Mechanical Engineering B.

E V SEM

DIGITAL NOTES

Manufacturing Techniques
5ME05 - Open Elective-I

Unit - I

B.E –III Year – V Semester

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Dr. Sau. Kamaltai Gawai Institute of Engineering

and Technology,
Darapur, Tq- Darapur Dist:- Amravati (M.S)
Pin-444814
(Affiliated to SGBAU, Amravati, Approved by AICTE –Accredited NAAC-“B” )

Department Of Mechanical Engineering, KGIET. 1

Mechanical Engineering B. E V SEM

Dr. Sau. Kamaltai Gawai Institute of Engineering and Technology, Darapur,

Tq- Darapur Dist:- Amravati (M.S) Pin-444814 (MS)

COURSE LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. To study the fundamentals of different manufacturing processes and various activities in manufacturing.
2. To study the fundamentals of metals & alloys, properties of engineering materials like ferrous, non-
ferrous metals and their alloys
3. To study different machine tools. cutting tools used in machine shop , various operations performed with
working principles of these machine tools
4. To study the activities related to mechanical working of metals, various hot working & cold working
operations fundamentals of metal forming ; sheet metal working processes with different tools and equipment
5. To study the necessary details regarding pattern making, molding, core making and casting with foundry
tools & equipment, also melting practice by cupola furnace.
6. To study different Joining processes, basic terms of welding processes tike arc welding, gas welding,
Resistance welding. friction welding , soldering ; brazing processes with tools & processes.
7. To study the methods of producing metal powders 8. To study plastic part manufacturing by different
processes like extrusion. Injection, blow, compression, and transfer moulding processes.
COURSE OUTCOMES:
1. Apply the knowledge of various manufacturing techniques and its applications in engineering.
2. Understand the knowledge of machining operations, sheet metal working and processes.
3. Students will show the ability to apply various joining methods in practice.
4. Students will exhibit the knowledge of powder metallurgy.

Unit I : Overview of manufacturing: Classification of manufacturing processes,

selection of manufacturing processes, types & properties of materials,
selection of materials, Introduction to conventional and non-conventional
machining processes. (6Hrs)

Unit II : Introduction to cutting type shaping processes, Basic concept of metal cutting,
Types of cutting tools, Orthogonal & oblique cutting, General purpose machines Vs
Special purpose machines. (8Hrs)

Department Of Mechanical Engineering, KGIET. 2

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UNIT -1
Introduction.

Making things has been an essential activity of human civilizations since before recorded history. Today,
the term manufacturing is used for this activity. For technological and economic reasons, manufacturing is
important to the welfare of the United States and most other developed and developing nations. Technology
can be defined as the application of science to provide society and its members with those things that are
needed or desired. Technology affects our daily lives, directly and indirectly, in many ways. Consider the
list of products in Table 1.1. They represent various technologies that help society and its members to live
better. What do all these products have in common? They are all manufactured. These technological
wonders would not be available to society if they could not be manufactured. Manufacturing is the critical
factor that makes technology possible. Economically, manufacturing is an important means by which a
nation creates material wealth. In the United States, the manufacturing industries account for about 15% of
gross domestic product (GDP). A country‘s natural resources, such as agricultural lands, mineral deposits,
and oil reserves, also create wealth. In the U.S., agriculture, mining, and similar industries account for less
than 5% of GDP (agriculture alone is only about 1%). Construction and public utilities make up around 5%.
The rest is service industries, which include retail, transportation, banking, communication, education, and
government. The service sector accounts for more than 75% of U.S. GDP. Government alone accounts for
about as much of GDP as the manufacturing sector; however, government services do not create wealth. In
the modern global economy, a nation must have a strong manufacturing base (or it must have significant
natural resources) if it is to provide a strong economy and a high standard of living for its people.

WHAT IS MANUFACTURING?
The word manufacture is derived from two Latin words, manus (hand) and factus (make); the combination
means made by hand. The English word manufacture is several centuries old, and ‗‗made by hand‘‘
accurately described the manual methods used when the word was first coined.1 Most modern
manufacturing is accomplished by automated and computer-controlled machinery. .

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Manufacturing Defined -
Manufacturing is the application of physical and chemical processes to alter the geometry, properties,
and/or appearance of a given starting material to make parts or products; manufacturing also includes
assembly of multiple parts to make products. The processes to accomplish manufacturing involve a
combination of machinery, tools, power, and labor.

Manufacturing is almost always carried out as a sequence of operations. Each operation brings the material
closer to the desired final state. Economically, manufacturing is the transformation of materials into items
of greater value by means of one or more processing and/or assembly operations, as depicted in Figure
1.1(b). The key point is that manufacturing adds value to the material by changing its shape or properties,
or by combining it with other materials that have been similarly altered. The material has been made more
valuable through the manufacturing operations performed on it. When iron ore is converted into steel, value
is added. When sand is transformed into glass, value is added. When petroleum is refined into plastic, value
is added. And when plastic is molded into the complex geometry of a patio chair, it is made even more
valuable. The words manufacturing and production are often used interchangeably. The author‘s view is
that production has a broader meaning than manufacturing. To illustrate, one might speak of ‗‗crude oil
production,‘‘ but the phrase ‗‗crude oil manufacturing‘‘ seems out of place. Yet when used in the context of
products such as metal parts or automobiles, either word seems okay.

