Thermionic Emission and Electron Gun

Thermionic emission refers to the emission of electrons when a metal is heated to a high temperature, electron are
emitted as they gain thermal energy. Thermionic emission takes place in certain metals such as tungsten; normally it
occurs at temperature near the melting point of those metals.

Hence the number of electrons emitted from the surface increases sharply with increase in temperature of the metal.

Simple thermionic diode tube or Electron Gun

Here electrons are emitted from the tungsten filament, which is heated to a high temperature using a low voltage
current (either A.C. or D.C. since both have a heating effect).

The metal filament is also called the cathode and hence the emitted electrons are also called cathode rays. They
are a stream or fine beam of electrons moving at a high speed. Thermionic emissions have less mass. They cause
fluorescence (luminous or glowing). If they are allowed to fall on a coated screen, the screen glows (See CRO).

Deflection of electrons in Electric field and Magnetic Field

a. They are affected by a magnetic field. The direction in which an electron beam moves or deflects is given by
Fleming’s Left Hand Rule, whereby electron movement is in the opposite direction as the convectional
current.
b. They are affected by an electric field; the result is such the electrons are attracted towards the positive plate.
These show that thermionic emissions are negatively charged.

CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE (C.R.O)

Structure of a C.R.O

The structure of a C.R.O consists of the three main parts,

i. The electron gun

ii. The deflection system
iii. The florescent screen

All parts above are enclosed in glass tube called thermionic diode tube, it’s a vacuum tube so that thermionic
emission does not collide with air particles, since air particle will slowdown them, also it’s a vacuum to avoid filament
from burning.
Function of main parts of C.R.O

a. Electron gun – to produce beam of electrons

i. Filament – its acts as heater, to heat the cathode
ii. Cathode – emits electrons
iii. Grid – controls the rate of flow of electrons or brightness of the electrons
iv. Anode – it accelerates electrons as well as it focuses the electrons into a fine beam.
b. Deflection system – to deflects the electron beam
i. Y plates – deflect the electrons in the vertically direction, when a voltage is applied across them.
ii. X plates – deflects the electrons in the horizontally directions, when a voltage is applied across the.
X plates are also known as the time base.
c. Fluorescent screen – when electron hit the screen a bright spots seen, since the screen is coated with
fluorescent salt e.g. Zinc sulphide, the salt will produce a flash of light or bright spot when beam of electrons
hits it.

Display on C.R.O screen

Input voltage in the applied across the Y-plates.

If the input is D.C (time base off)

i. An immobile spot is seen on the screen

If the input is A.C (time base off)

ii. The spot on the screen moves up and down

iii. If the frequency of the input voltage is high, a bright vertical line is observed rather than a moving spot.

The amount of vertical movement can be increased by turning up the gain control. (A gain control of 5V/cm means
the spot is deflected 1cm vertically for every 5 volts across the Y-input terminals).

Input voltage applied across the one X-plate, while the one of the X plats is earthed (0V). Time base ON, the
action is to deflect the electron in the horizontally direction across the screen.

i. the spot moves horizontally with a steady speed

ii. If there is A.C voltage across the Y-plates, then the spot oscillates vertically and moves horizontally at
steady speed producing a moving wave (see saw tooth voltage).

If the time base is set at 10ms/cm that means it takes 10 milliseconds to move a cm horizontally.
Application of C.R.O

a. Measuring p.d (voltage) and frequency or time using an oscilloscope

C.R.O can be use to measure D.C or A.C if voltage to be measured is connected across the Y input terminals.
Moreover the C.R.O can also be used to measure the period (T) of the Y input terminals

Figure 1
 P.d = Y- gain x vertical division (amplitude)
 T = X-gain (time base control) x horizonatal division (peak to peak)
 The frequecny will be given as f =1/T

Example

1. Use the information on figure 1 to calculate the p.d and frequency of the applied Y input voltage

P.d = Y- gain x vertical division (amplitude)

P.d = 5V/cm x 3cm
P.d = 15V

T = X-gain (time base control) x horizonatal division (peak to peak)

T = 10ms/cm x 3.5cm
T = 35ms

f = 1/T
f = 1/35x10-3s
f = 20.57Hz

In television set
 A TV set is a CRO with two time base. One moves the spot across the screen and the other moves it vertical.
The signal varies the brightness of the spot so that a picture is built up of bright and dark spots. In a colour TV
there are three electron guns. These build a colour picture using primary colours: red, green and blue.

