7 SURFACE TEXTURE Introduction With the more precise demands of modern engineering products, the control of surface texture together with dimensional accuracy has become more important. It has been investigated that the surface texture greatly influences the functioning of the machined parts, The properties such as appearance, corrosion resistance, wear resistance, fatigue resistance, lubrication, initial tolerance, ability to hold pressure, load carrying capacity, noise reduction in case of gears are influenced by the surface texture. Whatever may be the manufacturing process used, it is not possible to produce perfectly smooth surface. The imperfections and irregularities are bound to occur. The manufactured surface always departs from the absolute perfection to some extent. The irregularities on the surface are in the form of succession of hills and valleys varying in height and spacing. These irregularities are usually termed as surface roughness, surface finish, surface texture or surface quality. These irregularities are responsible to a ‘great extent for the appearance of a surface of a component and its’ suitability for an intended application. ‘The surface of the part produced by casting, hot working, cold working, powder metallurgy will have irregularities associated with the manufac- ture of dies etc. used in their production and the production process itself. Irregularities will still be present after the parts have been machined, by processes such as turning, grinding, boning, lapping, shaping etc. employed to finish the surface. In general cutting processes such as lapping and honing produce a texture irregular and multidirectional, grinding the most widely used finishing process generally results in a texture which is irregular but unidirectional. The texture produced by cutting processes such as turning, boring, shaping ete. tend to be both evenly spaced and unidirectional. Factors Affecting Surface Roughness The following factors affect the surface roughness : (1) Vibrations (2) Material of the workpiece (3) Type of machining . oo (4) Rigidity of the system consisting of machine tool, fixture cutting tool and work (175) scanned witn Camscann—- 176 METROLOGY (5) Type, form, material and sharpness of cutting tool (6) Cutting conditions ie., feed, speed and depth of cut (7) Type of coolant used Reasons for Controlling Surface Texture Itis seen that different requirements demand different surface texture, ample, cama exchanger tubes transfer heat better when their surfaces are slightly rough rather than highly finished. (2) Brake drums and clutch plates etc. work best with so: of surface roughness. (8) For components which are subjected to load reversals, sharp irregularities act as stress raisers constituting the greatest Potential source of fatigue cracks, therefore, the surface of the parts which are subjected to high stresses and load reversals are finished highly smooth. (4) For quieter operations the surfaces should be smooth, The principal reasons for controlling the surface texture are : (1) to improve the service life of the components (2) to improve the fatigue resistance (3) to reduce initial wear of parts (4) to have a close dimensional tolerance on the parts (5) to reduce frictional wear (6) to reduce corrosion by minimising depth of irregularities (1) for good appearance (8) if the surface is not smooth enou, areamer and the piston rod like abroach, The Moving parts can heat up, bind and freeze, Excessive surface roughness on shafts and bearings say in an electrical household appliances require more power, However, as already explained perfectly smooth surface is not always required, the requirement of Surface texture depends upon the specific application of the part, me degree gh, a turning shaft may act like process can't signer. Due to conditia Produced will have Some.irregularities, thes be classified into four categories First Order. The irregul tool it ns not being ideal, the surface Se geometrical irregularities caD rites caused by inaccuracies in the machine scanned witn CafScann‘ACE TEXTURE SURF! 17 (2) surface irregularities arising due to deformation of work under the action of cutting forces, and (3) due to the weight of the material itself. Second Order. The irregularities caused due to vibrations of any kind ~ are called second order irregularities. These include —Chatter marks on the surface of the parts. : I \ Third Order. Even if the machine were perfect and completely free from vibrations some irregularities are caused by machining itself due to the characteristics of the process. This includes : —Feed mark of the cutting tool. Fourth Order. The fourth order irregularities include those arising from the rupture of the material during the separation of the chip. The irregularities on the surface of the part“produced can also be_ grouped into two categories : (i) Roughness or primary texture, (ii) Wavi- ness or secondary texture. @ Primary texture (Roughness) The surface irregularities of small wavelength’ are called- primary texture or roughness. These are ‘caused by direct action of the cutting elements on the material ie., cutting tool shape, tool feed rate or by some other disturbances such as friction, wear or corrosion. 2 These include irregularities of third and fourth order and constitute” the micro-geometrical errors. The ratio r/hr denoting the micro-errors is less than 50, where Ir = length along the surface and hr = deviation of surface from the ideal one. ' (ii) Secondary texture (Waviness) ‘The surface irregularities of considerable wavelength of a periodic character are called secondary texture or waviness. These irregularities result due to inaccuracies of slides, wear of guides, misalignment of centres, non-linear feed motion, deformation of work under the action of cutting forces, vibrations of any kind etc. These errors include irregularities of first and second order and con- stitute the macro-geometrical errors. The ratio of Jw/hw denoting the macro-errors is more than 50. Where, /w = length along the surface and hw = deviation of surface from ideal one. : i hw FY bm I micro geometrical error macro geometrical error Fig. 7.1. Micro and macro geometrical errors scanned witn LamScanna aT METROLOgy ‘Thus any finished surface can be considered as the combination of ty, forms of wavelength (large