University of South Carolina

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Theses and Dissertations

2018

Action Research: Implementing Restorative Practices To Improve

Classroom Climate
Kyle Meetze
University of South Carolina

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ACTION RESEARCH: IMPLEMENTING RESTORATIVE PRACTICES TO IMPROVE
CLASSROOM CLIMATE

by

Kyle Meetze

Bachelor of Science
University of South Carolina, 2002

Master of Arts in Teaching

University of South Carolina, 2004

Master of Education
University of South Carolina, 2012

Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

For the Degree of Doctor of Education in

Curriculum and Instruction

College of Education

University of South Carolina

2018

Accepted by:

Suha Tamim, Major Professor

Yasha Becton, Committee Member

Nathaniel Bryan, Committee Member

Matthew Irvin, Committee Member

Cheryl L. Addy, Vice Provost and Dean of the Graduate School

© Copyright by Kyle Meetze, 2018 All
Rights Reserved.

ii
 Dedication

The work that is represented in this dissertation in practice could not have been

completed without the help of many people.

I would like to thank my colleagues at school, Dr. Bill Coon, Dr. Natalie Osborne

Smith, and Kai Brailey who supported my efforts to undertake this study, and who acted

as sounding boards throughout this process. I am indebted to “Mr. Patrick,” my

cooperating teacher, who opened up his classroom and his heart to help with this

research. It was a pleasure to work with you.

Thanks also to my committee members who shared their wisdom and insight in

class and regarding this dissertation. I am especially grateful for the guidance, patience,

and astute feedback provided by my dissertation chair, Dr. Suha Tamim. You made this

process doable and pushed me to create high quality work.

Most importantly, I would like to thank my family. To my sons, Lucas and Jacob,

thank you for understanding when Daddy had to do school work. Now, let’s go camping!

To my wife, Frances, I could not have done this without you. You listened as I shared

new learning, provided quiet time for me to work, and encouraged me when the going got

tough. More impressively, you did all this while completing your own master’s degree!

Thank you for believing in me and making me a better person. I love you!

Abstract

This paper describes action research focusing on implementing restorative

practices (RP) to improve the climate in an eighth grade science classroom. This study

utilized a concurrent mixed-methods design to determine if the use of RP, specifically

affective statements and affective questions, had an impact on classroom climate.

iii
Quantitative data consisted administering the Classroom Life Inventory (CLI) to students

prior to and following the implementation of RP in the classroom. In addition, a student

focus group interview and a teacher interview were conducted following the

implementation of RP. The quantitative data were analyzed via descriptive statistics and

independent samples t-tests. The qualitative data was coded and patterns were observed

in order to obtain overarching themes in the focus group and teacher interview. While

there were some discrepancies between the qualitative and quantitative data sources, the

use of RP did have some effects on classroom climate. Of particular note were increased

perceptions of student academic support for one another. Furthermore, qualitative

instruments discovered that the use of affective statements and affective questions seemed

to enhance the teacher’s use of feedback and caused students to feel that the teacher

listened to them more than other teachers. The results of this action research and

implications of the findings are described in detail, as well as an action plan for

continuing this work.

Keywords: classroom climate, restorative practices, school climate, affective statements,

affective questions.
Table of Contents

Dedication ..........................................................................................................................
iii

Abstract ..............................................................................................................................
iv

List of Tables ................................................................................................................... viii

List of Figures ....................................................................................................................

ix

iv
Chapter One: Introduction ...................................................................................................1

Problem of Practice ....................................................................................................1

Statement of Purpose ..................................................................................................2

Research Questions ....................................................................................................3

Rationale .....................................................................................................................3

Conceptual Framework ..............................................................................................4

Theoretical Framework ............................................................................................10

Methodology ............................................................................................................11

Conclusion ................................................................................................................14

Chapter Two: Literature Review .......................................................................................16

Purpose of the Review ..............................................................................................16

Research Overview ..................................................................................................17

School and Classroom Climate ................................................................................18

Restorative Practices ................................................................................................22

Theoretical
Frameworks ...........................................................................................30 Discipline in
American Schools ...............................................................................36

Conclusion ................................................................................................................50

Chapter Three:
Methodology .............................................................................................53

Research Design .......................................................................................................54

Conclusion ................................................................................................................69

Chapter Four:
Findings ......................................................................................................71

CLI Results ...............................................................................................................72

v
 Focus Group .............................................................................................................78

Teacher Interview .....................................................................................................82

Triangulation of Findings .........................................................................................87

Conclusion ................................................................................................................92

Chapter Five: Implications and

Recommendations ...........................................................94

Review of Purpose ...................................................................................................94

Review of Methodology ...........................................................................................95

Review of Findings ..................................................................................................97

Action Plan ...............................................................................................................97

Implications ............................................................................................................100

Limitations .............................................................................................................104

Conclusion ..............................................................................................................106

References ........................................................................................................................10
7

Appendix A – Classroom Life

Inventory .........................................................................115

Appendix B – Focus Group Questions ............................................................................118

Appendix C –Teacher Interview Questions .....................................................................119

Appendix D – Questions in Each Scale of the CLI .........................................................120

vi
 List of Tables

Table 3.1 Demographic Information of Mr. Patrick’s 8th Period Class .............................63

Table 3.2 Demographic Information of Focus Group

Participants ....................................64

Table 4.1 Mean Responses to CLI Before and After the Implementation of RP ..............77

List of Figures

Figure 3.1 Screenshot of the learning goals for the researcher-created module on RP .....61

Figure 3.2 Screenshot of a slide about AS from the researcher-created module on RP ....62

Figure 5.1 Action plan for implementation of RP at

TTMS ...........................................101

vii
 Chapter One Introduction

The climate of a classroom can have significant implications, both positive and

negative, for the students in that particular environment (Smith, Fisher, & Frey, 2015;

Thapa, Cohen, Guffey, and Higgins-D’Alessandro, 2013). Changing the climate of a

classroom, particularly a negative climate, can be difficult. Restorative practices (RP) is

a framework for building relationships and addressing wrongdoing that has been

suggested to improve classroom climate (Costello, Wachtel, & Wachtel, 2009; Gregory,

Clawson, Davis, & Gerewitz, 2016; Mirsky, 2011; Smith et al., 2015). This chapter

describes a problem of practice regarding classroom climate and a solution involving RP.

The frameworks of climate and RP are discussed, as well as the theoretical frameworks

that undergird these ideas. A brief overview of the methodology is provided. The chapter

concludes with a preview of the remainder of this dissertation in practice (DiP).

Problem of Practice

As an assistant principal at Tulip Tree Middle School (TTMS), a pseudonym, I

have the opportunity to visit many classrooms. I have observed that students in one

teacher’s classroom may be respectful, adhere to classroom norms and expectations, and

work well with other students. Some of these same students may exhibit markedly

different behaviors in another teacher’s classroom. They may be defiant, disrespectful,

and/or not cooperative with other students. Why would these students act so differently

from one classroom to another? There are certainly multiple variables at play in these

scenarios, but the overarching theme is the climate of the various classrooms. School

climate is based on “patterns of school life experiences and reflects norms, goals, values,

interpersonal relationships, teaching and learning practices, and organizational structures”

1
(National School Climate Council, 2007, p. 5). While it is likely that there is variability

among the classroom climates within a single school, many of the general characteristics

of school climate can be extrapolated to the classroom level (Koth, Bradshaw, & Leaf,

2008).

It was surprising to see and feel the different climates that existed from one

teacher’s classroom to the next, or even sometimes from one class to the next, with the

same teacher. Thapa et al. (2013) describe five dimensions of school climate: safety,

relationships, teaching and learning, institutional environment, and the school

improvement process. Classroom observations at TTMS indicate that of these

dimensions of school climate, safety and relationships varied the most from one teacher

to another. If there were strategies to help teachers improve the safety and relationships

within their classroom, then the climate of their classrooms may improve.

Statement of Purpose

Restorative practices (RP) is a framework for working with students to prevent

and respond to harm in the classroom (Costello et al., 2009; Smith et al., 2015). RP has

been addressed by multiple authors. For example, Costello et al. (2009) explore the

philosophy of RP and describe a continuum of RP strategies. Smith et al. (2015) delve

deeper into the application of some of these RP strategies and expand on their

implementation in the classroom.

The use of RP has been suggested to improve classroom climate (Costello et al.,

2009; Gregory et al., 2016; Mirsky, 2011; Smith et al., 2015). Moreover, if teachers,

particularly those who have negative classroom climates, were introduced to and

implemented RP strategies, then the climate of their classrooms may improve. Improving

2
classroom climate has the potential to positively affect student academic performance,

decrease student absenteeism, improve student self-esteem, and improve the

psychological and emotional well-being of students (Smith et al., 2015; Thapa et al.,

2013). The purpose of the present action research is to determine if the implementation

of general RP, particularly affective statements (AS) and affective questions (AQ), will

improve classroom climate.

Research questions

This action research study seeks to help a teacher, who wishes to improve the

climate of their classroom, implement RP strategies in their classroom that may be able to

improve the climate of his/her class. Therefore, the research question is as follows: Will

implementing RP, specifically AS and AQ, in the classroom setting have an effect on the

climate of that classroom? Guiding questions for the focus group and teacher interview

were: What are student perceptions on the climate of the classroom as a result of the use

of RP? What were the teacher’s perceptions regarding the implementation of RP in the

classroom? What were the teacher’s perceptions on the climate of the classroom as a

result of RP?

Rationale
TTMS is part of a national school reform network called EL Education (EL). EL

schools focus on three dimensions of student achievement: mastery of knowledge and

skills, character, and high quality work (EL Education, 2015). The climate of a school can

affect all three dimensions of student achievement. An EL school climate is

3
“characterized by safety, kindness, joy in learning, and positive leadership by staff and

students” (EL Education, 2015, p. 64). To help achieve this type of school climate,

“student misbehavior is treated as a learning opportunity for both students and teachers.

Teachers probe for causes of misbehavior or conflict, and consequences are logical,

consistent, and clearly communicated” (EL Education, 2015, p. 64). A restorative

mindset involves focusing on relationships instead of rules. Smith et al. (2015)

summarize this restorative mindset when they state:

Students are going to misbehave as they learn and grow – it’s how we respond to

their misbehavior that matters. We believe that students should have a chance to

learn from their mistakes and to restore any damaged relationships with others. (p.

3)

The philosophy of RP, as described above, aligns well with the EL beliefs regarding

student school climate and discipline.

The implementation of AS and AQ by a teacher in his/her classroom has the

potential to improve the climate of that classroom (Costello et al., 2009; Gregory et al.,

2016; Mirsky, 2011; Smith et al., 2015). An improved classroom climate has, in turn, the

potential to improve student mastery of knowledge and skills, student character, and the

production of high quality work (Thapa et al., 2013).

Conceptual Framework

Classroom climate is a sub-category of school climate. This section will describe

the components of school and classroom climate, with emphasis on the sections that

pertain most directly to the classroom level. An overview of RP will also be provided.

4
This includes details regarding the RP strategies called affective statements and affective

questions, as well as the overall benefits and challenges of RP.

School/classroom climate. School climate refers to the “norms, values, and

expectations that support people feeling socially, emotionally, and physically safe”

(National School Climate Council, 2007, p. 5). A school’s climate “is a product of social

interactions among students and with teachers…and has been shown to relate to social

situations within classrooms and to the school as a whole” (Koth et al., 2008, p. 96). That

is to say that school climate can be affected by factors at the classroom level. Therefore,

it is reasonable for a school with an overall positive climate to have individual classrooms

where there exist less positive classroom climates.

School climate has been described as having five primary components: safety,

relationships, teaching and learning, institutional environment, and the school

improvement process (Thapa et al., 2013). While these five dimensions of climate affect

students in the classroom, some of the dimensions are more relevant to the classroom

setting than others. Individual teachers have more direct control over safety,

relationships, and teaching and learning. The dimensions of institutional environment

and school improvement process are more relevant to the whole-school level, as the

teacher in her/his classroom cannot directly control them. These tend to be controlled by

administrators at the school and/or district level.

Positive school and classroom climates have been shown to have multiple

benefits. There is evidence that positive climates have a strong effect on students’

academic achievement (National School Climate Council, 2007; Smith et al., 2015;

Thapa et al., 2013). Student behavior also tends to be better and incidents of bullying

5
tend to be decreased in classrooms with a positive climate where students feel safe

(Thapa et al., 2013). Additionally, students’ mental and physical well-being has been

shown to benefit from positive classroom climate (Smith et al., 2015, Thapa et al., 2013).

Restorative practices. RP were born from the restorative justice (RJ) movement.

RJ has its origins in the criminal justice field, but has been incorporated into the

educational realm as a non-traditional method for addressing harms and repairing

relationships after harm has been done in the school setting (Zehr, 2015). RP tends to be

a broader approach than RJ. RJ strategies are primarily reactive in nature because they

are utilized after there has been an incident that caused harm between people. RJ

strategies seek to address the harm that was done, and involves all affected by the harm in

determining how to make the situation right (Zehr, 2015). Research on this model of

implementation has noted limited success (McCluskey, Kane, Lloyd, Stead, Riddell, &

Weedon, 2011). Smith et al. (2015) note that, “it would be a mistake to wait for conflicts

to arise before enacting restorative practices - that’s what we did early on, and it was a

mistake” (p. 85).

While RP does utilize these RJ techniques when harm has been done, it also

involves more proactive strategies. These proactive strategies range in their formality.

Some RP can be easily implemented by classroom teachers, while others require more

specialized training for facilitation (Costello et al., 2009). Research suggests that these

types of proactive, whole-school approaches, involving as many people as possible, tend

to be the most successful (McCluskey et al., 2011; Morrison & Vaandering, 2012).

Multiple sources also suggest that the use of RP can improve school and classroom

climate (Costello et al., 2009; Gregory et al., 2016; Mirsky, 2011; Smith et al., 2015).

6
 It is also noted that whichever model of RJ or RP is implemented in a school, it

almost always has to live, to some degree, within the existing discipline structures. There

are many schools that have incorporated whole-school models, while retaining some

degree of exclusionary consequences, such as detention, in-school suspension, or out-

ofschool suspension (McCluskey et al, 2011; Smith et al., 2015).

Affective statements. One of the RP techniques that will be implemented as part

of this DiP is the use of AS. AS are used to let others know how their actions are

affecting you. For example, if a teacher is being interrupted by a student he may

typically say, “be quite.” The teacher could phrase that in an affective way, though, and

say, “I feel frustrated when you interrupt me while I am trying to talk to the class.” Smith

et al. (2015) offer a formula for using AS, which is particularly useful for people who are

new to this strategy, “I felt [emotion] when [behavior or event] because [reason for

emotion]” (p.88). It is also beneficial to be as specific as possible when using AS

(Costello et al., 2009).

AS are on the informal end of the RP continuum (Costello et al., 2009; Thosborne

& Blood, 2013). This means that they take less formal training and less time to

implement effectively, making it an ideal RP strategy for a teacher new to the RP

framework to begin with. “Affective statements are some of the easiest and most useful

tools for building a restorative classroom” (Costello et al., 2009, p.12). AS are also

strong candidates for improving classroom climate because they can improve the

relationship between teachers and students, and they can help students develop empathy

(Costello et al., 2009; Smith et al., 2015). AS can be used for positive or negative

feedback (Costello et al., 2009).

7
 Affective questions. Using AQ is very similar to AS, but is just slightly higher on

the RP continuum because it requires slightly more time to implement than AS. However

they can often still be used in a matter of minutes (Costello et al., 2009; Thosborne &

Blood, 2013). AQ are used when challenging behavior is encountered. AQ would most

often be used by a teacher to address conflict between students. The use of AQ seeks to

“see conflict in a school setting as an opportunity to foster learning and build

relationships” (Costello et al., 2009, p. 16). This is directly aligned with the core

practices of EL schools, mentioned previously, which treats student misbehavior as a

learning opportunity (EL Education, 2015).

The following AQ can be used when conflicts arise:

1. What happened?

2. What were you thinking at the time?

3. What have you thought about since?

4. Who has been affected by what you have done? In what way have they

been affected?

5. What do you need to do to make things right?

(Costello et al., 2009, p. 16; Thosborne & Blood, 2013, p. 41)

Depending on the situation, a teacher may use one or two of these questions, or

she may use all five. These questions are typically asked of a student in a private setting,

not in front of the class. Using these AQ gives the student, “an important opportunity…to

reflect on the impact of their behavior and to learn empathy for those whom they have

affected” (Costello et al., 2009, p. 18). Thosborne and Blood (2013) point out that it may

take more than once conversation with a student, using these questions, to effect

8
behavioral changes because new neural pathways are being created, which is not a quick

process.

Costello et al. (2009) also offer a set of suggested questions for those who have

been affected by harm:

1. What did you think when you realized what happened?

2. What impact has this incident had on you and others?

3. What has been the hardest thing for you?

4. What do you think needs to happen to make things right?

(p. 18)

These questions are particularly important because they address the victim. Those

students who do something wrong typically receive a great deal of attention from teachers

and administrators. Victims, however, are often overlooked. This provides the victim

with a chance to process the harmful event, make their feelings known, and have a voice

in making things right (Zehr, 2015).

Concerns regarding RP and its implementation. While RP does seem to be a

bright spot on the horizon in creating safe school and classroom climates, there are some

concerns regarding its implementation.

One concern is the time required to carry out some of the strategies. Some of the

more formal practices can take 90 to 120 minutes to complete a session (Amstutz &

Mullet, 2015). At TTMS that could be anywhere from one and a half to two and a half

class periods of instruction missed. If teachers or other school community members are

involved in these processes, such as conferences, when would it occur? Would teachers

be able and/or willing to give up that much time to address a single situation?

9
 A second concern is facilitator training. Multiple sources note that trained

facilitators should carry out RP processes (Amstutz & Mullet, 2015; Macready, 2009;

Zehr, 2015). Some strategies such as AS and AQ, though, require less training for

effective implementation (Thosborne & Blood, 2013). That is one reason those specific

strategies were chosen for use in this action research.

RP differs from traditional school discipline in that in its truest forms it does not

rely solely on exclusionary consequences, but, rather, focuses on the harm done and

repairing relationships. Carter (2013) states that, “Conversion of RP from a discipline

paradigm to a culture of care is an urgent refinement of the informal curriculum for peace

within and beyond the school.” (p. 46). This paradigm shift does present a challenge for

teachers who are incorporating RP.

Theoretical Framework

The theoretical frameworks that undergird the philosophy of RP include

progressive influences, as well as influences of social reconstructionism. Progressive

scholars believe in a student-centered approach to education, with a focus on the whole

child (Cohen, 1999). This whole child approach leads to not only addressing students’

academic needs, but their emotional needs, as well, which is a component of classroom

climate as we know it today. Social reconstructionists emphasized creating a better world

through education using dialog (Cohen, 1999). RP strive to use dialog to affect change at

the individual and classroom level.