Classification of Manufacturing Processes - A manufacturing process is a designed procedure that

results in physical and/or chemical changes to a starting work material with the intention of increasing the
value of that material. A manufacturing process is usually carried out as a unit operation ,which means that
it is a single step in the sequence of steps required to transform the starting material into a final product.
Manufacturing operations can be divided into two basic types: (1) processing operations and (2) assembly
operations. A processing operation transforms a work material from one state of completion to a more
advanced state that is closer to the final desired product. It adds value by changing the geometry, properties,
or appearance of the starting material. In general, processing operations are performed on discrete work
parts, but certain processing operations are also applicable to assembled items (e.g., painting a spot-welded
car body). An assembly operation joins two or more components to create a new entity, called an assembly,

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subassembly, or some other term that refers to the joining process (e.g., a welded assembly is called a
weldment). A classification of manufacturing processes is presented in Figure 1.4.

A processing operation uses energy to alter a work part‘s shape, physical properties, or appearance to add
value to the material. The forms of energy include mechanical, thermal, electrical, and chemical. The
energy is applied in a controlled way by means of machinery and tooling. Human energy may also be
required, but the human workers are generally employed to control the machines, oversee the operations,
and load and unload parts before and after each cycle of operation .A general model of a processing
operation is illustrated in Figure 1.1(a).Material is fed into the process, energy is applied by the machinery
and tooling to transform the material, and the completed work part exits the process. Most production
operations produce waste or scrap, either as a natural aspect of the process (e.g., removing material, as in
machining) or in the form of occasional defective pieces. It is an important objective in manufacturing to
reduce waste in either of these forms. More than one processing operation is usually required to transform
the starting material into final form. The operations are performed in the particular sequence required to
achieve the geometry and condition defined by the design specification. Three categories of processing
operations are distinguished: (1) shaping operations, (2) property-enhancing operations, and(3) surface
processing operations. Shaping operations alter the geometry of the starting work material by various
methods. Common shaping processes include casting, forging, and machining. Property-enhancing
operations add value to the material by improving its physical properties without changing its shape. Heat
treatment is the most common example. Surface processing operations are performed to clean, treat, coat,
or deposit material onto the exterior surface of the work. Common examples of coating are plating and
painting. .
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Shaping Processes Most shape processing operations apply heat, mechanical force, or a combination of
these to effect a change in geometry of the work material. There are various ways to classify the shaping
processes. The classification used is based on the state of the starting material, by which we have four
categories: (1) solidification processes, in which the starting material is a heated liquid or semifluid that
cools and solidifies to form the part geometry; (2) particulate processing, in which the starting material is a
powder, and the powders are formed and heated into the desired geometry; (3) deformation processes, in
which the starting material is a ductile solid (commonly metal) that is deformed to shape the part; and (4)
material removal processes, in which the starting material is a solid (ductile or brittle), from which material
is removed so that the resulting part has the desired geometry. In the first category, the starting material is
heated sufficiently to transform it into a liquid or highly plastic (semifluid) state. Nearly all materials can
be processed in this way. Metals, ceramic glasses, and plastics can all be heated to sufficiently high
temperatures to convert them into liquids. With the material in a liquid or semifluid form, it can be poured
or otherwise forced to flow into a mold cavity and allowed to solidify, thus taking a solid shape that is the
same as the cavity. Most processes that operate this way are called casting or
molding. Casting is the name used for metals, and molding is the common term used for plastics. This
category of shaping process is depicted in Figure 1.5.

FIGURE 1.5 Casting and molding processes start with a work material heated to a fluid or semifluid state.
The process consists of: (1) pouring the fluid into a mold cavity and (2) allowing the fluid to solidify, after
which the solid part is removed from the mold.

In particulate processing, the starting materials are powders of metals or ceramics. Although these
two materials are quite different, the processes to shape the min particulate processing are quite similar.
The common technique involves pressing and sintering, illustrated in Figure 1.6, in which the powders are
first squeezed into a die cavity under high pressure and then heated to bond the individual particles
together.

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FIGURE 1.6 Particulate processing: (1) the starting material is powder; the usual process consists of
(2) pressing and (3) sintering.

In deformation processes, the starting work part is shaped by the application of forces that exceed
the yield strength of the material. For the material to be formed in this way, it must be sufficiently ductile to
avoid fracture during deformation. To increase ductility (and for other reasons), the work material is often
heated before forming to a temperature below the melting point. Deformation processes are associated most
closely with metalworking and include operations such as forging and extrusion, shown in Figure 1.7.

Material removal processes are operations that remove excess material from the starting work
piece so that the resulting shape is the desired geometry. The most important processes in this category are
machining operations such as turning, drilling, and milling, shown in Figure 1.8. These cutting operations
are most commonly applied to solid metals, performed using cutting tools that are harder and stronger than
the work metal. Grinding is another common process in this category. Other material removal processes are
known as nontraditional processes because they use lasers, electron beams, chemical erosion, electric
discharges, and electrochemical energy to remove material rather than cutting or grinding tools. It is
desirable to minimize waste and scrap in converting a starting work part into its subsequent geometry.
Certain shaping processes are more efficient than others in terms of material conservation. Material
removal processes (e.g., machining) tend to be wasteful of material, simply by the way they work. The
material removed from the starting shape is waste, at least in terms of the unit operation. Other processes,
such as certain casting and molding operations, often convert close to 100% of the starting material into
final product. Manufacturing processes that transform nearly all of the starting material into product and

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require no subsequent machining to achieve final part geometry are called net shape processes. Other
processes require minimum machining to produce the final shape and are called near net shape processes.