wavelongth for waviness and smalig: wavelength for roughness) superimposed upon each other. These two forma of irregularities superimposed on each other tends to form a pattern s. texture on the surface. Elements of Surface Texture ‘The various elements of surface texture can be defined and explained with the help of Fig. 7.2 which shows a typical surface highly magnified, Lay diéction Roughness height , Waviness 2 with . Roughness wiath 2. outott Roughness width / Fig. 7.2. Elements of surface texture ‘Surface. The surface of a part is confined by the boundary which separates that part from another part, substance or space. Actual surface, This refers to the surface of a part which is actually obtained after‘a manufacturing process, Nominal surface. A nominal surface is a theoretical, geometrically perfect surface which does not exist in practice, but it is an average of the irregularities that are superimposed on it. ~~ Profile. Profile is defined as surface. Roughness. As already explained roughness refers to relatively finely spaced microgeometrical irregularities. It is also called as primary texture and constitutes third and fourth order irregularities, Roughness Height. This is rated as the arithmetical average deviation expréssed in’ micro-meters normal to an imaginary centre line, running through the roughness profile (Fig. 7.2) Roughness Width. Roughness width is the distance parallel. to the normal surface between successive peaks or ridges that constitutes the redominiant pattern of the roughness, Roughness Width cutoff. This is the maximum width of surface ir- : ities that is included in the measurement of roughness height. This is always greater than Toughness width and is rated in centimetres. the contour of any section through a scanned witn LamScannSURFACE TEXTURE i Waviness. Wavinoss consists of those surface irregularities which are of greater spacing than roughness and it occurs in the form of waves. These are also termed as macro geometrical errors and cénstitute irregularities of first and second order. These are caused due to misalignnfent of centres, vibrations, machine or work deflections, warping ete. Effective profile. It is the real contour of a surface obtained by using instrument. Flaws. Flaws are surface irregularities or imperfections which occur’ at infrequent intervals and at random intervals. Examples are : scratches,,. holes, cracks, porosity etc. These may be observed directly with the aid of penetrating dye or other material which makes them visible for examina- tion and evaluation. Surface Texture. Repetitive or random deviations from the nominal surface which forms the pattern on the surface. Surface texture includes roughness, waviness, lays and flaws. Lay. It is the direction of predominant surface pattern produced by tool _ marks or scratches. It is determined by the method of production used. Symbols used to indicate the direction of lay are given below : || = Lay parallel to the boundary line of the nominal surface that is, lay parallel to the line representing surface to which the symbel is applied eg., parallel shaping, end view of turning and O.D. grinding. 7 = Lay perpendicular to the boundary line of the nominal surface, that is lay perpendicular to the line representing surface to which the symbol is applied, e.g., end view of shaping, longitudinal view of turning and O.D. grinding. X = lay angular in both directions to the line representing the surface to which symbol is applied, eg., traversed end mill, side wheel grinding. M= Lay multidirectional e.g. lapping, super finishing, honing. C= Lay approximately circular relative to the centre of the surface to which the symbol is applied e.g., facing on a lathe. ; R= Lay approximately radial relative to the centre of the surface to ° which the symbol is applied, e.g., surface ground on 4 turntable, fly cut and indexed on end mill. a ‘The various types of lays are shown diagrammatically in Fig. 7.3. It should be noted that surface roughness is measured at 90° to the direction of lay. ‘Sampling length. It is the length of the profile necessary for the evaluation ofthe ‘ogularitics to be taken into aco-nt. It is also known as ‘cutoff length. It is measured in a direction parallel ~ the general direction — of the profile. The sampling length should bear some relation to the type of profile. It ig found that the required length can be related to the process employed for finishing and # series of Indian Standard ‘Sampling Lengths, scanned witn GamscannMETROLO¢ 180 a EF il) & 7 eee Zo iene C semen Wx. uw Parallel Pemendicnar Anata NMutiiectionat (a) iC) a Radiat C Fig. 7.3. Types of Lay or cut-off values, have been evolved to cover Processes normally used, These standard lengths 25 mm. Table 7.1 gives the recommended sam finishing processes. However, when it is not spec 0.8 mm for majority of the finishing processes - the majority of finishing are 0.08, 0.25, 0.8, 2.5 and pling lengths for various ified it is considered to be Table 7.1. Recommended Sampling Lengths [ oa Process Suitable Sampling Length Milling - | 08} 257 8 | a0] Boring - | 98] 25} 8 | i | - Turning ~ | 08) a5} - | _ | Grinding 025) 08) 25) - | _ | _ ,| Planing ~ J - | 25] 8 | a0 | 95 Reaming ~ | 08} asf - | lL] Broaching ~ os}. fol fl pe mewn =| 0dg| Ohl . | 7 Machined |Diamondturning | 0.25) og| _ | _ ie Surface Honing 025] og] — - 7 - af Lapping 025] 08 | — - - - vane Super-finishing | o25] os} - | _ | > |” Buffing ~ | OB fas} of lf. 1 scanned witn GamScannSURFACE TEXTURE ° ‘a Polishing rp |g 0-8 |e 2.08 | etal ee— ele Shaping ~ | 08} 25] 8 | 10} - Spark maching - jos] -] - | - | - Burnishing - Jos Jas] - [| - | - Drawing - | os )a5} - | - | - Non- Extrusion -,} 08] 26} - |-- | o- mmachitied - | Mouldin, ; Lea e -\[de}an].