Progressive era influences. The philosophy of Johann Pestaollizi, a progressive

educator, aligns with those of RP. While his beliefs will be discussed in more detail in

chapter two, a brief overview is presented here.

10
 RP principles contain echoes of Pestalozzi’s call for developing morals in children

through caring (Spring, 2014). As a Progressive educator, Pestalozzi moved away from

harsh punishment and towards a model of caring to develop morality.

Pestalozzi believed in “the replacement of corporal discipline with control through love”

(Spring, 2014, p. 149). This paradigm shift in school discipline paved the way for

philosophies like RP, which focus on restoring relationships when wrongdoing has

occurred.

Social reconstructionism. The social reconstructionist ideas of Paulo Friere are

also evident in the RP framework. Friere’s concept of the “Dialogic Man” and his belief

in the ability of dialogue to change the world are congruent with the tenets of RP, for that

is precisely what RP seeks to do: to bring about positive change to the worlds, or

communities, of individuals through structured dialogue. Friere’s concept of “praxis” is

also central to the philosophy of RP. Positive change can come about for those involved

in the dialogue that is the RP process. One such positive change that can come about is

an improvement in the climate of the classroom in which they are being implemented.

This improved classroom climate can then translate into academic and emotional benefits

for students (Smith et al., 2015).

Methodology

This section describes action research and how this DiP fits that format. It will go

on to give an overview of the research design for this project, including the participant

selection, description of the research site, research question, and sources of data

collection.

11
 Action research. Action research refers to a specific form of educational

research. Mertler (2014) defines “action research” as,

[A]ny systematic inquiry conducted by teachers, administrators, counselors, or

others with a vested interest in the teaching and learning process or environment

for the purpose gathering information about how their particular schools operate,

how they teach, and how their students learn. (p. 4)

This DiP qualifies as action research because the observer-researcher is an assistant

principal at TTMS, where this inquiry was conducted with a local and particular school

and with a specific target population of middle-level students and faculty. The identified

problem of practice specifically addresses a need at TTMS regarding classrooms with

negative climate.

This action research involved collaborating with a teacher to implement RP

strategies, which have been reported to improve classroom climate. A concurrent mixed-

methods approach was utilized to determine if the implementation of RP strategies had an

effect on classroom climate.

The results of this DiP may or may not be applicable to other teachers or schools

because it was designed to address the needs of a specific teacher. Dana and

YendolHoppy (2014) note that a key feature of teacher-inquiry is that it is “focused on

providing insight into a teacher’s classroom practice in an effort to make a change” (p. 7).

This DiP, which implemented some RP strategies in a single classroom, could have direct

impacts on the students and the faculty member who participated in this action research.

The results of this action research project, as well as some of the general processes will

be shared with other teachers in the future, as part of an action plan.

12
 Participant selection. Since I am an administrator and I do not have a classroom

of my own I recruited a teacher at my school, TTMS, with whom to work. The

cooperating teacher was one who wished to improve his classroom climate and was

willing to be a part of this action research project. Once I recruited a teacher with whom

to work, we selected one of his eighth grade science classes to be a part of this action

research project. While all of the students in that particular class experienced the RP

being implemented, only a purposefully selected group, whose parents provided

permission, participated in the focus group.

Research site. This action research took place at TTMS. TTMS is a suburban

middle school located in the southeastern United States. Currently, TTMS is comprised

of about 1100 students in grades six through eight. Average class size at TTMS is 27

students. TTMS is part of the EL Education network, which helps shape the vision,

mission, and instruction at TTMS.

Data collection. This action research utilized a concurrent mixed-methods

approach involving questionnaires, an interview, and a focus group. A classroom climate

survey, the classroom life instrument (CLI), was administered to the teacher’s students

prior to introducing the teacher to any RP strategies (Johnson, Johnson, & Anderson,

1983). Next, I worked with the teacher by providing an orientation for him regarding the

implementation of RP. Specifically, the orientation focused on the basic philosophy of

RP and the use of affective statements and questions in the classroom. I observed the

teacher and provided them feedback regarding the implementation of AS and AQ during

the implementation process.

13
 At the conclusion of the implementation period the class took the CLI again. The

results of the pre- and post-treatment surveys were compared to see if there are any

differences in classroom climate before and after the intervention. This included

analyzing the results using descriptive statistics and independent samples t-tests. In

addition to the surveys, a semi-structured interview with the teacher was conducted after

the implementation period to ascertain their perspective on the use of RP and changes in

classroom climate. Semi-structured interviews allow for follow-up and clarifying

questions (Mertler, 2014). Finally, a focus group was organized consisting of students,

with their consent and parental permission, from this teacher’s class to gather their

perspectives on the use of affective statements and questions and the overall classroom

climate.

Conclusion

It is clear that classroom climate has a major impact on students’ academic

performance and overall well-being (Smith et al., 2015; Thapa et al., 2013). Teachers

who have classes where there is a negative climate need ways to help improve that

climate. The incorporation of RP has been suggested as one way to help improve

classroom climate. RP also aligns well with the EL Education core practices regarding

classroom climate, which are utilized at TTMS. I worked with a classroom teacher to

help him implement two primary RP strategies: affective statements and affective

questions. Incorporating the types of language embedded in these RP into the classroom

has been show to improve teacher-student relationships and helps students develop

empathy (Costello et al., 2009; Mirsky, 2011; Smith et al., 2015). Through the use of a

concurrent mixed-methods design, utilizing pre- and post-treatment questionnaires, an

14
interview, and a focus group interview, the effects of the RP strategies on classroom

climate were assessed. The information gained from action research DiP can be used to

develop an action plan that will continue to use RP to improve the climate of classrooms

at TTMS, and possibly beyond.

Chapter one has described the problem, negative classroom climate at TTMS, and

a proposed intervention, the implementation of RP. Chapter two, the literature review,

explores more in-depth the theoretical and historical bases of school and classroom

climate and RP. It also provides more specific information about the types of RP, namely

affective statements and affective questions, which will be utilized in this action research

study. Chapter three describes the mixed-methods methodology that was utilized to carry

out this action research. Chapter four shares the results of the action research. It also

includes interpretation of the results. This DiP concludes with chapter five, which

summarizes the study and includes the action plan, which is part of the action research

design (Dana & Yendol-Hoppey, 2014). Limitations of this study, as well as suggestions

for future study, are also included.

Chapter Two Literature Review

The climate of a school can have profound effects on its students (Thapa et al.,

2013). In order to realize the benefits of a positive school climate, one must understand

its components. In addition, it is beneficial to fully grasp strategies, such as RP, that can

address particular aspects of school climate in order to improve the overall climate of a

school (Gregory et al., 2016; Smith et al. 2016). Similarly, it is also advantageous to be

15
aware of factors that can detract from a positive school climate, such as the reliance on

exclusionary consequences.

This literature review examines the relationships that exist between

school/classroom climate, exclusionary discipline consequences, and RP. It is postulated

that the implementation of RP can increase climate by improving relationships between

teachers and students and by using instances of inappropriate behavior as learning

opportunities for students to reflect on how their actions affected others. Secondarily, RP

have the potential to improve climate by being an alternative to exclusionary

consequences, which can have negative effects for not only the students who receive the

consequences, but for all students in a school (Perry & Morris, 2014).

Purpose of the Review

At TTMS, it has been noticed that there are some situations where teachers

experience negative classroom climates. This is often evidenced by higher numbers of

student behavior issues and a more confrontational tone to the class, which can have

negative academic results for students, as well as a myriad of other consequences (Smith

et al., 2015). The use of RP has been suggested to improve classroom climate (Costello

et al., 2009; Gregory et al., 2016; Smith et al., 2015) The purpose of this literature review

is to demonstrate the importance of classroom climate and to describe how the use of RP,

particularly affective statements and affective questions can positively influence

classroom climate.

This literature review seeks to provide credible evidence pertaining to the research

question (Machi & McEvoy, 2016). In this particular case, the desired information is

regarding the importance of classroom climate and ways in which RP can impact

16
classroom climate. A comprehensive survey of the existing literature was conducted

regarding classroom climate, restorative practices, and related topics. This process

utilized ERIC and Education Source databases to locate relevant literature related to the

field of education. This included searches using the following key words: classroom

climate, school climate, restorative practices, restorative justice, affective questions, and

affective statements.

Research Overview

The problem of practice is that there are classrooms at TTMS that seem to be

suffering from poor classroom climate. Students in these classes tend to be less respectful

towards each other and the teacher, and they are more hesitant to actively volunteer and

participate in class activities. The purpose of the present action research is to determine if

implementing RP, particularly affective statements and affective questions, will improve

classroom climate. The question of interest for this action research is: Will implementing

RP, specifically affective statements and questions, have an effect on classroom climate?

School and Classroom Climate

School and classroom climate can have profound academic and non-academic

impacts on students (Koth et al., 2008; National School Climate Council, 2007; Thapa et

al., 2013). This powerful influence of climate is of critical concern when there are

negative climates in schools and/or classrooms, which can result in unfavorable effects

for students. This review of the relevant literature will describe the relationship between

school and classroom climate. It will also investigate the components of classroom

climate and its effects on students.

17
 Relationship between school and classroom climate. The National School

Climate Council (2007) describes school climate as, “the quality and character of school

life. It is based on patterns of life experiences and reflects norms, goals, values,

interpersonal relationships, teaching, learning and leadership practices, and organizational

structures” (p.5). Koth et al. (2008) also express the pivotal role that social interactions

play in creating school climate. They note that these social interactions involve

relationships among students as well as relationships between teachers and students. The

interactions of teachers and students occur primarily at the classroom level.

When it comes to affecting individual students, Koth et al. (2008) found that

classroom-level factors had a greater impact than did school-level factors on students’

perception of school environment. Thus, while school and classroom climate are related

and can influence one another, it seems that classroom climate is more influential when it

comes to impacting individual students. Therefore, focusing on classroom-level

interventions, such as affective statements and affective questions, may also have a

greater likelihood of making an impact on students.

Components of school and classroom climate. There are five key components

to school climate: safety, relationships, teaching and learning, institutional environment,

and the school improvement process (Thapa et al., 2013). Many of these five elements

of school climate are interrelated, but they will be described individually in more detail.

Safety. Safety refers not just to the physical safety of students in a school, but

also to the emotional and psychological safety of a school environment. This echoes of

Maslow’s (1943) hierarchy of needs, which indicates that students cannot learn if they do

not first feel physically and emotionally safe. The implication of Maslow’s hierarchy of

18
needs will be discussed further in the section describing theoretical frameworks. Rules,

norms, and consistent enforcement of school discipline help to create a sense of physical

and emotional well-being in a school (Cohen et al., 2009). The benefits of a climate

where students feel safe include reduced bullying, reduced violence, and less aggression

(Thapa et al., 2013).

Relationships. Teaching and learning in schools does not occur in isolation.

Thus, as students and teachers in schools interact they create relationships. These

relationships, whether positive or negative, play a crucial role in school climate. Caring,

supportive structure and relationships between staff and students help to create the sense

of safety that benefits students (Gregory, Cornell, & Fan, 2011).

The relationships that students have with each other can also have academic

impacts (Goodenow & Grady, 1993). For example, when students learn cooperatively

from each other they create relationships that promote positive perceptions of support and

friendship (Johnson et al., 1983). Another important relationship in the web of school

culture is the student’s image of him/herself. Positive relationships with teachers and

other students can have positive impacts on a student’s perception of him/herself, which

can serve to improve their psychological well-being (Hoge, Smit, & Hanson, 1990).

Relationships within a school are also connected to the feeling of safety within a school.

Schools with more positive student-teacher relationships tend to have fewer behavioral

problems and a greater sense of overall safety (Gregory & Cornell, 2009; Skinner &

Belmont, 1993; Wang, Selman, Dishion, & Stormshak, 2010).

Teaching and learning. One of the primary purposes of a school is to facilitate

effective teaching and learning. Teaching and learning includes components such as the

19
quality of instruction and social-emotional learning. The quality of instruction in a given

classroom has many factors including teacher expectations, teacher’s use of praise,

opportunities for student participation, and variety of teaching methods (Cohen et al.,

2009). The inclusion of character and socio-moral development in the curriculum has

had positive impacts on academic achievement (Battistich, Schaps, & Wilson, 2004). It is

interesting to note that positive school culture can positively affect student achievement

not only in the immediate time and place, but for years to come (Hoy, Hannum, &

Tschannen-Moran, 1998).

Institutional environment. The institutional environment has an impact on

school climate. It can be subdivided into two components. The first component of

institutional environment is school connectedness/engagement. The second element of

institutional environment is the school facilities and resources (Thapa et al., 2013).

School connectedness is defined as, “the belief by students that adults and peers in the

school care about their learning as well as about them as individuals” (Centers for

Disease Control, 2009, p. 3). When students experience school connectedness they tend

to experience less violence, increased satisfaction of school, and increased academic

outcomes. It may also help prevent risky behaviors such as sexual promiscuity and drug

use outside of school (Catalano, Haggerty, Oesterle, Fleming, & Hawkins, 2004).

School facilities and resources have impacts on school climate. It has also been suggested

that there is more school connectedness in smaller schools. Other factors such as layout

of the school can also affect students’ perception of safety. Students in schools with more

unsupervised spaces tended to have a decreased sense of safety at school (Astor,

20
Benbenishty, & Estrada, 2009). This lack of supervision could certainly contribute

negatively to overall school climate.

School improvement process. The school improvement process is enhanced by a

school’s climate. Schools that exhibit relational trust have a greater likelihood of

implementing successful school improvement initiatives (Bryk & Schneider, 2002).

Other elements of the school improvement process that should be considered are

professional learning for teachers, safe learning climate, relationships between the

school, parents, and community, and instructional guidance (Bryk, Sebring, Allensworth,

Luppescu, & Easton, 2010). When these elements are thoughtfully incorporated into a

school’s improvement process it increases the likelihood of improving overall school

climate.

School climate has significant impacts on students’ academic success, mental

well-being, and physical health (Battistich, Schaps, & Wilson, 2004; Catalano, Haggerty,

Oesterle, Fleming, & Hawkins, 2004; Virtanen et al., 2009). These impacts of school

climate are not fleeting, but can be long lasting. One study found that a positive school

climate can produce beneficial effects years later (Hoy, Hannum, & Tschannen-Moran,

1998). This study examined the relationship of elements of school climate, collegial

leadership, teacher professionalism, academic press, and environmental press, on

academic achievement at eighty-six middle schools. They found that these elements of

school climate did have significant lasting impacts on students’ academic achievement for

multiple years.

Each of the components of school climate, safety, relationships, teaching and

learning, institutional environment, and school improvement process, plays a role in

21
achieving and maintaining positive school climate. Of these components, safety,

relationships, and teaching and learning are most applicable when analyzing climate at

the classroom level because teachers have the most direct control over these elements,

whereas administrators typically have more influence over the institutional environment

and school improvement process. This would explain why, in the same school, there

exist classrooms with positive climate and classrooms with negative climate. Even more

intriguing, though, is how to help teachers achieve positive classroom climate, so that

their students can reap the benefits that often result.

Restorative Practices

Zehr (2015) is widely known as the “grandfather of restorative justice”. Zehr’s

work with RJ began in the criminal justice setting and has also been adapted to

educational settings. RP is broader than RJ’s focus on relationships and repairing harm in

that it involves both proactive and reactive approaches to interacting in schools

(Costello et al., 2009; Smith et al., 2015; Thosborne & Blood, 2013). Costello et al.
(2009) produced a seminal work in the RP field, The Restorative Practices Handbook for

Teachers, Disciplinarians, and Administrators: Building a Culture of Community in

Schools. One of the authors, Ted Wachtel, founded the International Institute for

Restorative Practices, while the other two, Bob Costello and Joshua Wachtel, work for the

same organization. The framework for the restorative philosophy and the continuum of

restorative strategies that are described in this book are widely cited in the RP literature.

Costello et al. (2009) emphasize that acting restoratively means working with others to

solve a problem. It does not mean doing something to them, for them, or not doing

22
anything at all. RP refers to a framework that can be used (not just in schools) to build

relationships and address problems when they occur.

Several RP strategies are discussed in the literature inspired by Costello’s seminal

work (Smith et al., 2015; Thosborne & Blood, 2013). Costello et al. (2009) describe a

continuum of RP based on formality. On one end of the continuum exist informal

strategies that require training and little time to implement. At the other end of

continuum there are strategies that are more formal and require more highly skilled

training and time to implement (Thosborne & Blood, 2013). Costello et al. also present a

list of RP that goes from least formal to most formal: affective statements, affective

questions, small impromptu conferences, group or circle, and formal conferences

(Costello et al., 2009).

Smith et al. (2015) and Thosborne and Blood (2013) have taken the strategies

described by Costello et al. (2009) and expanded on them. For example, Smith et al.

(2015) identify and explain different types of AS, such as identity-building statements and

agency statements. Thosborne and Blood (2013) provide a “formula” for creating AS,

and then provide suggestions for implementing RP on a school-wide level.

AS use the pronoun “I” to express how a person has been affected by others. For

example, a teacher may respond to a student blurting out by saying, “I am feeling

frustrated because you are blurting out and not giving other students a chance to respond”

(Thosborne & Blood, 2013). Other types of AS can be proactive strategies that build

agency and identity. Identity-building statements provide student the opportunity to

analyze themselves and the roles in which they see themselves (Smith et al., 20015). A

simple example of this would be when a science teacher refers to his students as

23
“scientists”. The students hear the teacher refer to them as “scientists” and they begin to

think of themselves as scientists, and being good at science. Agency statements use

specific evidence to help build students confidence. For example, instead of giving a

general accolade such as, “good job,” a teacher using an affective statement could say, “I

can tell that you put a lot of effort into revising your rough draft. You did a much better

job of citing evidence to support your claims.” This type of specific feedback can help

develop students’ sense of agency and growth mindset, whereby students realize that they

can improve at a task with continued effort (Smith et al., 2015).

AQ are another informal strategy that is typically used when there has been a

minor conflict. A teacher might use affective questions a student has continued

inappropriate behavior after AS have been used. The teacher would privately speak with

the student for a couple of minutes using specific questions. Those questions are: What

happened? What were you thinking at the time? What have you thought about since?

Who has been affected by what you have done? How have they been affected? What do

you think you need to do to make things right? (Costello et al., 2009, p. 16). This strategy

allows a conflict to become a learning opportunity. Students have the chance to reflect on

the effects of their actions and to develop a strategy for making the situation right.

