 1 (FMR1) – is a gene located on the X
chromosome. It's a protein-coding gene that produces a
protein called FMRP. FMRP is important for creating and
maintaining connections between cells in the brain and
nervous system.
- People who have FXS do not make this protein.
- Males are usually affected while females are usually
carriers.
• WILLIAM SYNDROME
- Williams syndrome is a developmental disorder that affects
many parts of the body. This condition is characterized by
mild to moderate intellectual disability or learning problems,
unique personality characteristics, distinctive facial
features, and heart and blood vessel (cardiovascular)
problems.
- People with Williams syndrome typically have difficulty with
visual-spatial tasks such as drawing and assembling puzzles,
but they tend to do well on tasks that involve spoken
language, music, and learning by repetition (rote
memorization). Affected individuals have outgoing,
engaging personalities and tend to take an extreme
interest in other people. Attention deficit disorder (ADD),
problems with anxiety, and phobias are common among
people with this disorder.