= | - | - Electron-polishing | - | 08 | 25 | - | - | - Mean Line of Profile. Its the line dividing the effective profile such that within the sampling length the sum of the squares of vertical ordinates (Ja +) between the effective profile points and the mean line is minimum. i a h Mean ine x / D M {| Sampling eng _ : Fig. 7.4 Centre Line of Profile. It is the line dividing the effective profile such that the areas embraced by the profile above and below the line are equal. For repetitive wave form (profile) the centre line and mean line are equivalent. Though true repetitive profile is impossible in any manufacturing process, mean line and centre line are assumed to be equivalent for practi- cal purposes. Evaluation of Surface Finish ‘A numerical assessment of surface finish can be carried out in a number of ways. These numerical values are obtained with respect to a datum. In practice, the following three methods of evaluating primary texture (roughness) of a surface are used : (1) Peak to valley height method (2) The average roughness (8) Form factor or bearing curve. Peak to Valley height This method is largely used in G maximum depth of the surface irregul and largest value of the depth is accep! ermany and Russia. It measures the Jarities over a given sample length, ted as a measure of roughness. The scannea witncamScannie METROLOgy " drawback of this mothdd is that it may read the same max for two largely different texture, The value obtained would not give a representativg assessment of the surface. . 4 Fig. 7.5. Peak to Valley height ‘To overcome this PV (Peak to Valley) height is defined as the distance between a pair of lines running parallel to the general ‘ay’ of the trace Positioned so that the length lying within the peaks at the top is 5% of the trace length, and that within the valleys at the bottom is 10% of the trace length. This is represented graphically in Fig. 7.5. Average Roughness, For assessment of average roughness the fol- lowing three statistical criteria are used : () C.L.A. Method : In this method, the surface roughness is measured as the average deviation from the nominal surface, Lid AA b—— 1 + Fig. 7.6. Centre Line Average or Arithmetic Average is defined as the average Values of the ordinates from the mean line, regardless of the arithmete signs of the ordinates. C.LA Value = Bathe hat why wali) A; Also CLA. a Abt Bat Aa ay ‘The calculation of C.L.A. value u planimeter. sing equation (ii) is facilitated by the scanned witn LamScannsURFACE TEXTURE i CLA value measure is preferred to RMS value measure because its value can be easily determined by measuring the areas with planimeter or graph or can be readily determined in electrical instruments by integrating the movement of the styles and displaying the result as an average. * (b) R.MLS. Method : In this method also, the roughness is measured asthe average deviation from the nominal surface. Root mean square value measured is based on the least squares. ! % | era in Fig. 7.7. RMS value is defined as the squre root of the arithmetic mean of the values of the squares of the ordinates of the surface measured from a mean line. It is obtained by setting many equidistant ordinates on the mean line O Yo gr») and then taking the root of the mean of the squared ordi- nates. Let us assume that the sample length ‘L’ is divided into ‘n’ equal parts andyy, ¥2, ¥3, Jn are the heights of the ordinates erected at those points. Then, Wit a+ yg + +I n 1/2 RMS average = L 1 or Yrms=|7, Jor an 0 (© Ten Point Height Method : In this method, the average differ- ence between the five highest peaks and five lowest valleys of surface texture within the sampling length, measured from a line parallel to the mean line and not crossing the px ie is used to denote the amount of surface roughness. Mathematically, os ten point height of irregularities = [Ry + Ry + Ry +Ry+ Re) Bot Rr + Re + Rot Roll ‘This method is relatively simple method of analysis and measures the total depth of surface irregularities within the sampling length. But it does not give sufficient information about the surface, as no account is taken of frequency of the irregularities and the profile shape. Tt is used when it is desired to conteel the cost of finishing for checking the rough machining. scanned witn GamScann84 METROLOgy, Fig. 7.8. Form factor and Bearing Curves : There are certain charac. teristics which may be used to evaluate surface texture. Form Factor : The load carrying area of every surface is often much ess than might be thought. This is shown by reference-to form factor. The form factor is obtained by measuring the area of material above the arbitrarily chosen base line in the section and the area of the enveloping rectangle. Then, Fig. 7.9. Area of metal ee of enveloping rectangle Degree of emptiness =(K,)=1-K Bearing Area Curve: The bearing area curve is also called as Abbot's bearing curve, This is determined by adding the lengths a, b, ¢ etc. at depths x, y, 2 ete. below the reference line and indicates the percentage bearing area which becomes available as the crest area worn away. Fig. 7.10 indicates the method of determining the bearing curve. 7h scannea witn LémScannSURFACE TEXTURE 185 Statement of Surface Roughness The following informations shall be given in statements relating to surface roughness : (1) Surface Roughness Value : It is expressed as Ra value in microns (um). Ifa single Ra value is stated it is understood that any Ra value from zero to that stated is acceptable. (2) Limiting values : When both minimum and maximum Ra values needed to be specified these shall be expressed as follows : 8.0 Ra Teo" alternatively, Ra 8.0 - 16.0 Table 7.2 indicates the surface roughness expected from manufactur- ing process stated in IS : 2073. Table 7.2. Surface roughness expected from various manufacturing processes Sr. No. Manufacturing process Ra value in wm ot [Sand casting to 50 1 | Permanent mould casting 0.8 to 6.3 "| Die casting 0.8 to 3.2 9 _| High pressure casting 0.82 to2 [| Hot Routing 2.5 to 50 2 & | Forging 1.6 to 25 2. 22 | Extrusion 0.16 to5 3 |Flame cutting, sawing and 6.3 to 100 | © [chipping | Radial cut-off sawing 1to63 Hand grinding 3.6 to 25 § | Disc grinding 1.6 to 25 3 | Filing .25 to 25 § - [Planing 1.6 to 50 3: 2 | Shaping 1.6 to 25 2 | Drilling 1.6 to 20 ‘| Turning and milling 0.32 to 25 3 | Boring 0.41063 = | Reaming 0.4 to3.2 Broaching 0.4 to 3.2 | | Hobbing 0.4 to 3.2 TL, [Surface grinding 0.063 to 5 3 & | Cylindrical grinding 0.063 to 5 a 2 |Honing 0.025 to 0.4 4. 