Unicast Routing Protocols

Maulika Patel SECE3011-

Computer Networks
McGraw-Hill B.Tech-Sem5
Internet Structure

Maulika Patel SECE3011-

Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
 Hierarchical Routing
• routing in the Internet cannot be done using
a single protocol for two reasons: a scalability
problem and an administrative issue.
• Scalability problem means that the size of the
forwarding tables becomes huge.
• The administrative issue is related to the
Internet structure described in Figure.
• Hierarchical routing means considering each
ISP as an autonomous system (AS)
Maulika Patel SECE3011-
Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
 Autonomous Systems
• An internet can be so large that one routing protocol
cannot handle the task of updating routing table of
all routers
• An autonomous system is a region of the internet
that is administered by a single entity.
• Examples of autonomous regions are:
– PPSU’s campus network
– Regional Internet Service Provider
• Routing is done differently within an autonomous
system(intradomian routing) and between
autonomous syste m(iNetworks
nterdoSEB.m
Mitul Patel
Computer ain routing)
CE3011-
Tech-Sem5
Autonomous Systems

Maulika Patel SECE3011-

Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
Interdomain and Intradomain Routing

Intradomain Routing Interdomain Routing

• Routing within an AS • Routing between AS’s
• Ignores the Internet • Assumes that the Internet
consists of a collection of
outside the AS interconnected AS’s.Normally,
• Protocols for Intradomain there is one dedicated router
routing are also called in each AS that handles
interdomian traffic
Interior Gateway Protocols
• Protocols for interdomin
or IGP’s routing are also called
• Popolar protocols are Exterior Gateway Protocols or
– RIP(simple,old) EGP’s
– OSPF(better) • Routing Protocols:
– BGP

Maulika Patel SECE3011-

Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
 RIP-Routing Information Protocol
• A single intradomain protocol
• Straightforward implementation of Distance Vector
Routing
• Each router adverties its distance vector every 30
seconds(or whenever its routing table changes) to all
of its neighbours.
• RIP always uses 1 as link metric
• Maximum hop count is 15,with “16” equal to
“infinite”
• Routers are timeout after 3 minutes if they are not
updated.

Maulika Patel SECE3011-

Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
RIP - History

Maulika Patel SECE3011-

Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
 RIP Messages
• Two types of messages:
– Request messages
• Used to ask neighboring nodes for an update
– Response messages
• Contains an update

Maulika Patel SECE3011-

Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
 Routing with RIP
• Initialization: Send a request packet(command=1,address
family=0..0) on all interfaces:
– RIPv1 uses broadcast if possible
– RIPv2 uses multicast address
• Requesting routing tables from neighboring routers
• Request received: Routers that receive above request
send their routing table
• Response received: Update the routing table
• Regular routing updates: Every 30 seconds, send all or
part of the routing tables to every neighbor in an response
message.
• Triggered Updates: Whenever the metric for a route
change, send entire routing table.
Maulika Patel SECE3011-
Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
RIPv2 Packet

Maulika Patel SECE3011-

Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
 RIP Problems
• RIP takes a long time to stabilize
– Even for a small network, it takes several minutes
until the routing tables have settled after a
change
• RIP has all the problems of distance vector
algorithms e.g.count-to-infinity
• The maximum path in RIP is 15 hops.

Maulika Patel SECE3011-

Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
 OSPF
• OSPF: Open Shortest Path First
• Another interior routing protocol
• OSPF divide an autonomous system into
areas
– To handle routing efficiently and in a timely
manner

Maulika Patel SECE3011-

Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
 Areas
• A collection of networks, hosts and routers all
contained within an autonomous system.
• Thus an autonomous system can be divided into
may different areas.
• All networks inside an area must be connected
• Routers inside an area flood the area with routing
information.
• Each area has a special router called area border
routers which will summarize the information
Maulika SECE3011-
about the area and sent it to other areas.
Patel
Com puter Networks B.Tech-Sem5
 Areas(Continued…)
• Among the area inside an autonomous system is
a special area called backbone
– All of the areas inside an AS must be connected to
the backbone
• The routers inside the backbone are called the
backbone routers
– A backbone router can also be an area border router
• Each area has an area identification
– The area identification of the backbone is zero

Maulika Patel SECE3011-

Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
Areas in an Autonomous System

Maulika Patel SECE3011-

Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
 Metrics
• OSPF allows the administrator to assign
a cost, called the metric, to each route
• Metric can be based on a type of
service
– Minimum delay
– Maximum throughput

Maulika Patel SECE3011-

Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
 Link State Routing
• OSPF uses link state routing to update
the routing table in an area
• Link state routing: a process by which
each router shares its knowledge about
its neighbor with every router in the
area