Property-Enhancing Processes The second major type of part processing is performed to

improve mechanical or physical properties of the work material. These processes do not alter the shape of
the part, except unintentionally in some cases. The most important property-enhancing processes involve
heat treatments, which include various annealing and strengthening processes for metals and glasses.
Sintering of powdered metals and ceramics is also a heat treatment that strengthens a pressed powder metal
work part.
Surface Processing Surface processing operations include (1) cleaning, (2) surface treatments, and
(3) coating and thin film deposition processes. Cleaning includes both chemical and mechanical processes
to remove dirt, oil, and other contaminants from the surface. Surface treatments include mechanical
working such as shot peening and sand blasting, and physical processes such as diffusion and ion
implantation. Coating and thin film deposition processes apply a coating of material to the exterior surface
of the work part. Common coating processes include electroplating, anodizing of aluminum, organic
coating (call it painting), and porcelain enameling. Thin film deposition processes include physical vapor
deposition and chemical vapor deposition to form extremely thin coatings of various substances. Several
surface-processing operations have been adapted to fabricate semiconductor materials into integrated
circuits for microelectronics. These processes include chemical vapor deposition, physical vapor
deposition, and oxidation. They are applied to very localized areas on the surface of a thin wafer of silicon
(or other semiconductor material) to create the microscopic circuit.
Manufacturing Process Selection
Selection Strategy - The term manufacturing processes used here represents the main shape-
generating methods such as casting, molding and forming processes, as well as traditional and non-
traditional machining processes. The processes specific to this section are classified in Figure 1.6. The
purpose is to provide a guide for the selection of the manufacturing processes that may be suitable

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candidates for a component. In most cases there are several processes that can be used for a component and
final selection depends on a large number of factors, mainly associated with a range of technical
capabilities and process economics, not least component size, geometry, tolerances, surface finish, capital
equipment and labor costs [1]. Some of the main process selection drivers are listed below. The intention is
not to infer that these are necessarily of equal importance or occur in this fixed sequence.
Important process selection drivers are:
• Product quantity. • Equipment costs.
• Tooling costs. • Processing times
• Labor intensity and work patterns. ` • Process supervision.
• Maintenance. • Energy consumption and other overhead costs.
• Material costs and availability. • Material to process compatibility.
• Component form and dimensions. • Tolerance requirements. • Surface finish needs.
• Bulk treatment and surface engineering. • Process to component variability.
• Process waste. • Component recycling

The strategy for selecting manufacturing processes is described below. Points 1, 2 and 3 are specific
to this category of processes, but points 4, 5 and 6 apply to all selection strategies.
1. Obtain an estimate of the annual production quantity.
2. Choose a material type to satisfy the PDS.
3. Refer to Figure 2.1 to select candidate PRIMAs.
4. Consider each PRIMA against the engineering and economic requirements:
• Understand the process and its variations.
• Consider the material compatibility.
• Assess conformance of component concept with design rules.
• Compare tolerance and surface finish requirements with process capability data.
5. Consider the economic positioning of the process and obtain component cost estimates for
alternatives.
6. Review the selected manufacturing process against business requirements.
The intention is that the candidate processes are selected before the component design is finalized,
so that any specific constraints and/or opportunities may be borne in mind. To this end, the manufacturing
process PRIMA selection matrix (see Figure 2.1) has been devised based on just two basic requirements: •
Material type – Accounts for the compatibility of the parent material with the manufacturing process and is
therefore a key technical selection factor. A large proportion of the materials used in engineering
manufacture have been included in the selection methodology, from ferrous alloys to precious metals. •
Production quantity per annum – The number of components to be produced to account for the economic
feasibility of the manufacturing process.
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The quantities specified for selection purposes are in the following ranges:
• Very low volume = 1–100.
• Low volume = 100–1,000.
• Medium volume = 1,000–10,000.
• Medium to high volume = 10,000–100,000.
• High volume = 100,000+.
• All quantities.
The justification for basing the matrix on material type and production quantity alone is that it
combines technological and economic issues of prime importance in a simple manner. Many manufacturing
processes are only viable for low-volume production due to the time and labor involved. On the other
hand, some processes require expensive equipment and are therefore unsuitable for low production
volumes. By considering production quantities in the early stages, a process can be selected that proves to
be the most economical later in the development process. The boundaries of economic production,
however, can be vague when so many factors are relevant; therefore, the matrix concentrates rather more on
the use of materials. By limiting itself in this way the matrix cannot be regarded as comprehensive and should not be
taken as such. It represents the main common industrial practice, but there will always be exceptions at this level of
detail. It is not intended to represent a process selection methodology itself. It is essentially a first-level filter. The
matrix is aimed at focusing attention on those
PRIMAs that are most appropriate based on the
important considerations of material and
production quantity. It is the PRIMAs that do
the task of guiding final manufacturing process
selection.
Materials In Manufacturing -
Most engineering materials can be classified
into one of three basic categories: (1)
metals, (2) ceramics, and (3) polymers.
Their chemistries are different, their
mechanical and physical properties are
different, and these differences affect the
manufacturing processes that can be used to
produce products from them. In addition to
the three basic categories, there are (4)
composites—nonhomogeneous mixtures of
the other three basic types rather than a
unique category. The classification of the four groups is pictured in Figure 1.3.
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METALS - Metals used in manufacturing are usually alloys, which are composed of two or more
elements, with at least one being a metallic element.
Metals and alloys can be divided into two basic groups: (1) ferrous and (2) nonferrous.
Ferrous Metals - Ferrous metals are based on iron; the group includes steel and cast iron. These metals
constitute the most important group commercially, more than three fourths of the metal tonnage throughout
the world. Pure iron has limited commercial use, but when alloyed with carbon, iron has more uses and
greater commercial value than any other metal. Alloys of iron and carbon form steel and cast iron. Steel can
be defined as an iron–carbon alloy containing 0.02%to 2.11%carbon. It is the most important category
within the ferrous metal group. Its composition often includes other alloying elements as well, such as
manganese, chromium, nickel, and molybdenum, to enhance the properties of the metal. Applications of
steel include construction (bridges, I-beams, and nails), transportation (trucks, rails, and rolling stock for
railroads), and consumer products (automobiles and appliances). Cast iron is an alloy of iron and carbon
(2% to 4%) used in casting (primarily sand casting). Silicon is also present in the alloy (in amounts from
0.5% to 3%), and other elements are often added also, to obtain desirable properties in the cast part. Cast
iron is available in several different forms, of which gray cast iron is the most common; its applications
include blocks and heads for internal combustion engines.
Nonferrous Metals - Nonferrous metals include the other metallic elements and their alloys. In almost
all cases, the alloys are more important commercially than the pure metals. The nonferrous metals include
the pure metals and alloys of aluminum, copper, gold, magnesium, nickel, silver, tin, titanium, zinc, and
other metals.