2 | Lapping 0.012 to 0.16 = § | Polishing 0.04 to 0.16 & & | Burnishing 0.04 to 0.16 |__| Super finishing 0.16 to 0.32 scanned witn LamScann6 METROLOGy 18 i -off) : ling length j ling Length (Instrument Cut-off) : The samp] 3 ® marae parenthesis following the roughness value as fol. lows: Ra 8.0 (2.5) | Here, Ra value is 8.0 microns and sampling length 2.5 mm. (4) Lay : It is sometimies necessary to spécify the direction of lay. It is expressed in accordance with the following example : Ra 15 lay parallel Unless otherwise specified, it is assumed that the surface rough- ness shall be across the direction of Lay. (5) Process : When it is necessary to limit the production of a surface to the use of one particular process, the process shall be stated, Conventional Method for Designing Surface Finish As per IS : 696 surface texture specified by indicating the following main characteristics in the symbols : (@) Roughness value i.e., Ra value in um (6) Machining allowance in mm. (c) Sampling length or instrument cut-off length in mm. (d) Machining/production method, and (©) Direction of lay in the symbol form as =, 1, X, M,C, R For example, a milled surface with 1.2 mm machining allowance having Ra value 6.3 um, with cut-off length 2.5 mm and direction of lay parallel will be represented as shown in Fig. 7.11 (6). Méctining matted t Roughness Sanoing ove ae tera Machining dlowanes ~ g¢) Fig. 7.11; > The surface roughness on drawings is repre: ith i d triangles as per IS : 3973, Presented with inverte Symbol Ra value in um > above 25 8 to 25 ou 1.6 to8 rae 0.25 to 16 NNN < 0.025 Preferred Values of Ra and Rz Preferred values for arithmetical mean deviation Ra in um are selected from : 0.025, 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.4, 0.8, 1.6, 3.2, 6.3, 12.5 and 25 and scanned witn vamScannSURFACE TEXTURE 187 yne preferred values for ten point height irregularities Re i x fom : 0.05, 0:1, 0.2, 0.4, 0.8, 1.6, 3.2, 6.3, 128, 25, 50 and 100. eal Measurement of surface finish/ surface texture : The methods used for measuring the surface finish can be classified broadly into two groups. 1, Inspection by comparison. 2, Direct instrument measurement. 1. Inspection by comparison methods. In these methods, the surface texture is assessed by observation of the surface. These are the methods of qualitative analysis of the surface texture. The texture of the surface to be tested is compared with that of a specimen of known rough- ness value and finished by similar machining processes. Though these methods are rapid, the results are not reliable because they can be mislead- ing if comparison is not made with the surface produced by similar techni- ques. The various methods available for comparison are : (1) Visual Inspection (2) Touch Inspection (8) Scratch Inspection (4) Microscopic Inspection (6) Surface photographs (6) Micro-Interferometer (7) Wallace surface Dynomometer (8) Reflected Light Intensity. Touch Inspection : This method can simply assess which surface is more rough, it cannot give the degree of surface roughness. Secondly, the minute flaws can't be detcted. In this method, the finger tip is moved along the surface at a speed of about 25 mm per second and the irregularities as small as 0.0125 mm can be detected. In modified method a tennis ball is rubbed over the surface and surface roughness is judged thereby. Visual Inspection : In this method the surface is inspected by naked eye. This method is always likely to be misleading particularly when surfaces with high degree of finish are inspected. It is therefore limited to rougher surfaces. Scratch Inspection : In this method a softer material like lead, babbit or plastic is rubbed over the surface to be inspected. The impression of the scratches on the surface produced is then visualised. Microscopic Inspection : This is probably the best method for examin- ing the surface texture by comparison. But since, only a small surface can be inspected at a time several readings are required to get an average value. In this method, a master finished surface is placed under the microscope and compared with the surface under inspection. Alternatively, a straight edge is placéd on the surface to be inspected and a beam of light projected at about 60° to the work. Thus the shadow is cast into the surface, the Scratches are magnified and the surface irregularities can be studied. scanned witn amScannI 188 METROLO«, Surface photographs : In this method magnified photographs ot y, surface are taken with different types of illumination to reveal the irrogy, larities. Ifthe vertical illumination is used then defects like irregularities and scratches appear as dark spots and flat portion of the surface appears a bright area. In case of oblique illumination, reverse is the case. Photy, graphs with different illumination are compared and the result is ABsesser Micro Interferometer : In this method, an optical flat is placed on th, surface to be inspected and illuminated by a monochromatic source of light Interference bands are studied through a microscope. The scratches in the surface appear as interference lines extending from the dark bands into the bright bands. The depth of the defect is measured in terms of the fraction of the interference bands. Wallace Surface Dynamometer : It is a sort of friction meter. It consists of a pendulum in which the testing shoes are damped to a bearing surface and a predetermined spring pressure can be applied. The pendulum is lifted to its initial starting position and allowed to swing over the surface to be tested. If the surface is smooth, then there will be less friction and pendv. lum swings for a longer period. Thus, the time of swing is a direct measure of surface texture. Reflected Light Intensity : In this method a beam of light of known Quantity is projected upon the surface. This light is reflected in several directions as beams of lesser intensity and the change in light intensity in different directions is measured by a photocell. The measured intensity changes are already calibrated by means of reading taken from surface of known roughness by some other suitable method, ‘Surface Roughness Comparison Specimen : The roughness comparison Specimens are either flat or segmented cylindrical pieces having known roughness value. They are used for quantitative assessment of surface roughness of a finished product by comparison. These specimens are made up of hard, wear resistant materials such as stool having hardness of about £00 HB, nickel alloy or metallised plastics. They are rigidly supported on a base to prevent warping or distortion during use, The assessment of surface roughness of a finished product is done bY comparison with the specimen of known roughness value