Impromptu conferences are in the middle of the formality continuum (Costello et

al., 2009; Smith et al., 2015). This strategy would be utilized when there is a conflict

involving multiple students. For example, if a teacher witnessed a conflict in the hallway

between two students, the teacher may pull the two students aside for an impromptu

conference. The impromptu conference is designed to quickly address a problem and to

keep it from escalating. It does it in a way that has students express their feelings about

24
the behaviors that occurred and how to resolve the situation (Smith et al., 2015). The

teacher would ask the AQ described in the previous paragraph to each participant and

allow them to answer without being interrupted. Since more people are involved these

conferences can take a little longer to facilitate.

“Groups” or “circles” is a more formal RP strategy because they take more time

to carry out. Circles can be used in many contexts, from pedagogical protocols, such as a

Socratic seminar, to strategies for discussing class-wide concerns (Smith et al., 2015). All

circle processes involve a group sitting in a circle, with all members able to see everyone

else. Often a talking piece is passed around to indicate who is talking at a given time.

The topics for circle discussions can vary greatly. Some circles, such as check-in circles,

are very informal and are used at the beginning of a week/class to give students the

opportunity to say how they are doing and to build relationships. Circles can also be used

for goal setting, discussing class norms, addressing classroom behavior problems, or

engaging in academic content (Morrison & Vaandering, 2012). These strategies require

more time and planning to carry out than do the previously described RP strategies.

The most formal RP is the formal conference (Costello et al., 2009). These types of

conferences typically include all parties that were involved or affected by wrongdoing.

These situations have reached a point where they could not be solved by less-formal RP

strategies. A highly trained facilitator implements protocols to conduct the conference

using restorative questions in a specific sequence with the goal of restoring relationships

that have been damaged. Ultimately, each participant has a chance to express their

feelings, describe how they were affected by the situation, and to participate in figuring

out what needs to be done to make the situation right (Wachtel, O’Connel, & Wachtel,

25
2010). Formal conferences can be lengthy because it is important for all participants to

have a chance to speak. This time requirement and the need for a highly skilled

facilitator make it the most formal RP strategy.

Ultimately, all RP strategies involve how people talk with one another (Smith et

al., 2015). From the informal affective statements and affective questions to the formal

conferences, all RP strategies have protocols for using language to express feelings and to

promote a shared understanding. Some of the language-usage protocols require more

skilled training and time to effectively implement, while others require less training and

quick to employ. Regardless of the complexity of the strategy, though, the use of

language is a powerful tool in dealing with human relationships.

All of these RP revolve around the use of language. How teachers talk to

students can be extremely powerful. It can let students know what teachers think about

them, and it can influence how students think about themselves (Johnston, Ivey, &

Faulkner, 2011). RP strategies such as AS and AQ use purposeful language to help

students understand the teacher better, understand themselves better, and to develop

empathy for others (Costello et al., 2009; Smith et al., 2015).

Sprinkle, Hunt, Simonds, and Comadena (2006) found that the language teachers

used with students when correcting behavior can have significant effects. They found

that prosocial behavior-alteration techniques (BATs) were more effective than antisocial

BATs. Prosocial statements that included an efficacy component were not only positive

in nature, but gave students a suggested action to take to achieve success. Antisocial

BATs often include a threat, and may or may not include an efficacy component that

gives students a strategy for avoiding the threatened punishment. The findings suggested

26
that, “efficacy alone is a far better compliance-gaining strategy than efficacy plus fear”

(Sprinkle et al., 2006, pp. 398-399). These findings also illustrate the power of language

used between teachers and students, and align with RP strategies, particularly affective

statements. Affective statements avoid antisocial BATs and provide some efficacy

information to students.

Benefits of RJ and RP. The use of RJ and RP has been suggested to have

positive impacts on school climate (Costello et al., 2009; Gregory et al., 2016; Morrison

& Vaandering, 2012; Smith et al., 2015). These impacts can often be found by analyzing

the number of students receiving exclusionary consequences such as suspensions and

expulsions. Since RJ and RP are alternatives to exclusionary consequences, successful

implementation of RJ and RP are often followed by lower rates of suspensions and

expulsions from school (Stinchcomb, Bazemore, & Ristenberg, 2006).

McCluskey, Lloyd, Kane, Riddel, Stead, & Weedon (2008) conducted a study on

the use of RP in 18 Scottish schools. They conducted surveys and interviews with pupils,

teachers, and parents, conducted on-site observations, and analyzed school and national

data. Their findings indicated that there were various levels of success in different

schools. Schools who utilized RP only in response to serious incidents indicated that the

RP were successful for the specific students involved in those incidents, but there were no

significant changes in overall school climate. The most successful RP implementations

involved schools who utilized whole-school approaches that incorporated pro-active and

reactive strategies. These schools saw positive impacts in staff and pupil interactions,

fewer discipline referrals, fewer playground incidents, fewer exclusionary consequences,

and a reduced need for external support (McCluskey et al.,

27
2008).

Stinchcomb, et al. (2006) describe a school district in Minnesota that

implemented RJ. This district chose to use circles as their primary restorative strategy.

They note that over a 3 year period behavioral referrals for physical aggression in

elementary schools fell from 773 to 153, suspensions in junior high dropped from 110 to

55, and senior high suspension dropped 132 to 95 (Stinchcomb et al., 2006).

Grossi and Mendes dos Santos (2012) describe the implementation of RP in four

Brazilian schools. Their findings indicate that RP, “promoted a healthier and peaceful

school environment” (Grossi & Mendes dos Santos, 2012, p. 134). This was evidenced

by fewer students being sent to administrators for disciplinary concerns. Instead, teachers

used RP strategies to address student conflict. It was also noted that RP was an effective

means to address issues of bullying. Feedback from students who were involved in

bullying situations and participated in the RP included, “Everybody thinks it’s cool. It

helps to solve the conflicts. It is good. You make peace after a fight.” and “By dialoguing,

we are able to understand each other. Then, the circle helps to solve the conflict” (Grossi

& Mendes dos Santos, 2012, p. 133).

RP can also have positive impacts on particular elements of school climate such

as relationships. Gregory et al. (2016) studied the implementation of RP in twenty-nine

high school classrooms. They found that teachers who most effectively implemented RP

had more positive relationships with diverse students. This was evidenced by surveys

that indicated students perceived these teachers as more respectful. These teachers also

issued fewer discipline referrals, specifically for Latino and African-American students

(Gregory et al., 2016).

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 Challenges of RP. While the use of RP does have benefits it also poses some

challenges. The greatest challenge may be a philosophical opposition to traditional

discipline structures in schools, such as zero tolerance policies, that rely on punitive

consequences (Gregory et al., 2016; McCluskey et al., 2011; Morrison & Vaandering,

2012). Instead of focusing on administering consequences when rules have been broken,

the restorative philosophy places an emphasis on using dialogue to involve all affected

parties in addressing the harm and repairing the relationships (Costello et al., 2009).

Institutions and individuals who attempt to implement RP within a punitive philosophy

do not tend to experience the full benefits of the RP framework (McCluskey et al., 2011).

Thus, attempting to shift a school and/or individual’s paradigm from a punitive to a

restorative approach is challenging (Morrison & Vaandering, 2012).

Another challenge to implementing RP is that it can be time consuming. While

affective statements and affective questions, which are on the informal side of the RP

continuum, are not time consuming other practices such as circle and restorative

conferences and be quite time consuming. The latter can sometimes require hours to

complete (Amstutz & Mullet, 2015). In today’s world of high-stakes testing educators

may be reluctant for students or themselves to devote that much time to addressing

individual incidents (Gregory et al., 2016). Logistically, it can also be difficult to carve

this much time out of a school day for teachers and students. Implementing the RP of

affective statements and affective questions, which are on the informal side of the

continuum and require less time to enact, would alleviate the time challenges that are

encountered when implementing more formal strategies. That is why AS and AQ were

29
selected as the specific RP strategies for this action research project: teachers require

relatively little training and time to implement them.

Theoretical Frameworks

RP has been influenced by the ideas of multiple theoretical frameworks,

particularly Progressivism, Social Reconstructionism, and Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.

Progressive ideas such as educating the whole child and developing the children’s morals

align well with the restorative mindset, which focuses on relationships and realizing the

impact of one’s actions on others (Thosborne & Blood, 2013; Kohn, 2015). Social

reconstructionists believe in the power of education to change society (Cohen, 1999).

Dialogue is an important tool that can be used to bring about social change (Freire, 2000).

RP is a way of being that relies on the intentional use of dialogue to build capacity, repair

harm, and strengthen relationships (Costello et al., 2009). Using RP on a small scale with

individuals in a classroom could eventually lead to changes at larger levels such as

schools and society. Maslow (1943) posited that people had various levels of needs, and

their most basic needs must be met before subsequent levels of needs can be addressed,

with the ultimate level being that of self-actualization. RP is a means of helping students

meet the needs of safety and self-esteem.

Progressivism. Progressive educators, such as Pestalozzi, were some of the first

to emphasize the importance of the whole child (as cited in Cohen, 1999), and to suggest

that the moral development of the child was as important as the intellectual development.

Pestalozzi stated, “The first instruction of the child should never be the business of the

head or of reason; it should always be the business of the senses, of the heart, of the

mother” (Pestalozzi, 1894, p. 189). He goes on to say, “It [human education] is for a long

30
time the business of the heart, before it is business of the reason (Pestalozzi, 1894, pp.

189-190). These ideas paved the way for RP. For example, Pestalozzi believed that

educators were responsible for structuring the school environment in order to help shape

children’s moral ideas (as cited in Spring, 2014). RP is a means of structuring a school or

classroom environment to focus on the effects of one’s actions and on relationships with

others (Thosborne & Blood, 2013). The teacher or facilitator uses structured dialogues

that develop moral ideas. Pestalozzi’s theories also led to using love as a means of

student control rather than corporal punishment (Spring, 2014). While true RP does not

aim to control participants, it does, in some cases, aim to replace exclusionary

disciplinary consequences with caring and empathy.

Social reconstructionism. There are influences from social reconstructionism in

RP, as well. In “Pedagogy of the Oppressed,” Paulo Freire (2000) writes of the power of

dialogue to “transform the world” (p. 87). Freire’s concept of the “dialogical man”

represents the quintessential RP participant. He states, “The ‘dialogical man’ is critical

and knows that although it is within the power of men to create and transform, in a

concrete situation of alienation men may be impaired in the use of that power” (p. 91).

These “concrete situations,” such as instances of classroom conflict or other forms of

harm, cause people’s ability to change and heal to be damaged, causing pain for those

involved. If the participants in the harmful events are willing to engage in dialogue,

though, their worlds can be transformed. Freire (2000) describes transformational

dialogue (or what it is not) when he says:

[D]ialogue is the encounter in which the united reflection and action of the

dialoguers are addressed to the world which is to be transformed and humanized,

31
 this dialogue cannot be reduced to the act of one person’s “depositing” ideas in

another, nor can it become a simple exchange of ideas to be “consumed” by the

discussants. Nor yet is it a hostile, polemical argument between men who are

committed neither to the naming of the world, nor to the search for truth, but

rather to the imposition of their own truth. (p. 89)

RJ is a means of achieving transformational dialogue. Amstutz and Mullet (2015) define

RJ as an inclusive, collaborative approach for being in community with others. When

harm occurs, RJ approaches affirm the viewpoints and needs of those affected, especially

the victims. This approach encourages healing without alienating or coercing others to

conform.

Freire’s (2000) description of dialogue as being a “united reflection” is echoed by

Amstutz and Mullet’s (2015) depiction of “inclusive, collaborative approaches for being
in community”. In his description of dialogue, Freire implies that true dialogue is a

“naming of the world” and a “search for truth”. RP gives participants the opportunity to

“name their world”; that is, to share their role in the “concrete situations”, and how they

were affected by those harmful events. For example, when using affective statements

teachers let students know how they have been affected by the student’s behavior. When

affective questions are used the student has a chance to share his/her thoughts and

feelings on a subject. This sharing of truth by all participants is a powerful dialogue that

can lead to changes in behavior.

When people willingly engage in true dialogue they have the ability to change

their worlds. Online, the Freire Institute (2016) describes “praxis” saying, It is not

enough for people to come together in dialogue in order to gain knowledge of their

32
social reality. They must act together upon their environment in order critically to

reflect upon their reality and so transform it through further action and critical reflection.

(par. 1)

That, praxis, is the goal of RP: to provide a means for those who have been

involved in conflict to share their stories, develop a way to make things right, and create

positive changes for all involved. The implementation of RP is also a concrete step in the

praxis of creating safer, saner schools for the benefit of all students (Mirsky, 2007).

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Maslow (1943) proposed that humans have a

hierarchy of five needs, ranging from basic, physiological needs, to advanced,

selfactualization. Maslow (1970) updated his original list of needs to also include

cognitive and aesthetic needs, so that the revised list, from basic to advanced is:

physiological, safety, love, esteem, cognitive, aesthetic, and self-actualization. In this

hierarchy the most basic needs must be met before a person can move their attention to

the next higher level. For example, a person must meet their physiological needs before

they begin to focus on their safety needs. This pattern carries all the way up to each

successive level of need.

The most basic need is physiological, which refers to the basic elements needed to

sustain life such as air, food, and water. Once these needs are met one may focus on

safety. The need of safety includes physical safety as well as a sense of order and

predictability. The next level of need is the need of love. This does not only include

romantic love, but also a more general sense of belonging to a group (Maslow, 1943).

The fourth level of need is that of esteem. “Esteem” refers to a need for self-respect and

respect from others. Without meeting this need of self-esteem, a person may lack

33
confidence, feel inferior, and develop a sense of helplessness (Maslow, 1943). When a

person has met their need for esteem then they may proceed to meeting their cognitive

needs. The basic cognitive needs include the desire to know and then the desire to

understand (Maslow, 1970). This basic need can be evidenced in the curiosity of

children, who tend to be naturally inquisitive about the world around them, assuming

their other basic needs are being met (Maslow, 1970). When and individual’s more basic

needs have been gratified, then they may experience these cognitive phenomena: keener

cognition, improved intuitive powers, increased creativity, pleasure in examining

complex ideas, and less fear of the unfamiliar (Maslow, 1970). Aesthetic needs overlap

somewhat with other categories, but include the need for symmetry, closure, and structure

(Maslow, 1970). The ultimate need is that of self-actualization. Maslow (1970)

succinctly describes this need by stating, “What humans can be, they must be” (p. 22).

This means that, once other basic needs are met, individuals have some basic desire to

accomplish. These desires vary by individual, but examples may be to make music, help

others, play a sport, become a parent, or to be a carpenter. Ultimately, though it is the

individual’s need to realize their potential.

The implementation of RP in classrooms can help meet students’ basic needs,

namely safety and esteem, so that they may proceed up the hierarchy to accomplish their

cognitive needs and, ultimately, attain self-actualization. The RP of affective statements

and affective questions have the potential to improve classroom climate by creating

emotional safety in the classroom (Thosborne & Blood, 2013). This establishment of

emotional safety helps meet students’ basic need for safety. Without meeting this need of

safety students would not be able to proceed to achieving higher level needs. Similarly,

34
the use of affective statements, particularly identity-building and agency statements, can

help build students’ self-esteem. Identity-building statements help students consider

themselves and the roles that they take on. This may include using terms like “scholars,”

“scientists,” or “historians” when referring to students in class. Using these types of

terms helps students identify themselves as these types of people (Smith et al., 2015).

Agency statements use evidence to discuss students’ outcomes. For example, instead of

using a general statement like “good work”, which does not relay much specific

information, a teacher may say something like, “I can tell that you have been doing your

math homework because you performed much better on this week’s quiz.” The second

statement indicates the students’ actions and the result of those actions. This helps the

student realize the effects of their actions (Smith et al., 2015).

Using these types of affective statements can help build students’ self-confidence

and help them gratify their need for esteem. Gratification of the esteem need, then allows

students to proceed up the hierarchy of needs to meet their cognitive needs, aesthetic

needs, and, ultimately, to meeting the need of self-actualization.

Discipline in American Schools

Student discipline is a field that has developed along with schooling in America.

For much of the history of American schooling discipline was based on a system of

punishments, including corporal punishment, and rewards (Butchart, 1995). As schooling

and philosophies about education evolved so, too, did practices regarding student

discipline. Progressives began to focus on the individual student and educating the whole

child. This ushered in the idea of building relationships between teachers and students.

During the twentieth century the use of corporal punishment waned, but the use of

35
exclusionary consequences such as in-school suspension, out-of-school suspension, and

expulsion from school increased (Butchart, 1995). Contemporary issues have emerged as

a result these exclusionary consequences, particularly the school-toprison pipeline

(STPP), and concerns of inequality in school discipline. In the last forty years the ideas

of RJ and RP have been introduced to American Education. Many view RJ and RP as

alternatives to exclusionary consequences that have great promise in addressing

behavioral concerns while mending relationships and keeping students in school

(Gonzalez, 2012).

Rewards and punishment. The early American education system was heavily

influenced by European philosophers such as John Locke. Spring (2014) writes, “Locke

argues, the most important factor in education is the development of correct habits, which

depends on proper manipulation of rewards and punishments” (p. 41). This reliance on

rewards and punishments is very different from the underlying beliefs about

RP. Smith et al. (2015) share that, “Rewards and consequences don’t work - or at least

they don’t teach. They may result in short term changes, but in reality they promote

compliance and little else” (p.6). They contend that over time rewards lose their

effectiveness; the rewards must become more valuable and/or more frequent to maintain

the same levels of efficacy. Smith et al. also share that consequences or punishments

have been shown to create negative feelings that can lead to further behavioral issues.

“Punishments don’t teach, they just create more distance between teachers and students”

(Smith et al., 2015, p. 9). Since early American schools were based upon the beliefs such

as those of Locke, RP would not have been a practice in those schools.

36
 Throughout much of the Nineteenth Century the leading educational practice was

the Lancasterian system, known for its discipline and orderliness (Butchart, 1995).

Lancaster’s system created a bureaucracy that utilized student monitors who taught other

students reported misbehaviors to the teacher. In this system discipline methods included

students, “having wooden logs placed around their necks. Extreme offenders were placed

in a sack or basket suspended from the roof of the school in full view of the rest of the

pupils” (Spring, 2014, p. 64). The Lancasterian system also utilized rewards for students

such as being promoted to the rank of monitor and wearing a conspicuous badge

(Butchart, 1995). The relationship with teachers and students was greatly diminished as

students were motivated by the disciplinary bureaucracy rather than through a

relationship with the teacher (Butchart, 1995).

Progressive shift to care. In the late Nineteenth and early Twentieth centuries

Progressivism began to emerge. Progressives believed in learning by doing, and the

centrality of collaboration, community, and relationships (Spring, 2014). In stark contrast

to the Lancasterian disciplinary consequences, the Pestalozzian theory relied on,

“the replacement of corporal discipline with control through love” (Spring, 2014, p. 149).