CERAMICS - A ceramic is defined as a compound containing metallic (or semi metallic) and nonmetallic
elements. Typical nonmetallic elements are oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon. Ceramics include a variety of
traditional and modern materials. Traditional ceramics, some of which have been used for thousands of
years, include: clay (abundantly available, consisting of fine particles of hydrous aluminum silicates and
other minerals used in making brick, tile, and pottery); silica (the basis for nearly all glass products); and
alumina and silicon carbide (two abrasive materials used in grinding).Modern ceramics include some of the
preceding materials, such as alumina, whose properties are enhanced in various ways through modern
processing methods.
Newer ceramics include: carbides—metal carbides such as tungsten carbide and titanium carbide, which are
widely used as cutting tool materials; and nitrides—metal and semimetal nitrides such as titanium-nitride
and boron-nitride, used as cutting tools and grinding abrasives
For processing purposes, ceramics can be divided into crystalline ceramics and glasses. Different methods
of manufacturing are required for the two types.
Crystalline ceramics are formed in various ways from powders and then fired (heated to a temperature
below the melting point to achieve bonding between the powders).
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The glass ceramics (namely, glass) can be melted and cast, and then formed in processes such as
traditional glass blowing.

POLYMERS - A polymer is a compound formed of repeating structural units called mers, whose atoms
share electrons to form very large molecules. Polymers usually consist of carbon plus one or more other
elements, such as hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and chlorine. Polymers are divided into three categories: (1)
thermoplastic polymers, (2) thermosetting polymers, and (3) elastomers.
Thermoplastic polymers – It can be subjected to multiple heating and cooling cycles without
substantially altering the molecular structure of the polymer. Common thermoplastics include polyethylene,
polystyrene, polyvinylchloride, and nylon.
Thermosetting polymers - chemically transform (cure) into a rigid structure on cooling from a heated
plastic condition; hence the name thermosetting. Members of this type include phenolic, amino resins, and
epoxies. Although the name thermosetting is used, some of these polymers cure by mechanisms other than
heating.
Elastomers - Elastomers are polymers that exhibit significant elastic behavior; hence the name elastomer.
They include natural rubber, neoprene, silicone, and polyurethane.

COMPOSITES - Composites do not really constitute a separate category of materials; they are mixtures of
the other three types. A composite is a material consisting of two or more phases that are processed
separately and then bonded together to achieve properties superior to those of its
Constituents. The term phase refers to a homogeneous mass of material, such as an aggregation of grains of
identical unit cell structure in a solid metal. The usual structure of a composite consists of particles or fibers
of one phase mixed in a second phase, called the matrix. Composites are found in nature (e.g., wood), and
they can be produced synthetically. The synthesized type is of greater interest here, and it includes glass
fibers in a polymer matrix, such as fiber-reinforced plastic; polymer fibers of one type in a matrix of a
second polymer, such as an epoxy-Kevlar composite; and ceramic in a metal matrix, such as a tungsten
carbide in a cobalt binder to form a cemented carbide cutting tool. Properties of a composite depend on its
components, the physical shapes of the components, and the way they are combined to form the final
material. Some composites combine high strength with light weight and are suited to applications such as
aircraft components, car bodies, boat hulls, tennis rackets, and fishing rods. Other composites are strong,
hard, and capable of maintaining these properties at elevated temperatures, for example, cemented carbide
cutting tools.

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Properties of materials –
(a) Mechanical properties of materials (strength, toughness, hardness, ductility, elasticity, fatigue and creep).
(b) Physical properties (density, specific heat, melting and boiling point, thermal expansion and conductivity,
electrical and magnetic properties)
(c) Chemical properties (Oxidation, corrosion, flammability, toxicity, etc.)