and finished by machining process similar to that of the product under test. The comparison may be made by visual inspection or touch inspection, In visual inspection, the product and the specimen are seen simults- neously and the roughness of the product is compared with that of the specimen by naked eye. In touch inspection, the feel of the surface is experienced by moving finger nail lightly across the lay of the roughness of the product to be tested and afterwards moving across the surface of the specimen of known roughness value. Then the two feels are compared to assess the surface roughness of the product. scanned witn LarfiScannSURFACE TEXTURE wo ‘These specimens have also proved to be very good devices for training the personnel to judge the Ra value by feel and appearance of the surfaces. Jt should be noted that the surface being compared should be clean and dry. However, the results obtained by comparison vary from person to person. Errors may also be caused due to difference in the material, shape, method of maching, method of finish, etc, of the product and the specimen. 2, Direct Instrument Measurement. These are the methods of quantitative analysis. These methods enable to determine the numerical value of the surface finish of any surface by using instruments of stylus probe type operating on electrical principles. In these instruments the output has to be amplified and the amplified output is used to operate recording or indicating instrument. Principle, construction and operation of stylus probe type surface tex- ture measuring instruments : If a finely pointed probe or stylus be moved over the surface of a workpiece, the vertical movement of the stylus caused due to the irregularities in the surface texture can be used to assess the surface finish of the workpiece. Stylus which is @ fine point made of diamond or any such hard material is drawn over the surface to be tested. The movements of the stylus are used to modulate a high frequency carrier current or to generate a voltage signal. The output is then amplified by suitable means and used to operate a recording or indicating instrument. kia stylus Fig. 7.12. Stylus type instruments generally consist of the following units : (é) Skid or shoe (ii) Finely pointed stylus or probe (iii) An amplifying’ device for magni indicator (iv) Recording device to produce a trace and (v) Means for analysing the trace. Skid or shoe is drawn slowly over ; motor drive. It follows the general contours of the surface and provides a datum for measurements. The stylus moves over the surface with the skid. It moves vertically up and down due to surface roughness and records the micro-geometrical form of the surface. The stylus movements are magnified by an amplifying device and recorded to produce a trace. The trace is then analysed by some automatic device incoporated in the instrument. fying the stylus movement and the surface either by hand or by scanned witn LamScann190 Los es: ea advantage of such instruments is that the electrical signa) available can be processed to obtain any desired roughness parameter o, can be recorded for display or subsequent analysis. Therefore, the stylg type instruments are widely used for surface texture measurements inspit, of the following disadvantages : Disadvantages : @ These instruments are bulky and complex. (ii) They are relatively fragile. (éii) Initial cost is high. j (iv) Measurements are limited to a section of a surface. (v) Needs skilled operators for measurements. (vi) Distance between stylus and skid and the shape of the skid introduce errors in measurement for wavy surfaces. The stylus probe instruments currently in use for surface finish meas- surement are: — | (é) Profilometer. (ii) The Tomlinson surface meter. (iii) The Taylor Hobson Talysurf, (iv) The Sigma Microtest. (v) The Rubert Mecrin Roughness Indicator, Profilometer : Profilometer is an indicatin, used to measure roughness in microns, The principle of the instrument is similar nevgion Yer Maenet to gramophone pick up. It consists of two fl g and recording instrument principal units a tracer and an amplifier, Tracer is a finely pointed stylus, It ig mounted in the pick up unit which con. sists of an induction coil located in the field of a permanent magnet. When the. Sblus or tracer is moved across the surface to be . probe Surface tested, it is displaced vertically up and Le down due to the surface irregularities. This causes the induction coil to move in Protiometer the field of the permanent maynet induces a voltage. The induced voltage 1 Radel amplified and recorded, This instrument is best suited-for . Figen bores. measuring surface finish of ‘The Tomlinson Surface Meter The Tomlinson surface meter is a com; i d reliable instrument, It was originally designed by Dr Tomi ep ee ee Scanned witn VarhScann‘TEXTURE SURFACE 191 Fixed Rollers Vertical motion of | stylus due to waviness__}! stylus“ Diamond Probe, eat Spring Lapped Stee! Sat blamed Seoked Glass * Foced, ‘sys. Rollers ‘Tomlinson Surtace Meter Fig. 7.14. Tomlinson Surface Meter It consists of a diamond probe (stylus) held by spring pressure against the surface of a lapped steel cylinder and is attached to the body of the instrument by a leaf spring. The lapped cylinder is supported on one side by the probe and on the other side by fixed rollers. A light spring steel arm is attached to the lapped cylinder. It carries at its tip a diamond scriber which rests against a smoked glass. The motions of the stylus in all the directions except the vertical one are prevented by the forces exerted by the two springs. For measuring surface finish the body of the instrument is moved across the surface by screw rotated by a synchronous motor. The vertical movement of the probe caused by surface irregularities makes the horizon- tal lapped cylinder to roll. This causes the movement of the arm attached to the lapped cylinder. A magnified vertical movement of the diamond seriber on smoked glass is obtained by the movement of the arm. This vertical movement of the scriber together with horizontal movement pro- duces a trace on the smoked glass plate. This trace is further magnified at X50 or X 100 by an optical projector for examination. The Taylor-Hobson-Talysurf : Taylor-Hobson Talysurf is a stylus and skid type of instrument working on carrier modulating