The shift in a reliance on harsh discipline to a reliance on love to shape students’ behavior

and moral education is a major step toward beliefs that would support RJ. Caring is

another factor that may contribute to improving school climate by improving

relationships between students and teachers (Ambrosetti, Cho, & Slate, 2009).

The positive correlation between a teacher’s perceived level of caring and their

effectiveness has been evidenced from elementary school through high school (Schulte,

Slate, and Onwuegbuzie, 2008; Schulte, Slate, and Onwuegbuzie, 2011; Slate, Capraro,

37
and Onwuegbuzie, 2007). The use of RP may be able to enhance this caring relationship

expressing concern and regard from teacher to student.

Noddings is an educational scholar, whose work focuses on caring, ethics, moral

education, school structures that promote caring, and feminine and maternal viewpoints

to inform caring and education (Bergman, 2004; Flinders, 2001). According to Noddings

(2013) there is a relationship between the one-caring and the cared-for. The one-caring is

receptive to the situation and needs of the cared-for. “Caring involves stepping out of

one’s own personal frame of reference into the other’s. When we care, we consider the

other’s point of view, his objective needs, and what he expects of us” (Noddings, 2013, p.

24). It is not enough for the one-caring to simply say, “I care”. If the cared-for does not

believe that the one-caring truly cares, then a caring relationship does not exist. So, when

using affective statements the student must believe that the teacher cares about him/her in

order for the statements to be effective. What might convince the cared-for that the

onecaring does care? Perhaps it is a sense of vulnerability. Noddings (2013) states, “it is

clear that my vulnerability is potentially increased when I care, for I can be hurt through

the other as well as through myself” (p. 33).

Actions are another aspect of caring. The one-caring often acts to promote the

well-being of the cared-for (Noddings, 2013. The one-caring recognizes that the caredfor

is in a certain concrete situation. Then, because they care, they act in a way to promote

the welfare of the cared-for. This action can be a way that the cared-for recognizes the

genuine caring nature of the relationship. However, the perceived attitude of the one-

caring is more important than actions (Noddings, 2013). This is because an act may seem

very caring to outsiders, but could harbor underlying negative attitudes that are apparent

38
only to the cared-for. Costello et al. (2009) note, for affective statements and affective

questions to be effective they must be used with the appropriate mindset and delivery.

For example, yelling angrily at a student “What were you thinking?” might be using

restorative words, but is certainly not embodying a caring, restorative demeanor. For

affective statements and affective questions to be effective the student must believe that

the teacher cares for him. The teacher’s words and demeanor must be congruent.

The cared-for also has a role in the caring relationship. Noddings (2013) notes that in the

confines of a caring relationship the cared-for is more willing to be his true self; “this

willing and unselfconscious revealing of self, is his major contribution to relation” (p.

73). This contribution fulfills the one-caring; it is the fruit that they get from the caring

relationship. Thus, when a student truly believes that a teacher cares about him/her they

are more likely to be their true self towards that teacher. This is often the reward for

which the teacher is striving.

The roles of the one-caring and the cared-for do translate to the framework of RP.

The primary methodology of RP is to promote affective language between people to build

relationships and solve conflicts. Noddings (2013) also acknowledges the importance of

dialogue in caring, “What I have been emphasizing so far is the central importance of

dialogue in nurturing the ethical ideal” (p. 121). Dialogue is a major means by which

caring relationships are created and maintained. Noddings (2013) also adds,

“The purpose of dialogue is to come into contact with ideas and to understand, to meet

the other and to care” (p. 186).

In the context of this action research project, RP are primarily enacted in response

to classroom disturbances. In a classroom setting the teacher typically holds a position of

39
power over the students. Many caring relationships also begin with unequal power, such

as that of parent and child. The one with more power is often the one-caring and the one

with less power is often the cared-for. These roles can interchange, though. Everyone

experiences both roles at various points in their lives. In a RP strategy, such as the use of

affective questions the teacher may initially take on the role of one-caring and the student

the role of cared-for. As the parties engage in real dialogue and truly listen to each other

they can, as Noddings (2013) describes, step “out of one’s own personal frame of

reference into the other’s. . . consider[ing] the other’s point of view, his objective needs,

and what he expects of us” (p. 24). Over the course of this dialogue, the teacher and

student may at various times play both the roles of one-caring and cared-for. If the

attitude and actions of the teacher are perceived as genuinely caring by the student, then

these parties have created a caring relationship. The student, by being his or her most

genuine self throughout this process, also contributes to the building of a caring

relationship.

Exclusionary consequences. Exclusionary consequences in schools typically

include in-school suspension, out-of-school suspension, and expulsion (Fabelo,

Thompson, Plotkin, Carmichael, Marchbanks, & Booth, 2011). In-school suspension

typically involves keeping students at school, but removing them from class and

sequestering them away from their peers. Out-of-school suspension is a consequence

whereby students are not allowed to come to school for a prescribed number of days. If a

student is expelled from school then they are either assigned to an alternative education

program that is not their home school, or they are no longer allowed to attend any school

in that district (Fabelo et al., 2011). Since the 1970s the use of exclusionary

40
consequences has doubled (Losen, 2011). Despite the wide use of exclusionary

consequences, there are negative effects as a result of their frequent use. At the school

level, increased use of exclusionary consequences correlates with a more negative

perception of school climate (Wallace, Goodkind, Wallace, & Bachman, 2008). At the

individual level, the use of suspension and exclusion is associated with lower academic

achievement (Rausch & Skiba, 2005). Students who are recipients of exclusionary

consequences are also at a greater risk of dropping out of school (Suh & Suh, 2007).

Exclusionary practices do not just negatively affect the students who are suspended or

expelled. Perry and Morris (2014) found that “higher levels of exclusionary discipline

within schools over time generate collateral damage, negatively affecting the academic

achievement of nonsuspended students in punitive contexts” (p. 1067).

Zero tolerance policies. In addition to the use of exclusionary consequences,

zero tolerance policies proliferated in the United States beginning in the 1980s and 1990s.

These policies have been defined as those that, “assign explicit, predetermined

punishments to specific violations of school rules, regardless of the situation or the

context of the behavior” (Boccanfuso & Kuhfield, 2011, p. 1). Most often, the

predetermined punishment is suspension or expulsion from school (Fabelo et al., 2011).

Typically, these infractions include possessing weapons and drugs at school, but have

even been expanded to include, in some locations, possession of over-the-counter

medications and talking back to teachers (Payne & Welch, 2015; Stinchcomb, Bazemore,

& Ristenberg, 2006). The use of zero tolerance policies in many schools across America

dramatically increase the number of students who receive exclusionary consequences,

and, therefore, experience the previously discussed negative effects of suspension and

41
expulsion (Wallace et al., 2008). In many cases where zero-tolerance policies are

enacted, such as the use of weapons, drugs, or violence on school campus, law

enforcement also becomes involved in the situation, thereby causing the youth to become

involved with the criminal justice system (Kupchik & Monahan, 2006; Mallet, 2016).

While these zero tolerance policies were intended to make schools safer, there is no

statistical evidence that they are doing so (Kupchik & Monahan, 2006). Instead, these

policies seem to be contributing to phenomena such as the school to prison pipeline

(Skiba, Arredondo, & Williams, 2014).

Minority students and boys tend to have less positive perceptions of school

climate than their peers. In their discussion of factors contributing to classroom climate,

Koth et al. (2008) described that male and minority students reported that the
environment was less safe and experienced lower academic achievement than did their

peers. This suggests that minority students and boys, in particular, would benefit from

strategies to improve school and classroom climate. It has been suggested that boys

actually commit more behavioral infractions than girls (Skiba, et al., 2002). Would

building better relationships with boys or increasing their sense of empathy, by using RP,

help curb their misbehavior?

It was noted that minorities also tend to have a less positive perception of school

climate (Koth et al., 2008). This, too, may relate back to relationships with staff. Skiba

et al. (2002) found that white students tended to be referred to the discipline office more

often for objective infractions like smoking, obscene language, vandalism, and leaving

class without permission. Black students, however, tended to be referred for actions such

as disrespect, excessive noise, threats, and loitering. The infractions for which black

42
students were referred were more subjective in nature. Might the use of RP strategies

help build stronger relationships between staff and students so that some of these

discipline referrals be avoided?

School to prison pipeline. As a result of the increased use of exclusionary

consequences in schools, a phenomenon has developed known as the STPP. While there

is no official definition of the STPP, it is a construct that suggests that the use of

exclusionary consequences in American schools, such as suspensions and expulsions,

along with the increased involvement of law enforcement in school discipline, results in

students with school discipline issues being ushered into the juvenile justice system and,

eventually, adult prisons (Fabelo et al., 2011; Mallet, 2016). African American students,

in particular, tend to receive disproportionately high numbers of discipline referrals for

more subjective infractions (Skiba, Michael, Nardo, & Peterson, 2002). Thus, African

American students are at a higher risk of entering the STPP because of the higher number

of discipline referrals they receive (Skiba, et al., 2014). The institution of zero-tolerance

policies in schools across the nation is also thought to have contributed to the STPP

(Mallet, 2016). If zero tolerance policies were relaxed and schools had other options, it

may reduce the number of students, particularly African American students, who enter the

criminal justice system for school discipline violations (Wilson, 2013). Other subgroups

of students who are disproportionally affected by school discipline are students with

disabilities, African American girls, and non-heterosexual girls (Skiba et al., 2014).

While there have been correlational studies that link the increased use of exclusionary

consequences for specific subgroups of students to their likelihood of entering the STPP,

43
a causal link has not yet been established. There may be other contributing factors such

as poverty (Skiba et al., 2014).

A history of differential treatment. Having rules unequally enforced against

them is not a new experience for African Americans. In Slavery by Another Name

(2008), Blackmon describes a corrupt system of industrial slavery that existed in the U.S.

between the Civil War and World War II. During this time African American men were

often arrested for little or no reason. When they could not pay the imposed fines private

companies would pay these fines on their behalf, essentially buying them from the county

or state. The men would then have to work off their debts to these private companies.

“At the end of the 1880s, thousands of black men across the South were imprisoned in

work camps only for violations of the new racial codes, completely subjective crimes, or

no demonstrable crime at all” (Blackmon, 2008, p. 99).

Throughout the era of legalized slavery described by Blackmon (2008), “charges

such as vagrancy, adultery, using obscene or abusive language…suddenly became

common, and were almost always filed against African Americans” (p. 79). The

subjectivity of the crimes for which blacks were arrested after Reconstruction is eerily

similar to the subjectivity of discipline violations many black students receive in schools

today. In their study, Skiba et al. (2002) noted that the overrepresentation of African

Americans receiving discipline referrals was rooted in the classroom. It started with the

teachers, and the reasons for their referrals of African Americans, in this study, tended to

be for more subjective offenses such as excessive noise and loitering.

Restorative Justice. The roots of RJ extend back in history to native cultures

such as Native Americans and First Nations in North America, Aboriginal tribes in

44
Australia, and Maori of New Zealand. These indigenous people used strategies to discuss

and address communal issues that are very similar to strategies incorporated by the RJ

movement (Thorsborne & Blood, 2013; Zehr, 2015). The modern RJ field emerged in

America in the 1970s in the criminal justice field, as restorative conferences became an

alternative to typical legal consequences such as probation and incarceration (Zehr,

2015). Zehr, who is often referred to as the father of RJ, noted that the legal system often

failed to meet the needs of all involved when harm occurred; including victims and the

community (Amstutz & Mullet, 2015; Zehr, 2015). The restorative process allows for all

involved to be heard and to be a part of the process for putting things right (Zehr, 2015).

Since the 1970s, these restorative beliefs and practices used in the legal system

have been modified and introduced into the school settings, first in places like Australia

and New Zealand (Thosborne & Blood, 2013). These school-based RJ programs then

influenced modern American schools with sporadic experimentation and implementation

of RJ practices in the U.S. (Zehr, 2015). RJ has also been implemented in schools in

Canada, Scotland, and Brazil with varying degrees of success (Grossi & Santos, 2012;

Maag, 2012; McCluskey, et al., 2008).

RJ programs in schools are typically reactive in nature in that they address an

incident after it has occurred (McCluskey et al, 2006). When harm has occurred, RJ aims

to bring together all those who were affected. Participants sit in a circle and a trained

facilitator carries out a restorative conference that uses specific questions in a strategic

order that allows all participants to share their story and how they were affected by the

incident (Costello et al., 2009). The ultimate goal of RJ is to repair the relationships that

have been damaged. To accomplish this goal, all involved in the restorative conference

45
decide what needs to be done to make the situation right (Costello et al., 2009). While the

use of RJ in response to harm has been noted to benefit the individual students involved

in the conferences, its use is not widespread enough to have a positive effect on whole

school climate (McCluskey et al., 2008; Thosborne & Blood, 2013).

Restorative practices. RP has evolved out of the RJ movement in the criminal

justice system and schools. RP differs from RJ in that RP tends to be more inclusive and

proactive. Instead of only involving those who have been affected by a harmful situation,

the RP framework can involve whole schools (McCluskey et al., 2008). In addition, the

use of RP does not require a harmful incident in order to be enacted. RP strategies can be

used to build community, improve relationships, and promote self-confidence before

harmful incidents occur (Costello et al., 2009). These strategies, specifically affective

statements and circles, have been described in previous sections in this chapter. When

harmful incidents do occur at school, RP incorporates RJ strategies, such as affective

questions, restorative circles, and restorative conferencing, to address those specific

situations (Thosborne & Blood, 2013). The most inclusive forms of RP implementation

include, “an approach emphasizing whole school ethos building, encompassing

preventive and educative aims at all levels, but also operating as a response to

wrongdoing, conflict, or when a relationship has broken down” (McCluskey et al., 2008,

p. 109). These whole school approaches had the most widespread benefits, including

contributing to an improvement in overall school climate (McCluskey et al, 2008;

Thosborne & Blood, 2013).

RP represent an alternative to exclusionary consequences and zero tolerance

policies (Gonzalez, 2012; Mallet, 2016). While many schools may be reluctant to go so

46
far, initially, as to use restorative practices when students fight or bring illegal substances

or weapons on campus, it has the potential to help address the root causes of these issues

and to decrease the volume of juveniles in the criminal justice system (Wilson, 2013).

Since African American students are disproportionately affected by school discipline, the

implementation of alternatives to exclusion, such as RP, would be a step in addressing the

needs of a population that has been historically disenfranchised (Anyon, Jenson, Altschul,

Farrar, McQueen, Greer, Downing, & Simmons, 2014; Blackmon, 2008; Skiba et al.,

2002).

While it is not definitive that the increased use of suspensions and expulsions is

leading students to prison, it does seem that students who receive many disciplinary

infractions are more likely to end up in prison (Skiba et al., 2014). It is also evident that

African Americans are overrepresented in school discipline statistics as well as in

American prisons. An alternative to exclusionary practices, such as RP, may be able to

disrupt two of the underlying mechanisms of the STPP (Anyon et al., 2014). First, RP

has the potential to prevent students from being referred to the discipline office in the first

place. With the use of RP, teachers can be empowered to proactively strengthen

relationships with students to prevent discipline problems (Thosborne and Blood, 2013).

When issues do arise teachers can utilize strategies like affective questions to help them

understand the root causes of the perceived misbehavior (Smith et al., 2015). The use of

these RP strategies may decrease the likelihood of students from receiving discipline

referrals, which would prevent them from being suspended and/or expelled from school

(Mallet, 2016). Secondly, this, in turn, has the potential to improve school climates and

students’ attitudes towards school (Skiba et al., 2014; Thosborne & Blood, 2013). This

47
change of attitude may be able to keep some students from dropping out of school, which

is a strong indicator of student’s likelihood of becoming involved with the prison system

(Skiba et al., 2014).

RP strategies also provide the opportunity for teachers to reframe instances of

“misbehavior” as learning opportunities (Costello et al., 2009). Instead of simply

referring a student to the discipline office, the use of RP, specifically affective statements

and questions, can help students understand how others perceive or are affected by their

actions, which can lead to more appropriate behavior in the future (Smith et al., 2015;

Thosborne & Blood, 2013). .

One of the concerns about implementing RP is the time requirement for the more

formal processes. Each formal RP occurrence, such as formal classroom circles and

formal conferences, “can consume hours of the school day” (Smith et al., 2015, p. 116).

Amstutz and Mullet (2015) also note that mediation sessions can take 90 to 120 minutes.

For the purposes of this action research, though, time constraints should not be an issue

because the two strategies being used, affective statements and affective questions, are

informal and require only a few minutes to utilize.

A second concern regarding the implementation of RP is the paradigm shift that is

required to employ it with fidelity. Schools that are accustomed to the use of

exclusionary consequences, and that focus on punishment rather than reconciliation will

have difficulty adjusting to a restorative framework that values relationships over rules.

To support this paradigm shift educators need training in RP, as well as supportive leaders

who also believe in and support the restorative philosophy (Morrison & Vaandering,

2012; Payne & Welch, 2015; Thosborne & Blood, 2013). For this DiP, the teacher

48
participant has volunteered to learn about RP and to be part of a trial experience. Thus,

by volunteering, the teacher has demonstrated a basic openness to the RP paradigm. An

orientation to the RP philosophy and use of AS and AQ will also be provided to the

teacher before implementing the RP strategies of affective statements and questions.

Addressing student discipline has changed throughout the course of American

education. Strict, authoritarian classrooms where corporal punishment was the norm,

have given way to a contemporary reliance on exclusionary consequences of suspension

and expulsion from school (Butchart, 1995; Losen, 2011). These exclusionary

consequences have resulted in negative effects on students including lower academic

achievement, more negative perceptions of school climate, and higher risk of dropping

out of school (Rausch & Skiba, 2005; Suh & Suh, 2007; Wallace et al., 2008). In

addition, the emergence of zero tolerance policies across the nation has increased the

number of students receiving exclusionary consequences and their negative effects

(Fabelo et al., 2011; Wallace et al., 2008). Current trends in school discipline also note

that African American students tend to receive disproportionately more discipline

referrals, but for offenses that are more subjective in nature (Skiba et al., 2002). All of

these factors have led to the phenomenon known as the STPP, which postulates that

students, particularly minority students, receive more school discipline referrals and

exclusionary consequences, and, therefore, are more likely to be put on a pathway that

leads to prison (Skiba et al., 2014).

Alternatives to exclusionary consequences, such as RJ and RP, have come to light

recently. These approaches offer the use of dialogue and group decision making to

prevent and address wrongdoing (Costello et al., 2009). Whole school RP

49
implementation, which includes the use of RJ strategies, has the potential to decrease the

use of exclusionary consequences and their harmful effects (Mallet, 2016). This could

also offer support to historically disenfranchised subgroups, such as African Americans

and those in poverty (Wilson, 2013).