Exercise

1. The distance between peaks on an oscilloscope trace is 4cm. If the oscilloscope time scale is set
at 1ms/cm. Calculate the frequency of the sound.

2. Fig. below shows a simplified diagram of the front of a cathode-ray oscilloscope

(C.R.O).

a) When the oscilloscope is switched on, a bright spot is seen at the centre of the screen.
i. Describe what causes this bright spot? [3]
ii. The spot is rather blurred. Which control should be adjusted to make it sharper?
[1]
iii. Which control would be switched on to turn the spot into a horizontal line? [1]
iv. Describe what happens inside the oscilloscope to turn the spot into a horizontal
line? [3]

b) You have an alternating p.d whose waveform you wish to display on the screen.
i. Where would you connect this alternating p.d. to the oscilloscope? [1]
ii. Fig below shows what the trace on the screen might look like.

iii. What change would you see on the screen if you adjusted the x-shift control? [1]
iv. What change would you see on the screen if you adjusted the y-shift control? [1]
3.

4.
ACTION AND USE OF CIRCUIT COMPONENTS

Potential divider is a simple circuit with resistors arranged in series to get a fraction of main voltage (V-in). The
voltage is divided between the resistors; the grater the valve of the resistors, the bigger the proportion of the voltage
it will takes.
:

To find the voltage (at Vout) we use the following formula Vout = Vin x (R2 / Reff), where Reff = R1 + R2

Type of Potential dividers

 Two fixed resistors
 Variable resistors
 Potentiometer
 Transduces such as LDR, thermistor etc.

NOTE: The out voltage of potential divider is use to drive another circuit, it can be a fire alarm, street lights etc.

a. Two fixed resistors potential divider, we always get the same V out unless we replace one of the resistor with
a variable resistor to make a potentiometer, hence Vout will vary or change,
 b. Potentiometer; A variable potential divider is the same as the one above but using a variable resistor; it acts
like a potential divider, but you can change the output voltage.

When R 1 is replaced by a variable resistor, the following things will take place
I. When R1 increases, Reff increases
II. Current decreases as V=IR; Vout decreases as Vout = IR2 and R2 is fixed resistor

When R2 is replaced by a variable resistor, the following things will take place
I. When R2 increases, Reff increases
II. Current decreases as V=IR; V1 decreases as V1 = IR1 and R1 is fixed resistor
III. Vout increases as V1 + Vout = V
Transducer;

Are devices that transform energy from one form to another form, typically they are used as switches in control
systems, instruments and electronic communications. Input transducers such as thermistor, LDR etc. change non
electrical energy into electrical energy.

a. Thermistor: a device that its resistances changes with temperature. Thus, when the temperature increases,
its resistance decreases. It can be used for temperature control either in fire alarm, switch on a heater etc.

b. Light dependent resistor (LDR): a device that its resistance changes with light intensity or amount of light
shining on it; thus, when the light intensity increases, its resistance decreases. It can be used as switch for
burglar alarm, switch on the streets lights. .
Exercise

a. Calculate the V out on the circuit below

b. Explain how LDR can operate to switch on/off bulbs at night and day. Support your answer with circuit
diagram for both cases (night and day)
c. i. Explain how a Thermistor can operate to switch on/off bulbs during hot and cold days. Support your
answer with circuit diagram for both cases (hot and cold)
ii. What would be the output voltage when it is hot and cold?
Reeds switch

Two types of reeds switch

 Normally Opened Reeds switch – it consists of two magnetic material strips e.g. iron sealed in a glass
tube. Those strips are not in contact unless we apply a magnetic field that will attract the two strips together.

Operation of Normally Opened Reeds switch

If we bring a magnet near the normally opened reeds switch it magnetise each iron strips, the contact attract
each other closing the strips.

 Normally Closed Reeds switch – it consist of one magnetic strips (iron) and one none-magnetic strip
(copper) sealed in glass tube. The strips are in contact unless we apply magnetic field that will separate the
normal contact between the two strips.

Operation of Normally Closed Reeds switch

If we bring a magnet near the normally closed reeds switch it magnetise iron strip, the result is that the iron
strip is pulled away from the none magnetic strip causing the switch to be open.
Reeds relays - it’s a normal reed switch put inside a coil of wire so that it can be operated by current passing
throughout the coil
 Normally Opened Reeds Relay

Operation of Normally Opened Reeds Relay

If the current is flowing in the coil the coil becomes a magnet hence it magnetise both the iron strips of the
normally opened reeds switch, the contact attract each other closing the strips.