principle. Its response is more rapid and accurate as comparred to Temlinson Surface Meter, The measuring head of this instrument consists ofa sharply pointed diamond stylus of about 0.002 mm tip radius and skid or shoe vhich is drawn across the surface by means of a motorised dewing unit. In this instrument the stylus is made to trace the profile of the surface irregularities, and the oscillatory movement of the stylus is converted into changes in electric current by the arrangement as shown in Fig. 1.15. The arm carrying the stylus forms an armature which pivots about the centre — scanned witn FamScannia METROLOGy i 7 nping. On two legs of (outer pole pieces) the E-shaped ae neonate carrying an ace, current, These two coils with other two resistances form an oscillator. As the armature is pivoted about the central leg, any movement of the stylus causes the air gap to vary and thug the amplitude of the original a.c. current flowing in the coils is modulated, The output of the bridge thus consists of modulation only as shown in Fig. 7.15. This is further demodulated so that the current now is directly proportional to the vertical displacement of the stylus only. [SSS E shaped t= Stam a a Stamping 8 EEK - Armature Ski > + a0 Filtered Wave Form wa A q Meter 8 c 3 2 : bd S Recorder 5 : canter teins | pial Fig. 7.16. Talyor-Hobson-Talysurf The Ruler ‘Mecrin’ Roughness instrumen, t.: It is a recent development which provides Ra values. It is also called as Mecrin gauge. n Gauge : Mecrin Roughnoss instrument assesses A allic blade when pushed against a surface at a certain angle will either slide or buckle dependjng on two factors () The surface roughness. (Gi) The angle of attack, i.e., the angle of the blade with the surface. scanned witn vamScannSURFACE TEXTURE 193 The essential behaviour of the blade is shown in Fi below the critical angle the blade tip will simply, aMidealouy tho marfaco but if the single is successively increased at certain angle the blade just begins to buckle. This angle is the critical angle of attack. The smoother the surface the greater the critical angle and thus this angle is a function of the ~ degree of roughness encountered. “ie f | ‘ ai Angle of attack a (a) Sliding blade (b) buckling blade Fig. 7.16. Behaviour of blade in Mecrin Gauge © / Fig. 7.17 shows the form of the instrument. The angle of attack is measured with a gravity dial indicator which incorporates a pendulum and a gear mechanism and the buckling blade is observed through the transparent cover. The dial is calibrated in terms of the N grades and the corresponding Ra values. : Fig. 7.17. This instrument can be used : : / (@ to provide jim Ra values for relatively smooth irregular surfaces ; (ii) as a comparator for two surfaces as a limit gauge for roughness ; | (iii) to establish the direction of lay of a surface ; . (iv) to determine the direction of maximum roughness if the surface has a de‘inite lay ; ; ; : (v) toincrea zshort lengths down to 1 mn. which may be inaccessible to stylus instruments ; (vi) As a comparator for non-metallic surfar” e.g., paper, wood, painted surfaces ete ; on ~ (ii) to establish a numerical scale of the frictional qualities of rough, ~ regular surfaces. plastica, scannea witrcamiscann_ 194. METROLOGY It is a good practice to take the average of at least five readings when: using an electronic stylus instrument. This is because of the fact that Ra values of each measuring traversing length on machined surfaces scatter from 10% to 100% depending on the machining method. : Other Methods used for Evaluating Surface Roughness (i) Profilograph : The principle of working of a tracer type profilograph is shown in Fig. 7.18. The work to be tested is placed on the table of the instrument. The work and the table are traversed with the help of a lead screw. Light Precision a ure Revohing Drurn Lie Oscillating Mirtor Stylus oF Tracer point | 7% Motor and reduction gear box Lead Screw S. Fig. 7.18. Principle of the tracer-type profilogram The stylus which is pivoted to a mirror moves over the tested surface. Oscillations of the tracer point are transmitted to the mirror. A light source sends.a beam of light through lens and a precision slit to the oscillating mirror. The reflected beam is directed to a revolving drum, upon which a sensitised film is arranged. This drum is rotated through two bevel gears from the same lead strew that moves the table of the instrument. A _profilogram will be. obtained from the ser. .itised film, that may be sub- sequently analysed to determine the value of the surface roughness. Double Microscope : It uses an optical method for measuring.the surface texture. It works on the light cross-section method which is based on the following : ni eye Prece | source ee | Senn ASG Objecine | Ss Prego surtace tobe Fig. 7.19. Double microscope scanned witn LafScannsuRFACE TEXTURE a Ifa thin film of light strikes the surface to be tested at an angle of 45", a band of reflected light will appear on the surface. The edge of this band will reproduce the Profile of the surface irregularities i.e., it will show an optical cross-section. This profile is magnified and observed by a micro- scope Which is also arranged at an angle of 45° to the surface and hence normal to the light source. A double microscope working on the above principle is shown in Fig 7.19. A beam of light, from a light source passes through the condenser * and precision slit and is directed at an angle of 45° to the surface being tested. The observing microscope is also inclined at an angle of 45° to the tested surface. The microscope has the objective and an eyepiece. The surface is illuminated by a projection tube, and is observed through the. eyepiece of the microscope. The field of view of the eyepiece contains a reading scale called an eyepiece micrometer, which is used to measure the height of surface irregularities. . SOLVED PROBLEMS Problem 1. How will you distinguish between ‘smooth’ and flat sur- face ? Explain with the help of sketches. > Sol. When using optical flats, it may be noticed that a surface may be apparently.smooth yet far from flat; alternatively it may be regarded ds’ flat, as indicated by the optical flat, and yet may be distinctly rough. The best way of indicating the way of deciding what is meant by “smooth” and “flat” is that used by R.E. Reason