Conclusion

This literature review notes the importance of school and classroom climate.

Classroom climate can affect students’ academic achievement, physical well-being, and

emotional well-being (Smith et al., 2015; Thapa et al., 2013; Koth et al., 2008). Having a

positive classroom climate is vital to the success of students, but some teachers struggle

to create a positive classroom climate. RP is a framework that has been suggested to

improve school climate (Costello et al., 2009; Smith et al., 2015; Gregory et al., 2016;

Morrison & Vaandering, 2012).

The language that teachers use can play a pivotal role in how students view and

respond to their teachers (Johnston et al., 2011; Sprinkle et al., 2006). In some cases, it

may be that the teacher’s language is not conducive to building relationships with

students. RP strategies, such as affective statements and affective questions, incorporate

particular language formats for teachers to use when interacting with students. These

specific ways of communicating help teachers express their true feelings to students,

while helping students understand how their actions are affecting others (Costello et al.,

2009; Smith et al., 2015; Thosborne & Blood, 2013). Thus, by incorporating affective

statements and affective questions appropriately teachers may be able to improve the

climate of their classrooms, and thereby improve students’ academic performance and

overall well-being.

50
 The use of RP also exhibit promise when it comes to alleviating the negative

effects of exclusionary consequences, particularly for minority students (Mallet, 2016;

Wilson, 2013). By offering alternatives to exclusionary consequences, or even by

preventing problematic behavior, RP has the potential to decrease the number of students

who are suspended or expelled from school, to disrupt the STPP, and to improve school

climate as a whole (Anyon et al., 2014; Gregory et al., 2016; Mallet, 2016; Perry &

Morris, 2014; Wilson, 2013).

The successful implementation of RP is not easy, though. A paradigm shift must

occur in order for schools to focus on relationships rather than rules and to gain the

positive impacts that RP can create. This requires leaders who believe in the restorative

philosophy and support the use of RP, as well as training for whole school

implementation (Morrison & Vaandering, 2012; Payne & Welch, 2015; Thosborne &

Blood, 2013). Chapter three will describe, in detail, the site, participants, and

methodology of this action research.

51
 Chapter Three Methodology

This chapter describes the methodology that was used in this action research

project. The purpose of this action research was to determine if implementing RP in a

classroom, particularly affective statements and affective questions, affects the climate of

that classroom. Poor classroom climate is exemplified by increased student behavioral

problems and low levels of student engagement. Positive classroom climates, on the

other hand, have been shown to have positive effects on students’ academic performance,

classroom engagement, and even students’ physical and mental health (Smith et al., 2015;

Thapa et al., 2013). The use of RP has been suggested to improve classroom climate

(Costello et al., 2009; Gregory et al., 2016; Smith et al., 2015). Affective statements and

affective questions are formats for speaking with and questioning students. These are

simple but effective RP strategies to implement in a classroom setting (Costello et al.,

2009). These types of statements and questions help to build relationships between

students and teachers, and they also help students develop a sense of empathy (Smith et

al, 2015).

The question grounding this action research was: Will working with a teacher to

implement RP, specifically affective statements and questions, in their classroom setting

have an effect on the climate of their classroom? Supporting questions, which guided the

focus group and teacher interviews were: What are student perceptions on the climate of

the classroom as a result of the use of RP? What were the teacher’s perceptions on the

implementation of RP in the classroom? What were the teacher’s perceptions on the

climate of the classroom as a result of RP?

52
Research Design

This DiP took the form of action research with a concurrent mixed method

approach. This section justifies the use of this research design. It also describes the role

of the researcher, ethical considerations taken during the course of the research, the

research site, the selection of participants, data collection procedures, and how the data

will be analyzed.

Action research. Mertler (2014) describes “action research” as a type of

research conducted by someone such as a teacher, administrator, or someone who has a

“vested interest in the teaching and learning process or environment for the purpose

gathering information about how their particular schools operate, how they teach, and

how their students learn” (p. 4). This DiP met Mertler’s qualifications for action research

because I was an administrator who had a vested interest in this particular school, where

the research occurred. I worked to address a problem specific to my particular school,

which dealt with concerns about classroom management and student discipline, including

the increases in the use of administrative referrals. Action research is also an effective

way to help classroom teachers improve his/her professional practice and student

outcomes (Mertler, 2014). The strategies utilized with this teacher and their students may

be used in the future with other teachers in the school to RP in more classrooms. The

strategies that were used in this action research can be analyzed, improved, and

implemented with other teachers at my school.

Mixed-methods research. This action research utilized a concurrent mixed

methods design (Coe, Waring, Hedges, & Arthur,2017). A mixed-methods design was

chosen because the goal is to use triangulation to increase confidence in the study’s

53
results (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004). In the triangulation process both qualitative and

quantitative methods were used with the goal of confirming results using multiple means.

This can lead to greater confidence in results when findings are corroborated using

different methods. If findings differ between approaches then the mixed-methods design

can provide more insight when drawing conclusions (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004).

Positionality. As an assistant principal at TTMS I was involved in many aspects of the

school. One of my duties included handling student discipline issues. I also worked with

teachers on instructional issues. In this role I conducted classroom observations,

provided feedback to teachers, and helped plan and carry out professional learning. I also

worked with parents, teachers, and students to resolve a variety of concerns. Another

professional responsibility included taking part in the formal evaluation of teachers.

It was in my role as a school administrator at TTMS that I arrived at the idea for

this action research. At the time the discipline system at TTMS was fairly traditional in

that it relied heavily on the use of exclusionary consequences such as lunch detentions,

in-school suspensions, and out-of-school suspensions. Working with student discipline I

often felt that these consequences did not always effectively address the underlying

concerns that were contributing to the behavioral concerns that students were exhibiting.

I also wondered if teachers could do more at the classroom level to prevent students from

being written up and sent to administration. This is what led me to learn more about RP and

alternatives to exclusionary consequences.

As previously described in chapter one, it was during administrative observations

that I noticed some classrooms with issues of negative classroom climate. Students were

observed being disrespectful to the teacher and other students, and were often not

54
engaged in the learning. However, in other classrooms, where the climate seemed more

positive, the same students acted respectfully to their peers and the teacher, and were

often engaged in the learning. This caused me to learn more about classroom climate and

ways to help teachers improve the climate of their classroom.

Mertler (2014) describes action research as, “research that is done by teachers for

themselves” (p. 4). I was not a classroom teacher, but I directly worked with a classroom

teacher in my school. Thus, my role in this action research was not that of

teacherresearcher, but that of observer-researcher. This role was necessary because I was

an assistant principal and did not have a class of my own in which to implement RP

strategies. Instead, I worked with a teacher in my school to help him implement RP

strategies and to measure the effects on climate in his classroom. In this role, I also

introduced the teacher to the philosophy RP and to the strategies of AS and AQ. This

orientation process will be described in more detail later in the chapter. In addition to

introducing the teacher to RP, I also observed the teacher and provided him feedback

regarding his implementation of those strategies in the classroom. We also met

periodically to discuss the progress of the action research. This action research project

had the potential to improve this particular teacher’s practice and overall classroom

climate. This project can also help the action researcher refine the process for

implementing RP in the classrooms of other teachers in the future.

Ethical considerations. While carrying out this action research project I worked

with a teacher of whom I am a direct supervisor. It was made very clear that the teacher’s

participation in this action research project had no bearing on his professional standing;

his participation is strictly voluntary. All students in this particular teacher’s class

55
experienced the RP being implemented. Since the student participants were under the age

of eighteen, permission from students’ parents was required to participate in the portions

of this action research, specifically the focus group. When parental permission was

received, via a parental consent form, the participating students signed an assent form,

which noted that they were a minor but agreed to participate in the research (Dana &

Yendol-Hoppy, 2014). An informed consent form was also provided to each participant,

which described the study and gave details regarding subjects’ participation. The

methodology for this action research project was approved by the institutional review

boards of both my university and school district.

This action research had the potential to benefit all participants, both students and

teacher. By implementing RP the teacher had the potential to improve the climate of the

classroom. Improved classroom climates could also positively affect the learning that

occurred in the classroom as well as the mental and physical health of students in the

class (Smith et al., 2015).

Another ethical consideration that was taken during this action research was to

protect the privacy of participants (Dana & Yendol-Hoppy, 2014). To accomplish this,

pseudonyms were used for the school and the cooperating teacher. Names of students

were not used. In addition, no identifying information was collected from students when

they completed classroom climate surveys.

Throughout the action research process I strived, as the action-researcher, to avoid

bias. One method used to avoid bias, described by Mertler (2014), was to take time to

distance myself from the data and reflect on it. The intent of this reflection was to assist

in staying emotionally-neutral regarding the data and findings. For example, while I,

56
personally, may have been in favor of RP as a means of improving classroom climate, I

could not allow that to skew my interpretation or reporting of the data collected. If the

results did not suggest that RP had a positive impact on the climate of this particular

teacher’s classroom, then I was obliged to acknowledge that and report it accurately.

Research site. TTMS was a suburban middle school in the Southeastern United

States consisting of about 1100 students in grades six through eight. This school was

located in a predominantly white, middle-class community. White students accounted

for 88% of the student population at this school, while African American students

accounted for 4%, Asians 6%, and multiracial 3%. In this particular school, 21% of

students received free or reduced-cost lunches. In 2014 TTMS received an absolute

rating of “Excellent” and a growth rating of “Excellent”. It also received an ESEA rating

of “B”.

TTMS was a relatively new school, in its sixth year of existence. It was also part

of a national school reform network called EL Education. EL Education schools focus on

three core areas: mastery of knowledge and skills, character, and high quality work (EL

Education, 2015). With student character being a major focus, EL Education provided

some guidance on how to do foster character development. According to EL Education

Core Practices (2015) the school climate in an EL Education school should be,

“characterized by safety, kindness, joy in learning, and positive leadership by staff and

students” (p. 64).

Participant selection. During this action research multiple participants were

selected for participation. This section will describe how I selected the teacher with

whom I worked, the class with which we chose to implement the strategies, and how the

57
students who participated in the focus group were chosen. In addition, I will describe the

orientation process used to introduce the cooperating teacher to RP, AS, and AQ.

Teacher selection. I recruited a teacher from TTMS to participate in this action research.

I was looking for a teacher who wanted to improve their classroom climate and who was

willing to implement new strategies to try to address any climate issues they may be

having in their classroom. To make this selection, I sent an email to all teachers at TTMS

that explained the research project and asked for a volunteer teacher with whom to work.

Interested teachers were asked submit a few paragraphs describing why they wished to

participate in this project. Five teachers responded to the email. Of those, two teachers

provided explanations of why they desired to be part of the action research. Both of these

teachers relayed a desire to improve their classroom performance and a willingness to

implement new strategies in the classroom. One of these teachers was a foreign language

teacher and the other a science teacher. Since RP rely heavily on the language used with

students implementing RP in a foreign language would add an unnecessary level of

complexity to the research project. Thus, it was decided to collaborate with the science

teacher, Mr. Patrick (a pseudonym).

Mr. Patrick was a white, male, with nineteen years of teaching experience. He

taught elementary school for nine years, and has taught middle school for the last ten

years. At the time of this action research he was in his second year teaching eighth grade

science. Mr. Patrick was always looking for ways to improve his teaching practice. This

growth mindset is demonstrated by his post-graduate studies. In addition to a bachelor’s

degree, Mr. Patrick has earned a master’s degree in science curriculum, and while he was

58
participating in this action research he was pursuing a Ph.D. in science teaching and

learning.

Orientation process. Once the cooperating teacher was chosen, I provided him an

orientation regarding the effective implementation of AS and AQ. I introduced Mr.

Patrick to the framework of RP and to the use of affective statements and questions

through multiple methods. First, I provided the teacher with reading materials about RP

and affective statements and questions. Excerpts from two principal sources were used to

introduce Mr. Patrick to RP, AS, and AQ: Better Than Carrots or Sticks: Restorative

Practices for Positive Classroom Management (Smith et al., 2015) and The Restorative

Practices Handbook for Teachers, Disciplinarians and Administrators: Building a

Culture of Community in Schools (Costello et al., 2009). These two books were chosen

because they describe the foundations of RP, as well as provide practical information

regarding the implementation of AS and AQ. I also provided him with an article by

Martin (2015), who is a classroom teacher. This article effectively described the

implementation of RP from the teacher’s perspective. After Mr. Patrick had a chance to

read these materials, he and I met to discuss these readings.

Next, I provided the teacher with a computerized instructional module that I

created about RP and affective statements and questions. This module was a

PowerPoint presentation that explained the theory and benefits of these strategies and

also provided practice with these concepts, as well. The information in the module was

compiled from a variety of sources: Costello et al., 2009; Smith et al., 2015; and

Thosborne and Blood, 2013. The overall learning goals for this module were that users

would be able to identify the benefits of RP; identify examples of punitive, restorative,

59
permissive, and neglectful responses to wrongdoing; identify affective statements; and

identify the benefits of using affective statements (Costello et al., 2009; Smith et al.,

2015; Thosborne & Blood, 2013). Examples of this module can be found below in

figures 3.1 and 3.2.

Figure 3.1

Screenshot of the learning goals for the researcher-created module on RP.

60
Figure 3.2
Screenshot of a slide about AS from the researcher-created module on RP.
I also observed the teacher implementing these strategies and provided feedback

to the teacher regarding this implementation. The teacher was interviewed at the

conclusion of this action research project regarding their perceptions of the effectiveness

of the RP strategies, as well as the process of learning about and implementing the RP

strategies.

Class selection. Mr. Patrick and I chose one of his classes with whom to utilize

AS and AQ. We decided to focus on a single class in order to simplify the data analysis

for the action research. We chose to work with Mr. Patrick’s eighth period Earth science

class based on the teacher’s perception that this class had the least positive classroom

climate, including some students who exhibited challenging behaviors, and therefore, had

more room to show improvement in classroom climate. This class consisted of

twentyseven eighth grade students; twelve females and fifteen males. Students in this

class were thirteen and fourteen years old. The ethnic breakdown of this class consisted

of three African American students, four students who are more than one ethnicity, and

twenty Caucasian students (see table 3.1 below). All twenty-seven students in the class

participated in pre- and post-treatment classroom climate surveys.

Table 3.1

Demographic Information of Mr. Patrick’s 8th Period Class

Males Females African Caucasian Two or
American More
Races
Number of 15 12 3 20 4
Students

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 Focus group selection. In order to gather more detailed student perceptions of

classroom climate and the use of RP, the action researcher assembled a focus group

consisting of four of the students from that class. Since this focus group was a small

sample of subjects, a purposeful sample was utilized to help reduce bias (Miles &

Huberman, 1994). A purposeful sample was selected that aims to encompass diverse

perspectives regarding the use of RP and the climate of the classroom. This included

students who had exhibited behavioral concerns and student who had not. Additionally,

students were chosen to represent diversity regarding gender, race, and academic ability

(See table 3.2). The questions that were asked of the focus group can be found in

Appendix B.

Data collection methods. As this was a mixed-methods action research project,

quantitative and qualitative data were collected. The quantitative data came from

questionnaires regarding classroom climate that were administered to the students prior

to implementing RP and again, six weeks later, at the conclusion of the implementation

window. Following the implementation period the researcher collected qualitative data in

the form of a focus group interview with students and a semi-structured interview with

the teacher.

Table 3.2

Demographic Information of Focus Group Participants

Student Age Gender Race Grade in Mr.
Patrick’s class
at the time of
the interview
Student A 14 Male Black D
Student B 13 Male White B
Student C 14 Female Black B
Student D 13 Female White A

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 The researcher chose to utilize a focus group because the time frame for data

collection was relatively brief (about 6 weeks), and it would be difficult to interview

multiple students individually in that time period. Additionally, the interplay and

conversations that may develop among the participants in this focus group may also draw

out findings that would have otherwise not been revealed (Morgan, 1996).

The researcher chose a semistructured interview as a data collection tool because

it provided the ability to delve deeper into the teacher’s perceptions of class climate, RP,

and implementation of the specific strategies. Interviews also allow both the researcher

and interviewee to ask clarifying questions. This ability for both parties to ask questions

should provide richer, clearer responses and understanding (Schwalbach, 2003). Data

collection instruments. Multiple data collection methods were used during this action

research, a classroom climate survey, a student focus group interview, and a semi-

structured teacher interview. Each of these data collection instruments is described in this

section.

Classroom life instrument. The classroom climate survey that was used was the

Classroom Life Instrument (CLI). The CLI was described by Johnson, Johnson, and

Anderson (1983). This survey consisted of 59 Likert-type questions whose responses are

“Never True,” “Rarely True,” “Sometimes True,” “Mostly True,” and “Always True.”

The action researcher used the questions described by Johnson et al. (1983) to create a

digital version that students completed on their school-issued iPads. The following are

examples of questions that are included in the CLI (All survey questions are available in

Appendix A):

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 • In this class other students care about my feelings.

• My teacher really cares about me.

• In this class other students like to help me learn.

• I often get discouraged in school.

• In this class if a student works hard, he/she can definitely succeed.

(Johnson et al., 1983)

Voight and Hanson (2012) noted that the CLI is intended to be utilized at the classroom

level, and that it continues to be a scale used by researchers. The questions in this survey

fell into one of the following twelve categories: cooperative learning, positive goal

interdependence, resource interdependence, teacher academic support, teacher personal

support, student academic support, student personal support, class cohesion, academic

self-esteem, fairness in grading, achieving for social approval, and alienation (Johnson et

al., 1983).

Student focus group. The focus group consisted of four students, whose selection

has been previously described. Examples of questions for the focus group include, “Do

you like this class? Why or why not?”, “Do you think Mr. Patrick cares about you? Why

or why not?”, and “What do you think when your teacher uses affective statements and

says something like, ‘I feel frustrated when you interrupt me’ or ‘It makes me proud to

see you working to revise your paper’?”. The questions for the focus group were pilot

tested on other educators, who provided feedback that improved the clarity of the

questions and helped to state the questions using more student-friendly language. The

focus group questions can be found in Appendix B.

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 Teacher interview. The teacher interview was semi-structured. I began with

some basic questions from which to start, however follow-up and clarifying questions

developed as the interview proceeded (Schwalbach, 2003). This structure also allowed

for the interview to follow the flow of conversation. Examples of questions for the

semistructured interview include, “Do you feel the climate of the classroom changed as

you implemented RP?”, “Give examples of how you used RP in your class,” and “Would

you recommend using this practice to another teacher? Why or why not?” See

Appendix C for a full list of the semi structured interview questions. The questions for

the teacher interview were pilot tested with other educators, who were not involved in

this study. They provided feedback that made the questions clearer. Their feedback also

assisted in taking general questions and making them into more probing questions.