Maulika Patel SECE3011-

Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
 Performance
• Update Messages. The link-state messages in OSPF have a
somewhat complex format. They also are flooded to the
whole area. If the area is large, these messages may create
heavy traffic and use a lot of bandwidth.
• Convergence of Forwarding Tables. When the flooding of
LSPs is completed,each router can create its own shortest-
path tree and forwarding table; convergence is fairly quick.
However, each router needs to run Dijkstra’s algorithm,
which may take some time.
• Robustness. The OSPF protocol is more robust than RIP
because, after receiving the completed LSDB, each router is
independent and does not depend on other routers in the
area. Corruption or failure in one router does not affect
other routers as serioComputer
u s l yNetworks
as in RISEB.PTech-Sem5
M itu lP a tel CE3011-
 BGP
• BGP: Border Gateway Protocol
• An inter-autonomous system routing
protocol
• Based on the path vector routing method

Maulika Patel SECE3011-

Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
 BGP(Cont.)
• Why the distance vector routing and link state
routing are not good candidates for inter
autonomous system routing?

• Distance vector routing

– There are occasions in which the route with the smallest
hop count is not the preferred route
– For example, we may not want a packet to pass through
an AS that is not secure even it is the shortest path
– Unstable as discussed before

Maulika Patel SECE3011-

Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
 BGP (Cont.)
• Link state routing
• An internet is usually too big for this routing
method
• If used, each router must have a huge link
state database
– It would take a long time for each router to
calculate its routing table by Dijkstra algorithm

Maulika Patel SECE3011-

Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
 Path Vector Routing
• Each entry in the routing table contains
– The destination network
– The next router
– The path to reach the destination, usually
defined as ordered list of ASs

Maulika Patel SECE3011-

Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
A sample internet with four ASs

Maulika Patel SECE3011-

Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
eBGP operation

Maulika Patel SECE3011-

Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
• There are two problems that need to be addressed:
1.Some border routers do not know how to route a
packet destined for nonneighbor ASs. For example, R5
does not know how to route packets destined for
networks in AS3 and AS4. Routers R6 and R9 are in the
same situation as R5: R6 does not know about
networks in AS2 and AS4; R9 does not know about
networks in AS2 and AS3.
2.None of the nonborder routers know how to route
a packet destined for any networks in other ASs.
Maulika Patel SECE3011-
Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
Combination of eBGP and iBGP
sessions in our internet

Maulika Patel SECE3011-

Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
Finalized BGP path tables

Maulika Patel SECE3011-

Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
 Internet Protocols

Maulika Patel SECE3011-

Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
McGraw-Hill ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000
IPv4
• The Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) is
the delivery mechanism used by the
TCP/IP protocols.
• Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4), is
responsible for packetizing, forwarding,
and delivery of a packet at the network
layer.

Maulika Patel SECE3011-

Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
Position of IPv4 in TCP/IP protocol suite

Maulika Patel SECE3011-

Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
 IPv4
• IPv4 is an unreliable datagram protocol
• IPv4 is also a connectionless protocol

Maulika Patel SECE3011-

Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
IPv4 datagram format

Maulika Patel SECE3011-

Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
Default types of service

Maulika Patel SECE3011-

Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
Note

The total length field defines the total length

of the datagram including the header.

Maulika Patel SECE3011-

Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
Protocol field and encapsulated data

Maulika Patel SECE3011-

Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
Protocol values

Maulika Patel SECE3011-

Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
 Example 1

An IPv4 packet has arrived with the first 8 bits as shown:

01000010
The receiver discards the packet. Why?

Solution
There is an error in this packet. The 4 leftmost bits (0100)
show the version, which is correct. The next 4 bits (0010)
show an invalid header length (2 × 4 = 8). The minimum
number of bytes in the header must be 20. The packet has
been corrupted in transmission.

Maulika Patel SECE3011-

Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
 Example 2

In an IPv4 packet, the value of HLEN is 5, and the value

of the total length field is 0x0028. How many bytes of
data are being carried by this packet?

Solution
The HLEN value is 5, which means the total number of
bytes in the header is 5 × 4, or 20 bytes (no options). The
total length is 40 bytes, which means the packet is
carrying 20 bytes of data (40 − 20).

Maulika Patel SECE3011-

Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
 Example 3

An IPv4 packet has arrived with the first few hexadecimal

digits as shown.
0x45000028000100000102 . . .
How many hops can this packet travel before being
dropped? The data belong to what upper-layer protocol?