Mechanical properties of materials - Mechanical properties Mechanical properties are useful to estimate
how parts will behave when they are subjected to mechanical loads (forces, moments etc.). In particular, we
are interested to know when the part will fail (i.e. break, or otherwise change shape/size to go out-of-
specification), under different conditions. These include loading under: tension, compression, torsion,
bending, repeated cyclic loading, constant loading over long time, impact, etc. We are interested in their
hardness, and how these properties change with temperature. We are sometimes interested in their
conductivity (thermal, electrical) and magnetic properties.
Strength –
 Strength is the mechanical property that enables a metal to resist deformation load.
 The strength of a material is its capacity to withstand destruction under the action of external loads.
 The stronger the materials the greater the load it can withstand.
Elasticity -
 According to dictionary elasticity is the ability of an object or material to resume its normal shape after
being stretched or compressed.
 When a material has a load applied to it, the load causes the material to deform.
 The elasticity of a material is its power of coming back to its original position after deformation when the
stress or load is released.
 Heat-treated springs, rubber etc are good examples of elastic materials.
Plasticity –
 The plasticity of a material is its ability to undergo some permanent deformation without rupture(brittle).
 Plastic deformation will take place only after the elastic range has been exceeded.
 Pieces of evidence of plastic action in structural materials are called yield, plastic flow and creep.
 Materials such as clay, lead etc are plastic at room temperature, and steel plastic when at bright red-heat.
Hardness –
 The resistance of a material to force penetration or bending is hardness.
 The hardness is the ability of a material to resist scratching, abrasion, cutting or penetration.
 Hardness indicates the degree of hardness of a material that can be imparted particularly steel by the process
of hardening.
 It determines the depth and distribution of hardness is introduced by the quenching process.
Toughness –
 It is the property of a material which enables it to withstand shock or impact.
 Toughness is the opposite condition of brittleness.
 The toughness is may be considering the combination of strength and plasticity.
 Manganese steel, wrought iron, mild steel etc are examples of toughness materials.
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Brittleness –
 The brittleness of a property of a material which enables it to withstand permanent deformation.
 Cast iron, glass are examples of brittle materials.
 They will break rather than bend under shock or impact.
 Generally, the brittle metals have high compressive strength but low in tensile strength.
Stiffness –
 It is a mechanical property.
 The stiffness is the resistance of a material to elastic deformation or deflection.
 In stiffness, a material which suffers light deformation under load has a high degree of stiffness.
 The stiffness of a structure is important in many engineering applications, so the modulus of elasticity is
often one of the primary properties when selecting a material.
Ductility –
 The ductility is a property of a material which enables it to be drawn out into a thin wire.
 Mild steel, copper, aluminum are the good examples of a ductile material.
Malleability-
 The malleability is a property of a material which permits it to be hammered or rolled into sheets of other
sizes and shapes.
 Aluminum, copper, tin, lead etc. are examples of malleable metals.
Fatigue –
 The fatigue is the long effect of repeated straining action which causes the strain or break of the material.
 It is the term „fatigue‟ use to describe the fatigue of material under repeatedly applied forces.
Creep –
 The creep is a slow and progressive deformation of a material with time at a constant force.
 The simplest type of creep deformation is viscous flow.
 Some metals are generally exhibiting creep at high temperature, whereas plastic, rubber, and similar
amorphous material are very temperature sensitive to creep.
 The force for a specified rate of strain at constant temperature is called creep strength.
Cohesion –
 It is a mechanical property.
 The cohesion is a property of a solid body by virtue of which they resist from being broken into a fragment.
Impact strength –
 The impact strength is the ability of a metal to resist suddenly applied loads.

Physical properties of material –

Density of Materials – It is defined as ―the mass per unit volume‖. It is represented as the ratio of mass with volume
of a material. It is denoted by ―ρ‖. Its unit in SI system is Kg/m3. If, m is the mass of material in Kg, V is the volume
of materiel in meter3. Then the Density of material,

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Specific Gravity of Materials - It is defined as the ratio of density of material with respect to density of a reference
material or substance. It does not have any unite. Sometimes it is also called as relative density. For gravity
calculation generally water is considered as a reference substance.

State Change Temperatures - Generally a substance has three states called – solid state, liquid state, gaseous state.
State change temperature is the temperature at which the substance changes from one state to another state. State
change temperatures are of following types-
Melting point-It is the temperature (in oC or K) at which the substance changes from solid state to liquid state.
Boiling point-It is the temperature (in oC or K) at which the substance changes from liquid state to gaseous state.
Freezing point-It is the temperature (in oC or K) at which a liquid changes from liquid to solid state. Theoretically it
is equal to the melting point. However, practically there may be observed some difference.
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion - When a material is heated, it expands, due to which its dimensions change.
Coefficient of thermal expansion represents the expansion in material with increase in temperature. Thermal
expansion coefficients are of three types, namely-
a) Coefficient of Linear Thermal Expansion -
The change in length of an object due change in temperature is related by ―Coefficient of linear thermal expansion‖.
It is denoted by ―αL‖

Where, ‗l‘ is the initial length of object, ‗Δl‘ is the change in length, ‗Δt‘ is the change in the temperature. Unit of α L
is per oC.
b) Coefficient of Area Thermal Expansion - The change in area of an object due change in
temperature is related by ―Coefficient of Area thermal expansion‖. It denoted by ―αA‖.

Where, ‗A‘ is the initial length of object, ‗ΔA‘ is the change in length, ‗Δt‘ is the change in the temperature. Unit of
αA is per oC.
c) Coefficient of Volume Thermal Expansion - The change in volume of an object due change in
temperature is related by ―Coefficient of volume thermal expansion‖. It denoted by ―αV‖

Where, ‗V‘ is the initial length of object, ‗ΔV‘ is the change in length, ‗Δt‘ is the change in the temperature. Unit of
αA is per oC.