Data analysis. Since this action research utilized mixed methods design a variety of

quantitative and qualitative data analysis techniques were implemented. Quantitative

analysis. The CLI, a survey, was the quantitative measure used in this action research.

This 59-item Likert-like survey utilized a 5-point truth scale. Students’ responses were

converted to numerals: never true = 1, rarely true = 2, sometimes true = 3, mostly true =

4, and always true = 5. Scores for each of the twelve scales were tabulated for each of

the twenty-seven students on the pre-test and the posttest. The pre-test and post-test

scores for each scale were then compared for significant changes using independent

samples t-tests.

No identifying information was collected from students when they completed the

CLI surveys in order to provide anonymity so that students would be as honest as

possible with their responses. The use of a paired-samples t-test is ideal for pre- and

65
posttest analysis of paired data (Mertler, 2014). However, since there was no identifying

information collected (i.e., the data were unpaired) it was not possible to track pre- and

post-survey results by student, so paired-samples t-tests could not be utilized in this

situation. When data are unpaired and on a continuous scale independent t-tests are

acceptable to use in lieu of paired-samples t-tests (Kent State University, 2018). Thus,

independent samples t-tests were conducted for each of the twelve scales measured in the

CLI to determine if there were significant changes after the implementation of RP.

This is similar to the analysis technique implemented by Ghaith’s (2003) study of

the relationship between forms of instruction, achievement, and students’ perception of

classroom climate. In his study he utilized the CLI to survey students regarding their

perceptions of classroom climate. He analyzed the CLI data using descriptive statistics as

well as other statistical tests of significance.

Qualitative analysis. Both the teacher and the student focus group interviews

were video recorded using an iPad. This audio file was then transcribed using an online

transcription service. The transcripts were read and key words, phrases, and ideas were

coded using NVivo software. These coded sections were then put into categories to

identify patterns. Finally, these patterns were organized into overarching themes

(Saldana, 2009).

Trustworthiness. The validity of qualitative research is increased if the research

methods are trustworthy (Mertler, 2014). What makes qualitative research trustworthy?

Shenton (2004) contends that credibility is a major criterion of trustworthiness.

Credibility refers to the idea that the study is truly measuring what is intended.

One means of increasing credibility is to utilize well-established methods (Shenton,

66
2004). This is achieved in this action research project by using the CLI which is a tool

for measuring classroom climate that has been documented in educational literature

(Ghaith, 2003; Johnson et al., 1983; Voight & Hanson, 2012). The CLI measures twelve

scales, or dimensions, of classroom climate. Johnson et al. (1983) report the following

Cronbach alpha reliability scores for each scale of the CLI: Cooperative learning, .83;

positive goal interdependence, .61; resource interdependence, .74; teacher academic

support, .78; teacher personal support, .80; student academic support, .67; student

personal support, .78; class cohesion, .51; fairness of grading, .61; achieving for social

approval, .72; academic self-esteem, .61; and alienation, .68.

Triangulation is another means of increasing the credibility of qualitative research

(Shenton, 2004). The teacher interview and student focus group were used as sources for

triangulation in this action research. While the surveys and focus group reflected the

students’ perspectives, the interview elucidated the teacher’s perspective of RP

implementation and classroom climate. The teacher interview was analyzed to determine

whether the major themes agree or disagree with major themes found in the survey data

and focus group data from students. By comparing these three data sets, or triangulating,

the credibility and the trustworthiness of the results are increased (Shenton, 2004).

Conclusion

Classroom climate is an important factor that impacts students in a variety of

ways. It can positively or negatively affect their academic success as well as their

physical and mental health (Koth et al., 2008; Thapa et al., 2013). A negative classroom

climate can be difficult to change, though. RP such as affective statements and affective

questions, however, have the potential to improve classroom climate (Costello et al.,

67
2009; Smith et al., 2015; Gregory et al., 2016).

I worked with a teacher to effectively implement specific RP, affective statements

and affective questions, in his class. Classroom climate surveys, the CLI, were

administered to the teacher’s class prior to implementing RPs and after the

implementation period ended. This allowed the researcher to gauge if there was a

noticeable difference in classroom climate before and after the implementation of AS and

AQ.

In addition to the quantitative data gathered from the surveys, qualitative data was

gathered, as well. Following the implementation period a focus group was conducted

with a select group of students. This group of students was purposefully chosen to

represent a diversity of opinions regarding classroom climate and the use of affective

statements and questions. A semi-structured interviewed was conducted with the teacher

at the conclusion of the project. These sources provided qualitative data regarding the

classroom climate and the implementation of RP to elucidate any effects implementing

the RP may have had.

This concurrent mixed-methods design, which incorporated quantitative data, CLI

surveys, and qualitative data, a focus group and teacher interview, was preferred because

it allowed for triangulation of data. This triangulation of data provided greater levels of

trustworthiness in the results of the action research (Shenton, 2004). The results and

interpretation of this action research will be discussed in chapter four.

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 Chapter Four Findings

The goal of this action research was to implement RP strategies, specifically

affective statements and affective questions, in the classroom setting and to measure the

effects on classroom climate. A cooperating teacher, who volunteered for the study, was

selected, and was provided with a training module, designed by the action researcher, and

several articles about RP, affective statements, and affective questions. The researcher

also observed the teacher during the implementation window and debriefed with the

teacher about RP.

This action research utilized a mixed methods design. Quantitative data regarding

classroom climate was collected using the Classroom Life Instrument (CLI). This 59

question, Likert-like survey was administered to the students in the selected class prior to

implementation of RP and then again after six weeks of RP implementation. This survey

measured twelve scales within classroom climate. Each scale measured by the CLI was

determined by averaging the results of a combination of four to eleven individual

questions from the survey. The methodology described by Johnson et al. (1983) was

followed to match individual questions to each respective scale. See Appendix D for the

description of which survey questions were used for each scale. Descriptive statistics

were calculated between the pre- and post-tests for these scales. In addition, independent

samples t-tests were conducted to determine significance of pre- and post-implementation

CLI scores.

In addition to the CLI, qualitative data was collected in the form of a student

focus group and a semi-structured interview with the teacher following the

implementation window.

69
 This chapter will describe the results and interpretations of my action research,

implementing RP to improve classroom climate. The results of each instrument, CLI,

focus group, and teacher interview, will be described.

CLI Results

There were twelve scales, or dimensions of classroom climate, measured by the

CLI. The scales measured by the CLI were:

1. Cooperative learning.

2. Positive goal interdependence.

3. Resource interdependence. 4. Teacher academic support.

5. Teacher personal support.

6. Student academic support.

7. Student personal support.

8. Class cohesion.

9. Fairness of grading.

10. Achieving for social approval.

11. Academic self-esteem.

12. Alienation.

The possible survey responses for students were: never true, rarely true, sometimes true,

mostly true, and always true. For analysis purposes, students’ responses were converted

to numerals: never true = 1, rarely true = 2, sometimes true = 3, mostly true = 4, and

always true = 5. Scores for each of the twelve scales were calculated for each of the

twenty-seven students on the pre-survey, as well as the post-survey. This resulted in

70
twenty-seven scores for each respective scale on the pre-survey and the post-survey.

Independent samples t-tests were conducted for each of the twelve scales on the CLI to

determine if there were significant differences in these dimensions of classroom climate

before and after the implementation of RP. The pre- and post-test mean scores for each

scale are described next.

1. Cooperative learning describes students as having a positive attitude toward

working cooperatively with other students (Johnson, Johnson, Buckman, &

Richards, 1985). There was no significant difference between the pre-test (M =

3.90, SD = 0.67) and post-test scores (M = 3.82, SD = 0.66) for the cooperative

learning scale, t(52) = 0.44, p = 0.66. The mean scores for cooperative learning

were in the “sometimes true” to “mostly true” range.

2. Positive goal interdependence refers to students’ perceptions of having common

outcomes and being sure that everyone learns the assigned material (Johnson et

al., 1985). There was no significant difference between the pre-test (M = 3.57,

SD

= 0.72) and post-test scores (M = 3.63, SD = 0.76) for the positive goal

interdependence scale, t(52) = -0.29, p = 0.77. The mean scores for positive goal

interdependence were in the “sometimes true” to “mostly true” range.

3. Resource interdependence is a measure of students’ perceptions of willingness to

share materials (Johnson et al., 1985). There was no significant difference

between the pre-test (M = 3.72, SD = 0.84) and post-test scores (M = 3.67, SD =

0.60) for the resource interdependence scale, t(52) = 0.22, p = 0.82. The mean

scores for resource interdependence were in the “sometimes true” to “mostly true”

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 range.

4. Teacher academic support is a scale that measures students’ perception that the

teacher cares about how much they learn and wants to help them learn (Johnson et

al., 1985). There was no significant difference between the pre-test (M = 4.68, SD

= 0.46) and post-test scores (M = 4.44, SD = 0.54) for the teacher academic

support scale, t(52) = 1.69, p = 0.10. While there was a decrease in mean score

from pre- to post-implementation, this was still the highest score for any scale on

the post-test. The mean scores for teacher academic support were in the “mostly

true” range.

5. Teacher personal support measures the belief that the teacher cares about the

student as a person (Johnson et al., 1985). There was no significant difference

between the pre-test (M = 4.12, SD = 0.81) and post-test scores (M = 3.93, SD =

0.89) for the teacher personal support scale, t(52) = 0.83, p = 0.40. The mean

scores for teacher personal support were in or very close to the “mostly true”

range.

6. Student academic support refers to the belief that other students in the class care

about how much a student learn and want to help them learn (Johnson et al.,

1985). There was no significant difference between the pre-test (M = 3.36, SD =

0.80) and post-test scores (M = 3.69, SD = 0.69) for the student academic support

scale, t(52) = -1.64, p = 0.11. This increase of 0.33 was the largest mean score

gain for any of the twelve scales. The mean scores for student academic support

were in the “sometimes true” range.

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7. Student personal support describes the perception that other students like and care

about the student as a person (Johnson et al., 1985). There was no significant

difference between the pre-test (M = 3.24, SD = 0.64) and post-test scores (M =

3.22, SD = 0.69) for the student personal support scale, t(52) = 0.12, p = 0.90.

The mean scores for student personal support were in or very close to the

“sometimes true” range.

8. Class cohesion is the belief that students in the class like each other (Johnson et

al., 1985). There was no significant difference between the pre-test (M = 3.44,

SD = 0.64) and post-test scores (M = 3.54, SD = 0.55) for the class cohesion scale,

t(52) = -0.59, p = 0.56. Mean scores for class cohesion were in the “sometimes

true” range.

9. Fairness of grading refers to the perception that students get the grades they

deserve and can be successful if they work hard (Johnson et al., 1985). There was

no significant difference between the pre-test (M = 4.24, SD = 0.61) and post-test

scores (M = 4.30, SD = 0.63) for the fairness of grading scale, t(52) = -0.35, p =

0.73. Mean scores for class cohesion were in the “mostly true” range. This scale

had the second highest post-test mean score.

10. Achieving for social approval is the belief that a student achieves in order to gain

approval from others, such as peers, teacher, and/or parents (Johnson et al., 1985).

There was no significant difference between the pre-test (M = 2.90, SD = 0.99)

and post-test scores (M = 2.96, SD = 0.79) for the achieving for social approval

scale, t(52) = -0.27, p = 0.79. The mean scores for achieving for social approval

were in the “rarely true” to “sometimes true” range.

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 11. Academic self-esteem describes a student’s belief that they are a good student and

are successfully learning (Johnson et al., 1985). There was no significant

difference between the pre-test (M = 3.59, SD = 0.57) and post-test scores (M =

3.34, SD = 0.70) for the academic self-esteem scale, t(52) = 1.42, p = 0.16. Mean

scores for academic self-esteem were in the “sometimes true” range.

12. Alienation is a student’s belief that they are not a valued part of the school, peer

groups, or classroom activities (Johnson et al., 1985). There was no significant

difference between the pre-test (M = 2.40, SD = 0.46) and post-test scores (M =

2.52, SD = 0.64) for the alienation scale, t(52) = -0.78, p = 0.44. This scale is the

only one that represents a negative trait, and, so, it was reverse scored. That

means that higher scores on this scale are not desirable because they represent

increased signs of student alienation. Mean scores for academic self-esteem were

in the “rarely true” range. This indicates that most of the students in the

classroom felt that they were a part of the classroom environment.

The mean scores for each of the twelve scales for the pre-test and the post-test are

displayed in the Table 1 below.

Table 4.1

Mean Responses to CLI Before and After the Implementation

of RP

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 Scale Pre-Test Post-Test Difference
Mean Mean
Cooperative 3.90 3.83 -0.07
Learning
Positive Goal 3.57 3.63 0.06
Interdependence
Resource 3.71 3.67 -0.04
Interdependence
Teacher Academic 4.68 4.44 -0.24
Support
Teacher Personal 4.12 3.93 -0.19
Support
Student Academic 3.36 3.69 0.33
Support
Student Personal 3.24 3.22 -0.02
Support
Class Cohesion 3.44 3.54 0.10
Fairness of 4.24 4.30 0.06
Grading
Achieving for 2.90 2.96 0.06
Social Approval
Academic 3.59 3.34 -0.25
SelfEsteem
Alienation 2.40 2.52 0.12
Overall, there were no significant differences in classroom climate, as measured

by the CLI, after the implementation of RP. Over half of the scales had relatively high

mean post-test scores. Eight scales had post-test means above 3.5 and two of the scales

had mean post-test scores above 4.0 (out of 5.0). Although these scores indicate

relatively positive classroom climate, these scores were not significantly different from

the pre-test scores. No scales showed statistically significant changes as a result of the

use of RP. Student academic support was the scale with the highest increase in mean

score after the implementation of RP, with an average increase of 0.33, however, this was

not a statistically significant increase.

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 The scale for teacher academic support had a notable decrease in mean score after

the implementation of RP, but it was not a statistically significant drop. It should be

noted, though, that this scale had the highest mean scores, both pre- and

postimplementation. Beginning with a high pre-test mean of 4.68 out of 5.00 could be

difficult to maintain and certainly difficult to increase. Thus, even though this scale did

decrease after RP, teacher academic support is still an area of strength regarding the

climate in this particular class.

The CLI indicated no statistically significant changes in classroom climate on any

of the scales measured by this survey. Possible explanations for this are discussed in the

“Triangulation of Findings” at the end of this chapter and in chapter five.

Focus Group

The purpose of the focus group was to elucidate the effects of the RP strategies

from the student perspective. Four students were selected to participate in the focus

group. These four students were chosen in collaboration with Mr. Patrick to represent a

diverse cross-section of the class, based on ethnicity, sex, and academic achievement.

This group consisted of an African American female, a white female, an African

American male, and a white male. Current quarterly averages of the focus group

participants ranged from “D” to “A”. The focus group interview was video recorded

using an iPad. The recordings were then transcribed by an online service. Key words

and phrases in the transcriptions were coded using NVivo software. The coded data were

then categorized to identify patterns. These patterns of coded data were then organized

into overarching themes (Saldana, 2009).

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 Two overarching themes emerged from the focus group: strong relationships and

enhanced teaching and learning. These themes are also components of classroom climate

(Thapa et al., 2013). While speaking with students in the focus group it was noted that

they were not familiar with the term “restorative practices” because the teacher had not

explicitly discussed this concept that was being implemented. However, the effects of

RP can be detected in their perceptions of relationships and academic support in Mr.

Patrick’s classroom.

Strong relationships. The students in the focus group repeatedly discussed issues

relating to relationships in the classroom. This included relationships among students as

well as students’ relationship with Mr. Patrick. It was evident that, overall, there were

positive student-student and student-teacher relationships in this class. Students indicated

a clear notion that Mr. Patrick cared about them as people. They also noted a strong sense

that students in the class cared about the academic success of each other. It seems that

relationships in Mr. Patrick’s class were relatively strong from the beginning of the year,

compared to students’ experiences in other classes, but the use of RP may have enhanced

these relationships even more.

The students all described Mr. Patrick’s class as feeling like a family. When asked

how students in Mr. Patrick’s class get along with each other compared to other classes,

students indicated that peer relationships are stronger in Mr. Patrick’s class. One student

in the focus group responded, “I’d say above average. We’re not all best friends, but

we’re all friends.” It was noted that Mr. Patrick provides opportunities for students to

discuss their lives outside of the classroom, particularly during an activity called “circle

up” that takes place at the beginning of class. Student relationships are not just social,

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though, they are also enhanced as students work together on academic assignments. “We

all collaborate and get along more than we would in others [classes],” one student noted.

Another student commented that, “[Collaboration] makes [academic work] better. It

makes it like you can do your best 'cause everyone cares in that class and it's not like

they're all there for just them. They are there for you and them.”

Strong student-teacher relationships were also described by the focus group.

Participants noted that they felt that Mr. Patrick really cared about them. A major means

of building this sense of caring was listening. The students described instances where Mr.

Patrick took time to listen to their concerns, both academic and non-academic. One

student described how he had been having a bad day, and Mr. Patrick pulled him aside for

a private conversation to discuss what was bothering him. The student shared, “That

helped me be happy the rest of the day.” The students also discussed how they felt that

Mr. Patrick trusted them more than other teachers did. They sensed that Mr. Patrick was

not constantly trying to catch them doing something wrong. One student commented on

how that sense of trust caused him to make good choices and not play games on his iPad,

“Ever since I realized how much he like trusts us and cares about us, I don't really play

games in his class because I've gotten to know that he trusts us and I don't wanna loose

that trust.” One student in the focus group was in a unique situation because she had also

had Mr. Patrick as her science teacher two years previously in sixth grade. She described

that there was more of a positive family feel to his classroom this year, “I had him in 6th

grade. I feel like the atmosphere of the class in general changed [since] 6th grade. Like

the first day [of 8th grade], his class just seemed more welcoming.”

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 While there are strong student-teacher relationships in Mr. Patrick’s class. There

are still some instances when he has to address student behavior, primarily blurting out or

having side conversations. When this occurs Mr. Patrick typically speaks with students

individually. One of the participants had such a conversation with Mr. Patrick before and

noted, “It’s not demeaning.”

Enhanced teaching and learning. A second theme that emerged from the focus

group dealt with teaching and learning in Mr. Patrick’s class. Mr. Patrick’s teaching

practices communicated to students that he cared about each of them as a learner, and he

wanted to do all he could to help them master the material. This communication of care

accompanied with the use of specific academic feedback enhanced the teaching practices

that were already a part of Mr. Patrick’s repertoire. The recognition of care and reception

of feedback also enhanced students’ learning in Mr. Patrick’s class.

Multiple students noted that he regularly checks in on them while they are

working to be sure that they are on track. One student described this process, “He always

comes up and checks on us, like, are we doing our work, makes sure we understand

everything, if we need help.” Another student explained how he asked Mr. Patrick for

some more time to complete an assignment, “I asked him, ’Mine’s not that high quality.