at a conference on surface finish and shown in Fig. 7.20. Calpe Size Witte “ pooose Cen UM , oa e le Wavelength 0.8 mm (not to scale) Fig. 7.20. Distinction between smooth and flat surfaces scanned witn LamScannMETROLog, ig. 7.20 (a) represents a theoretically smooth and flat surface; (5), ‘e) Beene of gradually decreasing wavelength ut all of thy same depth. The surface at (5) would be regarded as smoot | Dut not fay ‘hat at (e) as flat but not smooth; while (c) and (d) are eae Stages These changes are caused slowly by the variation in wavelength, which, therefore an important factor in the assessment of degree of roughness of, surface. The surfaces (b) and (c) in Fig. 7.20 are errors of form and would be measured by ordinarily metrological methods; that at (d) is regarded ay waviness of the surface and is measured by waviness recorder, and at () ig true surface roughness. This is called primary texture and is caused by the action of the cutting tool used to produce the surface. Problem 2. State true or false, give reasons. The machined surface consists of two or more different wavelengths superimposed. ~Sol. True. The machined surface may consist of two or more different ~vavelengths superimposed due to the action of different factors encoun- ‘ered during the machining. For example, turned work has one wavelength resulting from the feed ofthe tool and another caused by the actual cutting action; in addition there may be others produced by vibrations. Thus the complete feature of the surface may be very complex and in general it isnot possible to separate each contributing cause by instrument which can be used in the works inspection department. Problem 3. What do you mean by Ra and Rz values ? VA Sol. The Roughness average (R,) is a quantitative measure of surface ‘roughness. It is the arithmetical me: 1 an deviation of the surface profile from the mean line, Thus Ra values are numerical assessment of the average heights of irregularities of surface texture and are usually expressed in microns where one microns = 10-* mm. Fig. 7.21 shows a graph of ms “chined surface. To obtain Ra value, a sampling length is chosen and 2 yeturn line is drawn so'that the sum of the area (Ay +Ay +Ag) enclosed above the line is equal to the sum of the shaded area (Ay +Ag+Ad) enclosed below it. The Ra value is given by, 3 Ra(CLA) a Mean ine % | Fig. 7.21 Rez Value : It is ten point height of irrerularit; . | f egularit: d is defined as average difference between the five height geal and five lowest valleys" scanned witn VamScannsuRFACE TEXTURE o the surface profile within the sampling length from a line parallel to the mean line and not crossing the profile. Mathematically. Fig. 7.22. , / Re=5 (Ry +Ry+Ry+Ry+Rs)-(Rg+R,+Rg+Ro+Ry)) - where,’ Ry, Ro .... Rs are five highest peaks and ‘Rg, Ry... Ryo are five lowest valleys. Problem 4, State how surface finish is designated.on drawings. Sol. The surface roughness is represented as shown in Fig. 7.23. ‘The following information is furnished with the symbol V. (1) Surface roughness value in Ra Re Machining method value in microns 1m Roughness ini i value in Samii (2) Machining allowance in mm. ion amoling length (3) Sampling length in mm. en ie (4) Method of machining such as alowance milled, ground turned, tapped, shaped C3 Fig. 7.23. (5) Direction of lay in the symbol form as : Problem 5. The surface finish on the milled surface is not to exceed 5m Ra with a cut-off length 2 mm, machining allowance 0.5 mm. and direction of lay parallel. How will you represent it on a drawing ? Sol. Milled Fig. 7.24. Problem 6. Following are the Ra.values for jobs. Mention the method °f manufacturing 8, 6.4, 1.6 and 0.008. scanned witn LamScann= ' >»! Mi ‘198 IETROLOgy Sol. Ra value in microns method of manufacturing “3 Broaching or Reaming 64 Shaping, drilling 0.008 Lapping, superfinishing, Problem 7. In the measurement of surface roughness, heights of successive 10 peaks and troughs were measured from a datum and were 39 25, 30, 19, 22, 18, 27, 29 and 20 microns. If these measurements wer, obtained on 10 mm length, determine CLA and RMS values of surfacy roughness. N+y2+I9 + +n Sol. CLA value or Ra value =7*—~?>—= 3" 38 +25 +30 +19 +22 + 18+27+29 +20 = 10 , = 25.5 microns 2a 2ane Vitye+ 93+ 257 +307 + 18” + 27° + 28? + 20? 10 = 26.03 microns : Problem 8. Define the, terms “Primary Texture” and “Secondary Texture”. Name any two instridments used for measuring surface texture. Ans. Primary Texture. The surface irregularities of small wavelength are called primary texture or roughness. These are caused by direct action of the cutting elements on the material i.e., cutting tool shape, tool feed rate or by some other disturbances such as friction, wear or corrosion. ‘Secondary texture Primary texture ta Fig. 7.25. Disinction between primary and secondary texture Secondary Texture. The surface irregularities of considerable wavelength of a periodic character are called ‘ secondary texture or wav ness. These irregularities result due to inaccuracies of slides, weat © guides, mis-alignemnt of centres, non-linear feed motion, deformation ° work under the action of cutting forces, vibrations ete. Problem 9. The instruments used for measuring surface texture 07° @ Tomlinson surface meter (ii) Taylor-Hobson Talysurf, State the advers? “ects of poor surface finish. scanned witn VamScannSURFACE TEXTURE iio Sol. If the surface is too rough, the initial rate of wear is too large which affects the life of the components, A turning shaft may act like a reamer and a piston rod like a broach. The mating parts can heat up, bind and freeze. f Excessive surface toughness on shafts and bearings in an electrical household application requires more power. The valleys between ridges of a machined surface may become the focus for concentration of informal stresses. These valleys between ridges behave like notches and cracks may start from these notches which are points of high stress concentration. Many such cracks lead to subsequent destruction of machine part and are said to have failed due to fatigue caused by stress concentration. : Poor surface finish may also neutralise the effect of tolerances and may affect the functioning of the part in use. It increases corrosion and reduces the life of the parts. : If the mating parts of gears are rough it may create lot of noise during working. Poor surface finish affects the appear of the components. Problem 10. Calculate the C.L.A. value of a surface for the following data: The sampling length is 0.8 mm, the graph is drawn to a vertical magnification of 15,000 and horizontal magnification of 100 and the areas above and below the datum line are 160, 90, 180, 50 mm? and 95, §5, 170, 150 mm? respectively. ZA 1 1 Sol. C.L.A. = "7" Vertical seale “ horizontal scale = (160 x 95 +90 + 65 =i80 +170 + 50 + 150) 15000 x 100 =0.8 pm. Problem 11. In the measurement of surface roughness, heights of 20 successive peaks and valleys measured from a datum are as follows : 45, 25, 40, 25, 35, 16, 40, 22, 25, 34, 25, 40, 20, 36, 28, 18, 20, 25, 30, 38 If these measurements were made over a length of 20 mm, determine the C.L.A and RMS values of the surface. Sol. 45 +25 +40 +25 +95 +16 +40 + 22425 +34 +25 28 + 18 +20 + 30 +38 CLAvalue =< 1 40#20+36+28+ = = 29,35 W524 25? 