Specific Heat of Materials - Specific heat of a material is defined as the amount of heat required to increase the
temperature of unit mass of material by 1oC. It is denoted by ‗S‘.
Where, m is the mass of material in Kg. Q is the amount of heat given to material in Joule. Δt is rise in temperature.
Unit of specific heat in SI system is Joule/Kg oC.
Latent Heat of Materials - Latent Heat of a material is defined as the amount of heat required/released by change in
unit mass of material from one state to another state (Phase change). It is denoted by ‗L‘. Latent heat is given by,
Where, ‗Q‘ is the amount of heat required/released by material (in joule), ‗m‘ is the mass of material
(in Kg). Unit of Latent heat in SI system is Joule/Kg.

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Weld Ability of Materials - It is the property of a material which presents that how easily the two pieces of material
can be welded together by applying pressure or heat or both.
Elasticity of Materials - It is the property of a material by which it regains its original dimensions on removal of
load or force.
Plasticity of Materials - When we keep on increasing the load beyond the limit of elasticity, the material retains it
molded state. This property of materials is called plasticity.
Porosity of Materials - When a material is in melting condition, it contains some dissolved gases within the
material. When the material is solidifies, these gases get evaporated and leave behind voids. The Porosity of material
represents the quantity of voids in solid materials.
Thermal Conductivity of Materials - It is the property of a material which represents that how easily the heat can
be conducted by a material. The thermal conductivity of a material can be defined as ―the amount of heat transmitted
by unit thickness of material normal to the unit area surface in unit time when the temperature gradient across the
material piece is unity in steady state condition‖. Its unit in SI system is watts per meter per K.
Electrical Conductivity of Materials - It is the property of materials which represents that how easily the electricity
can be conducted by the material. It is denoted by ‗σ‘. It is the reciprocal of resistivity of material. It unit is
mho/meter.
Chemical properties of Material –
Oxidation - The oxidation state of an element is defined as the formal charge on the atom if all bonds were assumed
to be fully ionic. In an ionic compound the oxidation state is equal to the charge on the ion, e.g., in NaCl the charge
on the sodium is +1 and the oxidation state is also +1.
Corrosion - Corrosion is a process by which materials, especially metals (i.e., carbon steel, galvanized steel, and,
cast iron), are worn away by electrochemical and chemical actions. Metals have anodic and cathodic areas, and
corrosion results from the presence of oxygen, water, and the conducting medium.
Flammability - Flammability is the ease with which a material is ignited, the intensity with which it burns and
releases heat once ignited, its propensity to spread fire, and the rate at which it generates smoke and toxic combustion
products during gasification and burning.
Toxicity - The toxicity of a substance is its ability to cause harmful effects. These effects can strike a single cell, a
group of cells, an organ system, or the entire body. A toxic effect may be visible damage, or a decrease in
performance or function measurable only by a test. All chemicals can cause harm.

Introduction to Materials Selection:

One of the most challenging task of materials engineer is the proper selection of the material for a particular
job, e.g., a particular component of a machine or structure. An engineer must be in a position to choose the optimum
combination of properties in a material at the lowest possible cost without compromising the quality.

Factors affecting the selection of materials:

(i) Component shape: The shape and size of a component has great effect on the choice of the processing unit which
ultimately affects the choice of the material. To make it more clear, we consider an example, let the best possible
production method is selected, under given conditions, it is die casting, obviously, now the choice of the material
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becomes limited, i.e. one can only choose materials with lower melting points, e.g. aluminium, zinc, magnesium and
thermoplastics.
(ii) Dimensional tolerance: There are some materials which can be finished to close tolerance while others cannot.
Obviously, the required dimensional tolerance for finished components will, influence the choice of materials.
(iii) Mechanical properties: To select a suitable material for specific conditions, all mechanical properties, e.g.,
toughness, hardness, strength, etc. guide us.
(iv) Fabrication (Manufacturing) requirements: Method of processing of the material also affects the properties of
a component, e.g., forged components can be stronger than the casted components. Different types of working
processes may also give different types of fibre structure. However, investment casting can provide precise
dimensions at low cost in comparison to machine operations.
(v) Service requirements:- Service requirements are :
 Dimensional Stability,
 Strength,
 Toughness,
 Heat Resistance,
 Corrosion Resistance,
 Fatigue And Creep Resistance,
 Electrical And Thermal Conductivity Etc.
(vi) Cost :
(A) Cost of the material:- In most of the cases, the cost of raw material accounts about 50 % of the finished
cost. Obviously, the cost of the material is a major factor which influences the choice of the material or
process. We must note that the use of cheaper material will not always reduce the final cost of the
component or product. Use of cheaper material may be associated with higher processing cost due to large
number of operations to be performed and also more scrap. We can easily see that this sometimes makes the
overall cost more than that of expensive raw material in combination with low processing cost due to lesser
number of operations and lesser scrap. The type of material affects the detailed aspect of design and hence
the choice of material as well as the process is selected at the early design state e.g. whether the material is
to be joined by spot welding, screws or rivets, must be decided at the design state.
(B) Cost of processing:- In most of the industries, the processing cost (labour cost) and other costs such as
overhead costs account for about 50% of the production cost. Overhead cost in automatic industries is much
more than the other costs. If one can somehow reduce all such costs, the total production cost will
automatically reduce.
(vii) Availability of the material:- We may find that sometimes the availability of the material becomes a
governing factor. When the desired material supply is limited, then a costly material which is available in ample
quantity may be chosen.