Could I work on it over the break and bring it in?’ And he was totally fine with it.” This

showed that Mr. Patrick wanted the student to produce high quality work, and, so, he was

willing to work with the student and provide him additional time to improve his

assignment.

In addition to regularly checking on students’ progress and working flexibly with

students to get assignments completed, it was noted that Mr. Patrick gives high quality

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feedback to his students. The focus group participants expressed that they appreciate how

specific Mr. Patrick’s feedback is so that they know exactly what needs to be improved in

their work. They also noted that they do not get this level of specific feedback from all of

their teachers. One student gave an example of the difference between other teachers’

feedback and Mr. Patrick’s feedback, “Some of our teachers are pretty vague about what

we have to do…they'll say, ‘All you have to do is improve.’

He'll tell me the sentence I have to improve or what the topic I have to improve.” This

type of specific feedback is an example of an agency-building statement, which is one

form of affective statements, which provides students with the confidence to move

forward (Smith et al., 2015).

The evidence from the focus group suggests that students in Mr. Patrick’s class

feel that the relationships in his class, both student-student and student-teacher, are quite

strong. This seems to be somewhat different from their experiences in other classes.

They also described how their learning in his class is enhanced by his genuine concern

about their academic work and by his use of specific feedback.

Teacher Interview

A semi-structured interview was conducted with Mr. Patrick following six weeks

of RP implementation in his class. Mr. Patrick is a veteran teacher, with nineteen years of

teaching experience. He taught elementary school for nine years, and has taught middle

school for the last ten years. Mr. Patrick possesses a growth mindset and is always

looking for ways to improve his teaching practice. This growth mindset is demonstrated

by his post-graduate studies. In addition to a bachelor’s degree, Mr. Patrick has earned a

master’s degree in science curriculum, and he is currently pursuing a Ph.D. in science

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teaching and learning. Mr. Patrick is very open to trying new strategies in the classroom,

which is why he was chosen for this action research.

During the interview with Mr. Patrick two themes surfaced regarding the effects

of RP, a paradigm shift in classroom management and improved communication. Each of

these themes will be discussed below.

Paradigm shift in classroom management. Throughout the interview Mr.

Patrick commented on how using RP was very different from what he experienced as a

student and how he has handled classroom management in the past. Implementing RP

represented a paradigm shift for Mr. Patrick regarding his mindset with addressing

student behaviors.

Mr. Patrick described his background saying, “In the country, it was just very

different with discipline.” He went on to describe his previous paradigm regarding

discipline, “I had that mindset where you get yelled at, you move forward, and then you

don't repeat that behavior supposedly. But we didn't have conversations.” Mr. Patrick

continued to compare RP to his prior models for classroom management, “I was…very

blunt…the way I was raised myself. I was quick to just, I feel like, lashing [sic] out

instead of trying to understand or really take time to communicate what they were doing

and how it impacted me.”

The two RP strategies that were enacted in this action research were affective

statements and affective questions. These were new tools for Mr. Patrick to use with

students in his class. Mr. Patrick noted that he had more opportunities to implement

affective statements than he did to utilize affective questions. He did describe one

incident, though, of using the questions with students who were upset:

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 With those questions, I did use some of [affective questions] in a situation that ...

not to the point that I wanted to, because this was more of a personal thing that happened

between [a student] and someone else, but I felt like that aided us in getting the

discussion to where he was the focus. It took down a big wall. Facilitating this type of

discussion with a student was new territory for Mr. Patrick. He shared that he did not

want the students to think that he was probing or intruding into their personal business by

using RP to help address concerns with their peers. However, Mr. Patrick found out that

the student actually appreciated his help in solving this problem. When Mr. Patrick asked

if the student minded him asking how he was doing the student replied, “I don't mind that.

I like it when you ask me.”

This paradigm shift in classroom management also caused Mr. Patrick to become

more thoughtful when addressing student issues. “Instead of being so quick and volatile,

you really have to think, ‘Okay, how is this behavior really...affecting me?’… You know,

weighing out what's worth it and what's not.” This consideration helped Mr. Patrick to

“pick his battles” when it came to student behavioral concerns, and not be “nit-picky”

about every little thing a student may do.

Using AS and AQ were not strategies that came naturally to Mr. Patrick.

However, he was open to trying new strategies and found that they had benefits that he

had not anticipated. As the interview concluded Mr. Patrick made one more comment

alluding to this paradigm shift, “So many of us were born in the '60s and '70s, and it's just

a very different time period, and so this is a great opportunity.”

Improved communication. During the interview, another theme that emerged

was that the use of RP improved Mr. Patrick’s communication, both personal and

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academic, with his students. This includes providing feedback to students, as well as

listening to students. Mr. Patrick stated that communication was one of the most

significant aspects of his classroom climate that changed as a result of implementing RP.

Feedback involves providing information to students about their behavior and their

academic work. By providing feedback to students about their behavior, they begin to

realize how their actions are affecting others. This can help build empathy in students

(Flannery, 2014; Smith et al., 2015).

Mr. Patrick described how using RP helped him give students useful feedback

about their behavior. Before RP, “I was quick to send a student to ISS (in-school

suspension). I was very reactive.” When using affective statements, though, instead of

reacting to student behaviors Mr. Patrick stated that he, “Communicat[ed] how [the

students’] behaviors were impacting me.” Mr. Patrick provided an example of this: [The

students] don't really understand how their behavior is affecting the instruction or how

much time [teachers] use in planning, so that's what I'm trying to [get them to understand]

... that you did spend time on this lesson, and it means a lot to you.

Mr. Patrick adapted his classroom management style from simply telling a student to “be

quiet” to helping them understand how their blurting out was affecting others, as well as

himself. This specific feedback can help students make changes in their behavior and

become more empathetic (Costello et al., 2008; Smith et al., 2015).

Mr. Patrick also described how giving specific feedback to students, academically,

has been beneficial. He shared, “My focus…was working on the revision process for high

quality work. ... I looked back at some of the past papers that I've graded, and I felt like

they can't grow if they don't understand what we're looking for.” Providing specific

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feedback to students is an agency-building statement, which is a type of AS. Thus, Mr.

Patrick utilized AS not just for behavioral issues, but for academic feedback, as well.

Listening was another powerful component of RP. Mr. Patrick noticed differences

in how students responded to RP as opposed to previous methods of addressing

behavioral issues. Mr. Patrick shared how students responded when he began using RP:

Their response was just sort of like expecting a yell, and I think they've almost

become numb to the yelling…But now, I think when I first started really doing

[RP], they'd just sort of look at me like, ‘You're not going to yell at me?’ And then

we had a one-on-one conversation.

Listening was a component of RP that Mr. Patrick noted was incredibly powerful. Giving

students an opportunity to speak and actually listening to their responses was a different

strategy than Mr. Patrick had previously routinely used. By using these strategies students

realize that, “As adults, we do listen, and I think that's their biggest ...

Or, that's one of the biggest ah-ha moments for me, is they do see that we listen.” Mr.

Patrick asserts that by listening to students, “They see that we do genuinely care.”

The students in Mr. Patrick’s class realized the power of communication in RP

strategies. Mr. Patrick shared how they actually began using the language of affective

statements with him. He described a time that he told a student that the got something

wrong. The student then used affective language with Mr. Patrick by saying, “Mr.

Patrick, you sort of made me feel uncomfortable when you asked me that in that tone. I

felt like something was wrong…so if you were to say it this way.” Mr. Patrick noted that

this has happened on multiple occasions. The fact that students are adopting this

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language in their daily interactions illustrates how powerful this communication tool can

be.

Triangulation of Findings

The overarching research question for this action research is: Will implementing

the RP strategies of affective statements and affective questions have an effect on the

climate of that classroom? There were also research questions for the focus group and

the teacher interview, which served to add richness to the quantitative data obtained from

the CLI (Schwallbach, 2003). The research question for the focus group is: What are

student perceptions on the climate of the classroom as a result of the use of RP? The

research questions for the teacher interview were: What were the teacher’s perceptions on

the implementation of RP in the classroom and what were the teacher’s perceptions on

the climate of the classroom as a result of RP?

To answer the overarching research question, yes, the data from this study

suggests that the use of RP, specifically AS and AQ, may have some effect on classroom

climate. However, the effects of RP on classroom climate are not totally clear. A

concurrent mixed-method design was used for this study so that there could be a

triangulation of data to provide an element of reliability for the results (Johnson &

Onwuegbuzie, 2004). There was a high degree of congruence between the teacher’s and

students’ perceptions of classroom climate after the implementation of RP. They all

agreed that the class had a family feel. There was an emphasis from students and the

teacher on providing specific academic feedback for students. There was also agreement

among the focus group and teacher regarding a high level of care being expressed

between the teacher and students. This corroborates findings by Gregory et al. (2014),

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who found an increase in students’ perception of teacher care as a result of RP. This

caring relationship between teacher and students is a key component to creating a positive

classroom climate (Ambrosetti et al., 2009).

The CLI results indicated no statistically significant changes in any dimension of

classroom climate as a result of RP. In this action research study the qualitative data and

quantitative data did not corroborate one another. The qualitative data suggests that there

were positive attributes regarding classroom climate after using AQ and AS, but the

survey data do not reflect these changes.

Trends in the classroom that were noticed in the student and teacher interviews

were not supported by the CLI results. For example, there was a non-statistically

significant decrease in the mean score teacher academic support from pre- to

postimplementation surveys. However, students in the focus group praised Mr. Patrick

for his specific academic feedback, and Mr. Patrick, himself, described his efforts to

provide students with clear feedback on their work. Mean scores for teacher academic

support on the CLI may have been lower after RP implementation because the initial

score was quite high, 4.68 out of 5.00, and a score that high could be difficult to improve

upon. Kane, Lloyd, McCluskey, Maguire, Ridell, Stead, and Weedon (2009) studied how

Scottish schools’ existing ethos impacted their implementation of RP. They concluded

that in schools that started with an overall positive ethos, “RP were a means of giving

coherence and identity to established good practices and of further enhancing those

practices” (p. 248). This applies to Mr. Patrick’s class, which started with a strong ethos

of teacher academic support. The CLI did not indicate that RP improved this aspect of

Mr.

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Patrick’s class, but the qualitative data suggests that teacher academic support was strong,

and the use of AQ and AS did seem to help Mr. Patrick improve upon practices, such as

academic feedback, that were already part of his teaching practice.

Another scale whose mean scores declined, but not significantly, from pre- to

post-survey was teacher personal support. This was contrary to the findings of Gregory

et al. (2016), who found that increased use of RP by teachers was associated with

stronger student perceptions of student-teacher relationships. Although teacher personal

support declined when measured by the CLI, it was described as a strength by the focus

group. Multiple students described how Mr. Patrick exhibited personal care for them and

other students in the class. There are possible explanations for this discrepancy. It may

be possible that a few students in the class were upset with the teacher on this particular

day, and so the scores for teacher personal support could be lower. Teven and

McCroskey (1997) found that students’ perception of teacher care greatly affected how

students rated teachers on evaluations. Thus, if a few students in the class felt that the

teacher did not care about them, due to a recent incident, then it is likely their evaluations

of the teacher would be lower. The same twenty-seven students took the pre- and

posttests. However, students’ names were not associated with the results. This

anonymity was provided to encourage students to be honest, however, individual results

cannot be tracked between pre- and post-tests. Thus, it is not possible to conclude if a

few specific students’ scores for teacher personal support decreased dramatically because

of isolated incidents in the class, such as being disciplined.

One possibility for some of the discrepancies in qualitative versus quantitative

findings could be a reflection of differences between qualitative and quantitative

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methodologies. The CLI, a quantitative instrument, is limited regarding the information

that can be gleaned from it. While the CLI did provide beneficial information, it did not

elucidate some aspects of classroom climate that may be pertinent to RP such as the

specificity of teacher feedback and how teachers address student misbehavior, which

emerged from the qualitative sources. Because of their focused nature, some quantitative

instruments may miss out on phenomena that are occurring in a particular environment

(Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004). For example, the CLI survey can only provide

information based on the questions that were asked. Since there were no questions on the

survey about teacher feedback or addressing misbehavior no quantitative data on those

topics was available. Qualitative instruments such as the focus group and semi-structured

teacher interview, on the other hand, tend to be more open-ended and exploratory in

nature than quantitative instruments (Mertler, 2014). They may uncover phenomena that

the researcher did not anticipate prior to beginning the study. For example, the

qualitative data in this action research exposed themes involving teacher feedback and

students’ perceptions of being listened to, whereas the quantitative instruments were not

set up to detect these topics.

Another possibility for the discrepancies in the CLI data versus the teacher

interview and focus group could have to do with the research design. My focus group

consisted of four students out of a class of twenty-seven, which is 15% of the class. Had

my focus group been slightly larger, or if I had conducted an additional focus group with

different students, other viewpoints regarding teacher academic support and teacher

personal support may have surfaced (Morgan, 1996).

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 Additionally, the timing of the focus group and teacher interviews may have

affected the results of this action research. Having only one interview and focus group

that occurred after the implementation of RP may not have provided an accurate

depiction of the effects of RP on classroom climate. Perhaps the views that were

expressed during the focus group and interview were more reflective of Mr. Patrick’s

typical teaching style before the use of RP. If I had conducted an introductory teacher

interview and student focus group, as well as post-intervention interview and focus

group, then I could have compared the pre-and post-interviews to identify differences

after the implementation of RP. This longitudinal use of focus groups has been used in

other disciplines to obtain qualitative insights into changes as a result of an intervention

(Grey, Schmieder-Gaite, Jiang, Nascimento, & Poortinga, 2017).

The lack of congruence between the qualitative and quantitative data may also

have to do with the relatively short implementation period. The practices of AS and AQ

were implemented for six weeks in Mr. Patrick’s class. This is a relatively brief

implementation period. Other studies investigating the effects of RP often have longer

implementation windows that are measured in years rather than weeks (Kane et al., 2009;

McCluskey et al., 2008). Thus, it may take longer than six weeks of implementation to

realize statistically significant differences in classroom climate as a result of using AS

and AQ.

Finally, the statistical methodology used in this action research may have also

contributed to the lack of quantitative significance after the implementation of AS and

AQ. If identifying information had been collected from survey respondents, then a

paired-sample t-test could have been used. As a result of not having paired data,

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however, independent samples t-tests were used instead of paired-samples t-tests (Kent

State University, 2018) to analyze statistical significance. Independent samples t-tests

have less statistical power in this pre- and post-test design, than do paired-samples t-tests.

So, the independent t-test may have not been as sensitive as the paired t-test to detect

statistical significance for a typical before and after scenario (Stone, Scibilia, Pammer,

Steele, & Keller, 2018).

Conclusion

The aim of this action research was to determine the effects that the use of RP,

particularly AS and AQ, would have on classroom climate. The results were varied.

Quantitative and qualitative results did not corroborate one another.

Qualitative results suggested that teacher academic support was high, but survey

results indicated that it actually decreased (although it was still relatively high) after the

implementation of AS and AQ. A similar trend was also seen for teacher personal

support. Qualitative results indicated that students’ level of cooperative learning was

high, but quantitative results noted no significant change after RP implementation. While

the quantitative measure may have indicated decreases in some areas after the

implementation of RP, the qualitative measures did not corroborate this information.

Looking at the whole picture, it seems that the use of AS and AQ have some positive

effects on classroom climate as evidenced by qualitative results. However, quantitative

measures did not corroborate these findings. Implications for the use of RP and their

effects of classroom climate, as well as future research, will be discussed in more detail in

Chapter 5.

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91
 Chapter Five Implications and Recommendations

This chapter begins with a review of the purpose of this DiP, driving questions,

methodology, and findings of this action research. This is followed by the action plan.

Classroom and social justice implications of this action research, as well as implications

for future research are then discussed. The chapter concludes with limitations of this

action research.

Review of Purpose

The problem of practice for this DiP is that some classrooms at TTMS seem to be

suffering from student behavior issues and negative classroom climate. This has been

evidenced by classroom observations, as well as conversations with teachers, students,

and parents. In some situations students have not been respectful of the teacher or their

classmates. This has caused some students to be reluctant to engage fully in classroom

activities. The climate of a classroom can have significant impacts on students’ academic

performance, mental well-being, and physical well-being (Koth et al., 2008; Smith et al.,

2015; Thapa et al., 2013). The use of RP has been suggested to improve classroom

climate (Costello et al., 2009; Gregory et al., 2016; Morrison & Vaandering, 2012; Smith

et al., 2015). Thus, the purpose of this action research was to implement RP in the

classroom setting, specifically affective statements and affective questions, to determine

if there were changes in classroom climate. The overarching research question grounding

this action research was: Will implementing RP, specifically affective statements and

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questions, in their classroom setting have an effect on the climate of the classroom?

There were research questions, too, that guided, specifically, the focus group interview

with students and the semi structured interview with the teacher. Those questions were:

What are student perceptions on the climate of the classroom as a result of the use of
RP?

What were the teacher’s perceptions on the implementation of RP in the classroom? and

what were the teacher’s perceptions on the climate of the classroom as a result of RP?

Review of Methodology

This action research was conducted at TTMS, a suburban middle school in the

southeastern United States. At the time the research was conducted TTMS had a

population of about 1100 students. The student population ethnic breakdown was: 76%

white, 9% African American, 7% Asian, 6% Hispanic, and 4% two or more races. About

21% of students at TTMS receive free or reduced lunch.

A concurrent mixed-methods design was utilized in this action research. I

recruited a teacher, Mr. Patrick, from TTMS with whom to work on this action research.

Mr. Patrick and I selected on of his classes with which to work, which consisted of

twenty-seven students eighth grade students. This class was chosen because it was

diverse both ethnically and academically. It was also a class that presented some

classroom behavior challenges for Mr. Patrick prior to RP implementation. I provided an

orientation for Mr. Patrick regarding the use of RP, specifically affective statements and

questions. Prior to implementing AS and AQ in the classroom, I administered a classroom

climate survey, the CLI, to the twenty-seven students in the selected class. Mr. Patrick

then implemented AS and AQ in this classroom for six weeks. During this six week

implementation window, I observed Mr. Patrick and provided him with feedback

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regarding the implementation of AS and AQ. At the end of the six-week implementation

period, I again administered the CLI to the same twenty-seven students in that class. I

also conducted a focus group interview with four students and a semi-structured interview

with Mr. Patrick. The purpose of the focus group was to provide more insight into their

perspectives on the use of RP and of the classroom climate. The purpose of the teacher

interview was to obtain his perception of the effects of using RP and his perception of

classroom climate.