4 40? + 257 + 95+ 167+ 40" + 227 + 25" + 347 + 25° RMS Value = “+ 40? + 20° + 9624+ 287+ 18° + 20" + 25" + 90" + 38° - 2 = 930.96 scanned witn FamScann- 10. 11, 12, 13. 14, 16. 16. 17, 7 METROLOgy EXERCISE Enumerate the different modes of defining surface texture. Describe with a neat sketch construction and working of an instry, ment used for measurement of surface texture, Enumerate the reasons for controlling the surface texture, (a) Define the term (i) Primary texture (ii) Secondary texture (b) State the factors affecting surface texture. .. Define the following in connection with surface texture assessment, (@Roughness (ii) Waviness (iii) Lay _(iv) Sampling length, Name and describe the various numerical methods of assessment of surface finish. Describe briefly the information needed for designating the surface finish.on drawing, give suitable example. .. The surface finish on a turned surface is not to exceed 0.8 um Ra, the measurement is to be made at a meter cut off 2.5 mm and to be made at right angles to the machining marks (readily),..Represent this specification on drawing. Explain the following terms in brief in relation to. @ Ra value (ii) Rz-value surface and finish it) Micro irregularities in macro irregularities, What are roughness comparison specimens ? How they assess surface roughness ? What are their limitations ? Explain the principle, general construction and observation of stylus type surface texture measuring instruments. What are the disad. vantages of these types of instruments ? Why are they widely used? Explain the following terms used in-surface finish measurement (any four). @ Roughness (i) Waviness (ii) Effective profile (iv) Centre line of profile (v) Lay. \ ® State and explain the met surface, Name the various methods of inspecting the surface finish by com- parison. State their advantages and limitations, It is not possible to produce perfectly smooth surface. Justify the statement. Name the various stylus probe instruments used for surface finish measurement and explain the construction and working of any one of ~ them. , 7 With the help of neat sketch describe the construction and working of the following : @) Profilometer (i) Tomlinson surface meter thods of measuring primary texture of a scanned win L4émScannSURFACE TEXTURE _ 48. Describe the principle and operation of: Taylor-Hobson Talysurf surface roughness instrument, 49. Describe the following surface finish measuring instruments briefly : (i) Profilograph (i) Surface mecrin. 20. In the measurement of surface roughness, heights of 20 successive peaks and valleys were measured from a datum as follows : 35, 25, 40, 22, 85, 18, 42, 25, 35, 22, 36, 18, 42, 22, 32, 21, 37, 18, 35, 20 microns. Ifthese measurements were obtained over length of 20 mm, determine the C.L.A and R.M.S values of the surface. 21. In reactilinear pen recording of a diamond turned surface a sampling length of 0.8 mm is selected and V/H magnification ratio was 500/100, Calculate the Ra value if the area (in mm”) above and below the mean line are as follows : A B Cc D E F 60 115 96 92 109 70 22, The measurement of surface roughness the height of 10 successive peaks and valleys over datum line over a specified sampling length were found to be : Peaks : 45 42 40 35 85m. Valleys : 30 25 25 24 18pm. Determine the Rz value of the surface. RB . State the reasons for controlling the surface finish. .. “Different applications demand different surface texture.” Justify the statement. \ \ OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS (A) Fill in the blanks with suitable words : @ Gi) i) (iv) ) (vit) (viii), The roughness is also known as .. ‘The waviness is also called as . Surface texture includes ...... and Surface finish is measured ..... to the direction of the lay. ‘The surface irregularities of small wavelength are called as ....... while the surface irregularities of considerable wavelength are called as .... | The symbol Ra 8.0 (2.5) mean! _.. assesses the surface thrdugh its frictional properties and the average slope of the irregularities. * scanned witn amScannoS S METROLog, (B) State ‘true’ or ‘false’ : (i) Ifsampling length is not mentioned, itis considered to be ng in designating the surface roughness, 8mm (i) Talysurf is the workshop instrument for quick determination surface roughness. of (iii) Ra values are expressed in microns. (iv) Surfaces having same Ra'value may have different profiles, (v) In computing Ra values, sampling length is not considered, (vi) The surface irregularities of small wave length are called seep, | dary texture. . (wii) Primary texture includes the irregularities of third and fourth order. (viii) First order geometrical irregularities are caused due tp vibrations. i (ix) The secondary texture includes irregularities of first and second order. (x) Honing produces multidirectional surface texture. (©) Match the two parts : A | B @ Primary Texture Direction of predominant surface pattern. (i) Secondary Texture _ Irregularities of small wavelength. (iii) Lay Average deviation from the nominal surface. (iv) CLA. Irregularities of large wavelength. Part A Part B Orders of Geometrical i irregularities Causes (@ First order Due to vibrations (ii) Second order Due to rupture of material during separation of chips (iii) Third order Inaccuracies of machine tool (iv) Fourth order Characteristics of _-machininé processes. scanned witn LamScann