Procedure for materials selection:

The selection of an appropriate material and its subsequent conversion into a useful product with desired shape and
properties can be a rather complex process. Nearly every engineered item goes through a sequence of activities that
includes:
Design --- Material Selection----- Process Selection------Production ---- Evaluation---- And Possible
Redesign Or Modification
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The selection of a specific material for a particular use is a very complex process. However, one can
simplify the choice if the details about:
(i) Operating parameters,
(ii) Manufacturing processes,
(iii) Functional requirements
(iv) Cost considerations are known.

Therefore, when we talk about choosing materials for a component, we take into account many different factors.
These factors can be broken down into the following areas:
Material Properties - The expected level of performance from the material
Material Cost and Availability -
 Material must be priced appropriately (not cheap but right)
 Material must be available (better to have multiple sources)
Processing
 Must consider how to make the part, for example:
 Casting
 Machining
 Welding
Environment
 The effect that the service environment has on the part
 The effect the part has on the environment
 The effect that processing has on the environment

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Introduction to Conventional and Non-Conventional Machining Processes.

Manufacturing processes can be broadly divided into two groups and they are primary manufacturing processes and
secondary manufacturing processes. The former ones provide basic shape and size to the material as per the
designer‘s requirement. Casting, forming, powder metallurgy are such processes to name a few. Secondary
manufacturing processes provide the final shape and size with tighter control on the dimension, surface
characteristics, etc. Material removal processes are mainly secondary manufacturing processes.
Material removal processes once again can be divided into mainly two groups and they are ―Conventional
Machining Processes‖ and ―Non-Traditional Manufacturing Processes‖.
Examples of conventional machining processes are turning, boring, milling, shaping, broaching, slotting, grinding
etc. Similarly, Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM), Ultrasonic Machining (USM), Water Jet and Abrasive Water Jet
Machining (WJM and AWJM), Electro-discharge Machining (EDM) are some of the Non-Traditional Machining
(NTM) Processes.non-conventional machining process which is defined as the process in which materials are
removed from the workpiece in most accurate and effective manner. This is also termed as a new machining process.
There are different setup for this process. They are:

 Abrasive jet machining process

 Water jet machining process

 Plasma arc machining process

 Electron beam machining process

 Electrical dielectric machining process

 Chemical milling

 Laser beam machining process

Conventional machining process involves the direct contact of tool and work piece, whereas unconventional
machining does not require the direct contact of tool and work piece. Conventional machining process has lower
accuracy and surface finish while non-conventional machining has higher accuracy and surface finish.

The difference between the conventional and non-conventional machining process.

Tools Used
Conventional machining process must always have a physical tool present. For instance, a cutting tool in a Lathe
machine. On the other hand, there may not be a physical tool present in a non-conventional machining process. For
example in laser machines, laser beams carry out the task while electrochemical machining requires a physical tool
in order to accomplish the process.
Tool and Work Piece Contact
Conventional machining process involves the direct contact of tool and work piece, whereas unconventional
machining does not require the direct contact of tool and work piece.
Accuracy
Conventional machining process has lower accuracy and surface finish while non-conventional machining has
higher accuracy and surface finish.
Waste Material

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Since conventional machining process has tools with a lesser lifespan due to high surface contact and wear, they are
also likely to cause a higher waste of material. With tools with a greater lifespan, non-conventional machining has a
lower waste material due to low or no wear.
Machining Process
Conventional machining process usually involves changing the shape of a work piece using an implement made of a
harder material. Using conventional methods to machine hard metals and alloys means increased demand of time
and energy and therefore increases in costs. In some cases, conventional machining may not be feasible.
Conventional machining also costs in terms of tool wear and in loss of quality in the product because of induced
residual stresses during the manufacturing process. With the ever-increasing demand for manufactured goods made
of hard alloys and metals, more interest has gravitated to non-conventional machining methods.
Energy Source
Conventional machining can be defined as a process using mechanical energy. Non-conventional machining utilizes
other forms of energy. The three main forms of energy used in non-conventional machining are thermal, chemical
and electrical energy.
Examples
Examples of conventional machining processes are turning, boring, milling, shaping, broaching, slotting, grinding
etc. Similarly, Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM), Ultrasonic Machining (USM), Water Jet and Abrasive Water Jet
Machining (WJM and AWJM), Electro-discharge Machining (EDM) are some of the non conventional machining
processes.

Non-Traditional / Non-Conventional Machining

Traditional / Conventional Machining Processes
Processes

1. Generally macroscopic chip formation by shear 1. Material removal may occur with chip formation or
deformation. even no chip formation may take place.

2. There may be a physical tool present. 2. There may not be a physical tool present.

3. The cutting tool is harder than the workpiece. 3. Cutting tool not harder than work piece

4. Material removal takes place due to the 4. Mostly NTM processes do not necessarily use
application of cutting forces – energy domain can mechanical energy to provide material removal. They
be classified as mechanical use different energy domains to provide
machining. For example, in USM, AJM, WJM
mechanical energy is used to machine material,
whereas in ECM electrochemical dissolution
constitutes material removal.

5. Conventional machining involves the direct 5. Whereas unconventional machining does not require
contact of tool and work piece. direct contact of tool and work piece.