Descriptive statistics and independent samples t-tests were conducted to

determine if there were significant differences in the pre- and post-test administrations of

the CLI. Independent samples t-tests were utilized because no identifying information

was collected from survey respondents, in an effort to encourage honesty, so their

responses could not be tracked from pre-to post-implementation. Thus, the ideal

statistical method for this scenario, paired samples t-tests, were not used because of this

lack of respondent identity (Kent State University, 2018).

Both the focus group and teacher interviews were video recorded using an iPad.

The video was then transcribed via an online transcription service. These transcripts

were then coded using NVivo software. The coded transcripts were then reviewed

identify patterns in the data. These patterns were then grouped into overarching themes.

Peer debriefing was used throughout the process of planning and carrying out the

methodology and analysis of the results. Fellow action researchers, advisors, and other

educators served provided critical feedback over the course of planning and engaging in

the action research by providing written feedback, as well as serving as sounding boards.

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This feedback was invaluable in its ability to add rigor and credibility to this action

research study (Creswell & Miller, 2000).

Review of Findings

The findings suggested that the use of RP did have some effects on classroom

climate. The qualitative and quantitative findings, though, did not corroborate one

another. The student focus group and teacher interview were highly congruent and

suggested multiple dimensions of positive classroom climate after the implementation of

AS and AQ. While the mean scores of some scales of the CLI did increase after

implementation of AS and AQ, none were statistically significant.

There were some discrepancies in the data. The CLI indicated a non-significant

decrease in the scale of teacher academic support after the implementation of RP. Oddly,

the student focus group and teacher interview described high levels of teacher academic

support, specifically teacher feedback on work. All sources indicated that the classroom

climate was mostly positive both before and after implementation of AS and AQ.

Action Plan

TTMS has adopted a school-wide goal of decreasing the number of suspensions,

particularly for boys. Incorporating the use of RP at TTMS on a broader scale could help

accomplish this goal. Using information gained from this action research I, as an observer-

researcher, can be an agent of change to assist in effectively implementing RP at TTMS,

thereby working to reduce the use of exclusionary consequences. This is particularly

significant for minority populations, who tend to receive more discipline referrals for more

subjective infractions (Skiba et al., 2002). My action plan for implementing RP on a larger

scale involves sharing the results of this action research, deliberate planning with the

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school leadership team, review and refinement of training strategies, and monitoring and

obtaining feedback about the implementation of RP at TTMS (see figure 3).

The first step in the action plan is to share the results of this action research. I

will begin by sharing the results and reflecting on them with Mr. Patrick and our school

leadership team. This information could also be shared with assistant principals at other

schools in my district. I will next work with the leadership team to develop a plan to

implement professional learning for our staff about RP and implementing affective

statements and questions with teachers at TTMS. This plan would include incorporating

RP training as part of our overall yearly schoolwork plan, and determining whether this

would be implemented school-wide, or with a smaller group of staff members. This

planning stage would also entail scheduling RP training during the school year. As a

curriculum leader I want to facilitate the implementation of RP through our school’s

weekly professional development sessions. Before beginning this, though, I would

reflect on and refine the implementation process used with Mr. Patrick to develop

training for other teachers. During the teacher interview Mr. Patrick shared that the

training module and articles that were provided were helpful and easily accessible. He

shared that the articles used did not come across as too academic in nature, and that they

were very understandable and relatable to his classroom. I would, however, continue to

look for other resources to supplement training teachers in the future. Mr. Patrick did

note that it would be helpful to have video clips of these strategies in action. Therefore,

I will search for such clips. If they are not available online, he volunteered to allow me

to video him using affective statements and questions with his students, which could

then be used as exemplars for other teachers. Upon personal reflection, I would also like

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to provide more opportunities for teachers to practice using affective statements and

questions in professional development sessions before using them in the classroom.

A key ingredient of my leadership philosophy, particularly as a school leader, is

continuous learning. This idea is supported by Fullan (2014), who notes that, “the

principal’s role is to lead the school’s teachers in a process of learning to improve their

teaching, while learning alongside them about what works and what doesn’t” (p. 55).

Fullan’s concept of the lead learner is what I aspire to be. The lead learner does not have to

know all of the answers, but he is actively participating in the professional learning going

on in the school. The leader’s active participation in professional learning is personally

beneficial and, “makes all of the difference in creating community” (Brubaker,

2004, p. 96). Barth (1995) states it this way, “The more crucial role of the principal is as

head learner, engaging in the most important enterprise of the schoolhouse -

experiencing, displaying, modeling, and celebrating what it is hoped and expected that

teachers and pupils will do” (p. 80).

As a lead learner I will collaborate with teachers to incorporate RP in their

classrooms. Teacher training will occur during weekly professional learning sessions, each

about an hour long, that are already a part of the school’s structure. These professional

learning sessions will incorporate some methods that were used with Mr. Patrick, as well as

refinements that are suggested above and other improvements that may surface as the

ongoing process of reflection continues. Once teachers have been trained regarding the use

of RP they will begin implementation. As part of this process the leadership team would

conduct observations to provide specific feedback to teachers about the incorporation of

RP in their classes. Teachers would also reflect upon their use of RP and its effects. As we

97
reflect upon the implementation of RP as a faculty, teacher leaders, like Mr. Patrick, may

emerge who have experienced success. These teacher leaders would be encouraged to

share their insights regarding RP. New questions about RP may arise that we, as a faculty,

need to investigate. Throughout this process I will maintain the role as lead learner. In

addition to obtaining feedback from classroom observations and teacher reflections,

discipline data regarding the numbers of students receiving suspensions would also be

monitored. This data, too, would be shared with teachers and with the leadership team at

TTMS. Ideally, with the implementation of RP the number of suspensions would decrease

(Gregory et al., 2014).

This process would continue with other RP strategies including the use of

classroom circles and restorative conferences. This process may take multiple school

years to fully enact. Throughout the process feedback from teachers, observations, and

discipline data would be used to guide next steps. See figure 5.1, below, which depicts

the action plan.

Implications

This section describes implications for the use of RP, specifically affective

statements and affective questions, in the classroom and regarding larger-scale social

justice concerns. Also discussed in this section are implications for effective

implementation of affective statements and affective questions in the classroom.

Classroom implications. During the focus group interviews students reported a sense

of academic support from their peers. In addition, the largest increase in mean score for

any scale on the CLI was in the area of student academic support, although it was not

statistically significant. Mr. Patrick noticed that not only did he use AS with his

98
students, but they adopted the practice for themselves and began using affective

language with him and with each other. This incorporation of AS could contribute to

positive peer interactions during cooperative learning experiences, especially when peers

provide feedback to one another. In his class, Mr. Patrick teaches his students to use

Berger’s (2003) guidelines when providing feedback to one another. These guidelines

state that feedback should be kind, specific, and helpful. The specific, helpful nature of

this type of feedback aligns with the construct of affective statements (Smith et al.,

2015). Thus, this type of feedback, which is regularly used in Mr. Patrick’s class could

contribute to improved academic support among peers. This increase in supportive peer

relationships in learning contexts can benefit all students involved, both socially and

academically (Wentzel, 2009).

Communicate
findings of
action
reseearch

Revise future Plan school-

RP training wide RP
based on training with
feedback from leadership
monitoring team

Review and
Monitor RP
refine training
implementation
materials and
using
practices based
observations,
on action
reflections, and
research
discipline data
findings

Implement RP
training for
TTMS staff

Figure 5.1 - Action plan for implementation of RP at TTMS

99
 Although the CLI did not indicate a significant increase in teacher personal

support as a result of RP, the focus group and teacher interview did. All students in the

focus group described Mr. Patrick’s class as feeling like “family,” and they noted

experiences where Mr. Patrick expressed care for them through his words and by

listening to them. Mr. Patrick also noted that students seemed genuinely surprised when

he asked questions and listened to what they had to say. This student perception of being

listened to as a result of RP was also evidenced by McCluskey et al. (2008). These

practices, which align with the use of affective statements and questions, seemed to help

build strong teacher-student relationships. Supportive teacher-student relationships can

have positive effects on students’ academics (Wentzel, 1998), as well as their

mentalwellbeing and social well-being (Wang, Brinkworth, & Eccles, 2013).

Social justice implications. The STPP is a construct which hypothesizes that

the use of zero-tolerance policies and overuse of exclusionary consequences, such as

suspensions and expulsions, puts students, particularly minority students, on a trajectory

that leads them to increased interaction with the criminal justice system and, ultimately,

to prison (Skiba et al., 2014). Factors at the classroom level, too, can lead students down

the STPP. There is a tendency for minority students to receive higher proportions of

discipline referrals than white students for offenses that are more subjective in nature.

For instance, black and Hispanic students are more likely to be written up for offenses

such as disrespect, excessive noise, and loitering (Skiba et al., 2002). Classroom

instances of infractions such as perceived disrespect and excessive noise could be

addressed first with RP strategies, such as AS and AQ, instead of discipline referrals

100
and/or exclusionary consequences. This could be a first step towards steering students

away from the STPP (Gonzalez, 2012; Mallet, 2016).

During the teacher interview, Mr. Patrick described multiple times how the use of

RP was a paradigm shift in classroom management for him. Before learning about and

implementing RP, Mr. Patrick explained that he would issue commands to students and if

they did not comply he would resort to discipline referrals or in-school suspension. Mr.

Patrick noted that using AS and AQ opened up many more options for him regarding

classroom management. He was more thoughtful about how he spoke to students when

addressing behavior concerns, and he also listened more to students when conversing

with them about these behavioral issues. These results of increased teacher reflection

when addressing student behavior concerns corroborate findings by Bevington (2015).

The use of RP gave Mr. Patrick a whole new mindset and array of tools to use with

students to address classroom misbehavior before having to resort to discipline referrals.

He also found that students often responded more favorably to these RP than they did to

being scolded, sent out of the room, or being referred to administration.

The utilization of RP is not guaranteed to eliminate the use of administrative

referrals or exclusionary consequences. However, incorporating affective language with

students and listening to them certainly has the potential to diminish the frequency of the

need for discipline referrals and exclusionary consequences (Smith et al., 2015;

Gonzalez, 2012). In turn, this decrease in the use of exclusionary consequences can help

keep students out of the STPP. In addition, the use of RP has the potential to improve

student-teacher relationships (Costello et al., 2009; Martin, 2015), which can lead to

positive academic, social, and mental benefits for students (Wang, Brinkworth, & Eccles,

101
2013; Wentzel, 1998).

Implications for future research. The implementation of RP in schools is a

burgeoning field. While multiple sources cite the potential of RP to improve school and

classroom climate (Costello et al., 2009; Mirsky, 2011; Payne & Welch, 2017; Smith et

al., 2015) there have been relatively few studies that quantitatively measure this in

schools (Gregory et al., 2016; McCluskey et al., 2008). Therefore, further research into

measuring the effects of RP on school and classroom climate, as well as specific elements

of school and classroom climate, would be beneficial. Anyon et al. (2014) suggest that RP

have the potential to improve racial inequities that exist in school discipline as an

alternative to exclusionary consequences. Thus, it would also be interesting to implement

these strategies with populations that have a higher percentage of minority students than

did the sample in this particular action research.

Limitations

This action research has multiple limitations, which may have affected the results

and/or may prohibit these results from being generalized to other settings. The first

limitation is the nature of action research, itself. Action research is more focused on the

problem of practice as related to the characteristics a particular setting than it is in

producing results that are generalizable to other settings, as traditional research is

(Schwallbach, 2003).

A second limitation is that in this action research AS and AQ were implemented

with a single class by a single teacher. The results may have been different if a different

teacher had been chosen with whom to collaborate. Mr. Patrick was open to trying new

102
strategies in his classroom. A teacher who is less open to new ideas may get different

results. Likewise, if this action research had been implemented in another of Mr.

Patrick’s classes the students may have reacted differently, resulting in different findings.

A third limitation is that these results cannot be generalized to include all forms of

RP. Only AS and AQ, which are on the informal end of the continuum of RP (Costello et

al., 2009), were implemented in this action research. The findings from affective

statements and affective questions cannot be assumed for more formal strategies like

classroom circles or restorative conferences. Similarly, had other RP been implemented in

this action research the findings may have differed.

A fourth limitation of this action research is the source of data that were utilized.

The most glaring example is the use of the CLI as the classroom climate survey. While

this is a trusted classroom climate survey, it did not address specific factors, such as

teacher feedback, that were expressed during the student focus group and teacher

interview. The use of a different classroom climate survey may have produced different

findings.

A final limitation of this action research is the research design and ensuing

statistical methodology that was utilized. Because the pre- and post-survey data was

unpaired a paired-samples t-test could not be utilized, and independent-samples t-tests

were used instead. The use of independent samples t-tests may have caused the

statistical analysis to be less sensitive and to have possibly missed some areas of

statistical significance (Stone et al., 2018). Therefore, in the future it is recommended to

collect some type of identifying data so that paired t-tests could be used.

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Conclusion

The use of the RP strategies of AS and AQ is promising because it has the

potential to improve classroom climate (Costello et al., 2009; Gregory et al., 2016;

Morrison & Vaandering, 2012; Smith et al., 2015), which can benefit students’ academic

achievement, social life, physical health, and mental well-being (Koth et al., 2008; Smith

et al., 2015; Thapa et al., 2013; Wang, Brinkworth, & Eccles, 2013; Wentzel, 1998). The

results of this action research indicate that AS and AQ can have positive impacts on

aspects of classroom climate at TTMS, particularly students’ academic support of one

another. The use of RP also has the potential to benefit historically disenfranchised

populations, who have experienced disproportionately high rates of receiving

exclusionary consequences, which can usher them into the STPP (Gonzalez, 2012; Skiba

et al., 2002).

As a result of this action research, an action plan has been developed that will lead

to training more teachers at TTMS regarding the use of RP in the classroom. By

broadening the use of RP at TTMS it may be possible to improve the climate of more

classrooms within the school, thereby benefiting more teachers and students.

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Appendix A – Classroom Life Inventory

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113
 Appendix B – Focus Group Questions

I read this statement to the focus group participants prior to beginning the interview:

I will not share your responses to these questions with Mr. Patrick. I may use some
quotes in my writing, but I will not use your name. Whatever is said in here needs
to stay in here. I am trusting you to not talk about this conversation with other
students. However, I cannot guarantee that everyone will keep that expectation.

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• How would you describe what Mr. Patrick’s classroom feels like?

• Have you noticed any changes in your classes since we started this study?

• Describe the feedback that Mr Patrick gives.

o Do you like it? Why/why not?

• How does Mr. Patrick address someone who is disrupting class, for example,
interrupting him while he’s trying to talk?

o How does this response make you feel?

• Do you think Mr. Patrick cares about you as a person? Why or why not?

• Do you think Mr. Patrick cares about you as a learner? Why or why not?

• How do students get along in Mr. Patrick’s class. Better, same, or worse than
other classes? Why?

Appendix C – Teacher Interview Questions

• How would you describe the climate of your classroom prior to implementing

RP?

• Do you feel the climate of your classroom changed since implementing RP?

• In your own words, describe how you used restorative practices in your

classroom.

o Did you use AS and AQ?

• How effectively do you feel you implemented using RPs? Explain.

• How did students respond when you used RP (AS and AQ) to address concerns?

• How did it feel to use AS and AQ? [Did it feel awkward / forced / contrived /

comfortable]?

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 o Can you relate an instance where you got a positive response by using
AS?
• Can you relate an instance where you got a positive response by using AQ?

• Would you recommend using this practice to another teacher? Why or why not?

• How could this experience be improved?

• What aspect(s) of the coaching helped you the most to implement RP? What else

regarding training would be helpful?

Appendix D – Questions in Each Scale of the CLI

Cooperative Learning
• In this class I like to share my ideas and materials with other students.  In this
class I can learn important things from other students.
• In this class I like to help other students learn.
• In this class I try to share my ideas and materials with other students when I think
it will help them.
• In this class it is a good idea for students to help each other learn.
• In this class I like to cooperate with other students.
• In this class students learn lots of important things from each other.
Positive Goal Interdependence
• When we work together in small groups we try to make sure that everyone in our
group learns the assigned material.
• When we work together in small groups our job is not done until everyone in our
group has finished the assignment.
• When we work together in small groups we all receive the same grade.
• When we work together in small groups our grade depends on how much all
members learn.
• When we work together in small groups I have to make sure that the other
members learn if I want to do well on the assignment.

Resource Interdependence
• When we work together in small groups we cannot complete an assignment
unless everyone contributes.
• When we work together in small groups the teacher divides up the material so
that everyone has a part and a share to do.
• When we work together in small groups we have to share materials in order to
complete the assignment.

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 • When we work together in small groups everyone's ideas are needed if we are
going to be successful.
• When we work together in small groups I have to find out what everyone else
knows if I am going to be able to do the assignment.

Teacher Academic Support

• My teacher cares about how much I learn.
• My teacher likes to see my work.  My teacher likes to help me learn.

• My teacher wants me to do my best in school work.

Teacher Personal Support
• My teacher really cares about me.
• My teacher thinks it is important to be my friend.  My teacher likes me as
much as he likes other students.  My teacher cares about my feelings.

Student Academic Support

• In this class other students want me to do my best school work.
• In this class other students like to help me learn.  In this class other
students care about how much I learn.
• In this class other students want me to come to class every day.
Student Personal Support
• In this class other students think it is important to be my friend.
• In this class other students like me the way I am.  In this class other
students care about my feelings.
• In this class other students like me as much as they like others. In this class other
students really care about me.

Class Cohesion
• In this class are my best friends.  In this class I like to work with others.
 In this class everybody is a friend.  I am often lonely.
[Reverse scored]
• In this class all of the students know each other well.
Fairness of Grading
• In this class everyone has an equal chance to be successful if they do their best.

• In this class if a student works hard he/she can definitely succeed.

• In this class students get the scores they deserve; no more and no less.
• In this class I deserve the scores I get.
• Sometimes I think the scoring system in this class is NOT fair. [Reverse scored]

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Achieving for Social Approval
• I do school work to make my teacher happy.
• I do school work because my classmates expect it of me.  I do school work
to make my parents happy.
• I do school work to keep my teacher from getting mad at me.  I do school
work to be liked by other students.
Academic Self-Esteem
• I am NOT doing as well in school as I would like to. [Reverse Scored] 
School work is fairly easy for me.
• Whenever I take a test I am afraid I will fail. [Reverse Scored]  I am doing a
good job of learning in this class.  I am a good student.

Alienation
• I am NOT doing as well in school as I would like to.  I find it hard to speak my
thoughts clearly in class.  School work is fairly easy for me. [Reverse
Scored]
• I should get along with other students better than I do.  Whenever I take a
test I am afraid I will fail. [Reverse Scored]  I often get discouraged in school.
• I have lots of questions that I never get a chance to ask in class.
• I am often lonely.
• I am a good student. (Reverse Scored)  I often feel upset in school.
• Sometimes I think the scoring system in this class is NOT fair.

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