 Normally Closed Reeds Relay

Operation of Normally Closed Reeds switch

If the current is flowing in the coil the coil becomes a magnet hence it magnetise the iron strips of the
normally Closed reeds switch, as a result that the iron strip is pulled away from the none magnetic strip
causing the switch to be open.

Exercise

Use the diagram below to explain how the burglar alarm is activated when the door is opened.

Capacitor
It consist of two conducting plates separated by a thin insulating layer. The function of a capacitor is to store energy
by the process of charging.

When a capacitor is connected to a battery, electron charges flows from negative terminal to the capacitor, hence
changing the capacitor. For storing large energy a bigger capacitor is needed, but it will take some time to be fully
charged.

Time delay circuit

A simple time delay circuit consists of a cell, capacitor and lamp (LED). It is used for charming a capacitor, a charged
capacitor is used to operate or light the lamp (LED). It is made up of two circuits namely charging circuit and
discharging circuit.

When the switch is moved to position 1 charging takes place. When the switch is moved from position 1 to position 2
capacitor is discharged as the energy is used to light the lamp (LED) by giving short flashing light.

Note:
 Charging increases as P.d increases
 Discharging time decreases when the resistance in the discharging circuit increases
 During discharging the current decreases when resistance in the circuit increases.

Diodes and Rectifications

A diode is a device that allows current to flow in direction. It has + terminal called Anode and – terminal called
cathode. Diode can be used as a forward bias or reverse bias.

Forward bias is when the diode is pointing in the direction of the conventional current or when the + terminal of the
battery or cell or power supply is connected to + of the diode.

Reverse bias is when the diode is pointing in the direction of the negative charges or when the - terminal of the
battery or cell or power supply is connected to - of the diode.
Rectification

A rectification is a process of changing AC into DC by use of a. A diode is used in circuits as a rectifier. The diode
let the forward part of the AC through but blocks the reverse part of the AC.

Half wave rectifier

A rectifier that changes the forward AC (reversed AC is blocked) into DC by the diode. Half wave rectification does
not produce steady flow of DC, for stead flow of DC a full wave rectification is used.

Typical DC graph of Half wave rectification

Full wave rectification

A rectifier in which both half cycle (forward and reverse AC) changes into DC outputit. It procude steady DC output.

The graph above will operate as follow:

Positive half cycle – DB and DD conduct in series
Negative half cycle – DA and DC conduct in series

Typical DC graph of Half wave rectification

To produce a smooth voltage a capacitor is connected parallel to the load to produce a steady flowing DC.

DIGITAL ELECTRONICS

Logic gates transform Analogy signal into Digital signal. Digital signals use only 2 states, on and off. Logic gates are
device which perform the logical operation such as AND, OR, NOT etc.

Action (positive logic)

Input high output low

All inputs high to get high

output

One or more input high to

get a high output

One or more low input

produce a high output

All inputs must be low to

get high output

How to read colour codes from reisitors

The resistance of each esistor is printed on each resistor based on colour code, every colour has its own number.

Note: each resistor has the following

a. First colours- it can be a 2, 3, 4, etc. bands resistor

b. Multiplier – digits or numbers from the first colour should be multiplied with the of the multiplier
c. Tolerance – is the tolerance precision of the resistor given in percentage, e.g. 390Ω resistor with ±10%
tolerance will be 390±10% but 10/100*390 = 39, Therefore its resistance will be 390+39 = 429Ω or 390-39 =
351Ω

Resistor Colour code table

Example

a. If the first colour is RED, second is RED, third is BLACK and the last is SILVER. What will be the resistance
of the resistor
RED – 2, RED – 2, BLACK – 1, SILVER - ±10%, So R = 221Ω ± 10%, but 10/100*221 = 22.1Ω
R = 221Ω ±22.1, therefore R = 221Ω + 22.1 = 243.1Ω or R = 221Ω - 22.1 = 198.9Ω

Exercise

a. Workout the resistance of the following resistor of colour codes as follows

i. Brown, Brown, Black, Red and Gold (11000Ω ±500Ω)
ii. Green, Blue, Yellow and Gold (560kΩ ±28kΩ)
iii. Brown, Black, Red and Gold (1000Ω ±50Ω)