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Non-Traditional / Non-Conventional Machining

Traditional / Conventional Machining Processes
Processes

6. Lower accuracy and surface finish. 6. Higher accuracy and surface finish.

7. Suitable for every type of material economically 7. Not Suitable for every type of material economically

8. Tool life is less due to high surface contact and 8. Tool life is more
wear.

9. Higher waste of material due to high wear. 9. Lower waste of material due to low or no wear.

10. Noisy operations mostly cause sound 10. Quieter operation mostly no sound pollutions are
pollutions. produced.

11. Lower capital cost 11. Higher capital cost

12. Easy set-up of equipment. 12. Complex set-up equipment.

13. The skilled or un-skilled operator may be 13. Skilled operator required.
required

14. Generally, they are manual to operate. 14. Generally, they are a fully automated processes.

15. They cannot be used to produce prototype parts 15. Can be used to produce prototype parts very
very efficiently and economically. efficiently and economically.

Conventional Machining Processes.

The material removal processes are a family of shaping operations in which excess material is removed
from a starting work part so that what remains is the desired final geometry. The ‗‗family tree‘‘ is shown in Figure
2.1. The most important branch of the family is conventional machining, in which a sharp cutting tool is used to
mechanically cut the material to achieve the desired geometry. The three principal machining processes are turning,
drilling, and milling. The ‗‗other machining operations‘‘ in Figure 2.1 include shaping, planing, broaching, and
sawing.
Another group of material removal processes is the abrasive processes, which mechanically remove material
by the action of hard, abrasive particles. The ‗‗other abrasive processes‘‘ in Figure 2.1 include honing, lapping, and
super finishing. Finally, there are the nontraditional processes, which use various energy forms other than a sharp
cutting tool or abrasive particles to remove material. The energy forms include mechanical, electrochemical,
thermal, and chemical.1 Machining is a manufacturing process in which a sharp cutting tool is used to cut away
material to leave the desired part shape. The predominant cutting action in machining involves shear deformation
of the work material to form a chip; as the chip is removed, a new surface is exposed. Machining is most frequently

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applied to shape metals. The process is illustrated in the

diagram of Figure 21.2. Machining is one of the most
important manufacturing processes. The Industrial
Revolution and the growth of the manufacturing-based
economies of the world can be traced largely to the
development of the various machining operations.
Machining is important commercially and technologically
for several reasons:

Variety of work materials - Machining can be applied to a wide variety of work materials. Virtually all solid
metals can be machined. Plastics and plastic composites can also be cut by machining. Ceramics pose difficulties
because of their high hardness and brittleness; however, most ceramics can be successfully cut by the
abrasive machining processes.
Variety of part shapes and geometric features. - Machining can be used to create any regular geometries, such as
flat planes, round holes, and cylinders. By introducing variations in tool shapes and tool paths, irregular geometries
can be created, such as screw threads and T-slots. By combining several machining operations in sequence, shapes
of almost unlimited complexity and variety can be produced.
Dimensional accuracy.- Machining can produce dimensions to very close tolerances. Some machining processes
can achieve tolerances of _0.025 mm (_0.001 in), much more accurate than most other processes.
Good surface finishes.- Machining is capable of creating very smooth surface finishes. Roughness values less than
0.4 microns (16 m-in.) can be achieved in conventional machining operations. Some abrasive processes can achieve
even better finishes. On the other hand, certain disadvantages are associated with machining and other material
removal processes:

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Wasteful of material - Machining is inherently wasteful of material. The chips generated in a machining
operation are wasted material. Although these chips can usually be recycled, they represent waste in terms of the
unit operation.
Time consuming.- A machining operation generally takes more time to shape a given part than alternative shaping
processes such as casting or forging. Machining is generally performed after other manufacturing processes such as
casting or bulk deformation (e.g., forging, bar drawing). The other processes create the general shape of the starting
workpart, and machining provides the final geometry, dimensions, and finish.

Non-Conventional Machining Processes

The term nontraditional machining refers to this group that removes excess material by various techniques involving
mechanical, thermal, electrical, or chemical energy (or combinations of these energies). They do not use a sharp
cutting tool in the conventional sense. The nontraditional processes have been developed since World War II largely
in response to new and unusual machining requirements that could not be satisfied by conventional methods. These
requirements, and the resulting commercial and technological importance of the nontraditional processes, include:
The need to machine newly developed metals and nonmetals. These new materials often have special
properties (e.g., high strength, high hardness, high toughness) that make them difficult or impossible to machine by
conventional methods.
The need for unusual and/or complex part geometries that cannot easily be accomplished and in some cases
are impossible to achieve by conventional machining. _ The need to avoid surface damage that often accompanies
the stresses created by conventional machining. Many of these requirements are associated with the aerospace and
electronics industries, which have become increasingly important in recent decades. There are literally dozens of
nontraditional machining processes, most of which are unique in their range of applications. In the present chapter,
we discuss those that are most important commercially. More detailed discussions of these nontraditional
methods are presented in several of the references.
The nontraditional processes are often classified according to principal form of energy used to effect material
removal. By this classification, there are four types:
1. Mechanical. Mechanical energy in some form other than the action of a conventional cutting tool is used in these
nontraditional processes. Erosion of the work material by a high velocity stream of abrasives or fluid (or both) is a
typical form of mechanical action in these processes.
2. Electrical. These nontraditional processes use electrochemical energy to remove material; the mechanism is the
reverse of electroplating.
3. Thermal. These processes use thermal energy to cut or shape the workpart. The thermal energy is generally
applied to a very small portion of the work surface, causing that portion to be removed by fusion and/or
vaporization. The thermal energy is generated by the conversion of electrical energy.
4. Chemical. Most materials (metals particularly) are susceptible to chemical attack by certain acids or other
etchants. In chemical machining, chemicals selectively remove material from portions of the workpart, whereas
other portions of the surface are protected by a mask.

End of Unit - 1
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