Solution
To find the time-to-live field, we skip 8 bytes. The time-to-
live field is the ninth byte, which is 01. This means the
packet can travel only one hop. The protocol field is the
next byte (02), which means that the upper-layer protocol
is IGMP.
Maulika Patel SECE3011-
Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
 Fragmentation
• Maximum Transfer Unit (MTU)
• When a datagram is encapsulated in a frame, the total size
of the datagram must be less than this maximum size, which
is defined by the restrictions imposed by the hardware and
software used in the network

Maulika Patel SECE3011-

Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
 Fragmentation
• The value of the MTU differs from one physical
network protocol to another. For example, the
value for a LAN is normally 1500 bytes, but for a
WAN it can be larger or smaller.
• Maximum length of the IP datagram equal to
65,535 bytes which is efficient if we use a link-layer
protocol with an MTU of this size.
• For other physical networks, we must divide the
datagram to make it possible for it to pass through
these networks. This is called fragmentation.
Maulika Patel SECE3011-
Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
 Fields Related to Fragmentation
• Three fields in an IP datagram are related to
fragmentation: identification, flags, and
fragmentation offset
• The 16-bit identification field identifies a
datagram originating from the source host.
The combination of the identification and
source IP address must uniquely define a
datagram as it leaves the source host.
• When a datagram is fragmented, the value in
the identification field is copied into all
Maulika Patel SECE3011-
fragments. Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
Flags used in fragmentation

Maulika Patel SECE3011-

Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
fragmentation offset field

Relative position of this fragment

with respect to the whole datagram

Maulika Patel SECE3011-

Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
Detailed fragmentation example

Maulika Patel SECE3011-

Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
 Example 4

A packet has arrived with an M bit value of 0. Is this

the first fragment, the last fragment, or a middle
fragment? Do we know if the packet was fragmented?

Solution
If the M bit is 0, it means that there are no more
fragments; the fragment is the last one. However, we
cannot say if the original packet was fragmented or not. A
non-fragmented packet is considered the last fragment.

Maulika Patel SECE3011-

Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
 Example 5

A packet has arrived with an M bit value of 1. Is this the

first fragment, the last fragment, or a middle fragment?
Do we know if the packet was fragmented?

Solution
If the M bit is 1, it means that there is at least one more
fragment. This fragment can be the first one or a middle
one, but not the last one. We don’t know if it is the first
one or a middle one; we need more information (the
value of the fragmentation offset).

Maulika Patel SECE3011-

Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
 Example 6

A packet has arrived with an M bit value of 1 and a

fragmentation offset value of 0. Is this the first fragment,
the last fragment, or a middle fragment?

Solution
Because the M bit is 1, it is either the first fragment or a
middle one. Because the offset value is 0, it is the first
fragment.

Maulika Patel SECE3011-

Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
 Example 7

A packet has arrived in which the offset value is 100.

What is the number of the first byte? Do we know the
number of the last byte?

Solution
To find the number of the first byte, we multiply the offset
value by 8. This means that the first byte number is 800.
We cannot determine the number of the last byte unless
we know the length.

Maulika Patel SECE3011-

Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
 Example 8

A packet has arrived in which the offset value is 100, the

value of HLEN is 5, and the value of the total length field
is 100. What are the numbers of the first byte and the last
byte?
Solution
The first byte number is 100 × 8 = 800. The total length is
100 bytes, and the header length is 20 bytes (5 × 4), which
means that there are 80 bytes in this datagram. If the first
byte number is 800, the last byte number must be 879.

Maulika Patel SECE3011-

Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
 Example 9

Figure shows an example of a checksum calculation for

an IPv4 header without options. The header is divided
into 16-bit sections. All the sections are added and the
sum is complemented. The result is inserted in the
checksum field.

Maulika Patel SECE3011-

Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
Example of checksum calculation in IPv4

Maulika Patel SECE3011-

Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
 ICMPv4
• The IPv4 has no error-reporting or error-correcting
mechanism. What happens if something goes wrong?
• What happens if a router must discard a datagram because it
cannot find a route to the final destination, or because the
time-to-live field has a zero value?
• What happens if the final destination host must discard the
received fragments of a datagram because it has not
received all fragments within a predetermined time limit?
• These are examples of situations where an error has
occurred and the IP protocol has no built-in mechanism to
notify the original host

Maulika Patel SECE3011-

Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
 ICMPv4
• The IP protocol also lacks a mechanism for
host and management queries. A host
sometimes needs to determine if a router or
another host is alive. And sometimes a
network manager needs information from
another host or router.

Maulika Patel SECE3011-

Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
 ICMPv4
• The IP protocol also lacks a mechanism for
host and management queries.
• A host sometimes needs to determine if a
router or another host is alive.
• And sometimes a network administrator
needs information from another host or
router.

Maulika Patel SECE3011-

Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
 ICMPv4
• The Internet Control Message Protocol version 4
(ICMPv4) has been designed is a companion to the
IP protocol.
• ICMP itself is a network-layer protocol. However, its
messages are not passed directly to the data-link
layer as would be expected.
• Instead, the messages are first encapsulated inside
IP datagrams before going to the lower layer.
• When an IP datagram encapsulates an ICMP
message, the value of the protocol field in the IP
datagram is set to 1 to indicate that the IP payroll is
an ICMP message. Maulika
Computer Networks
SECE3011-
B.Tech-Sem5
Patel
 MESSAGES
• ICMP messages are divided into two broad
categories: error-reporting messages and query
messages.
• The error-reporting messages report problems
that a router or a host (destination) may
encounter when it processes an IP packet.
• The query messages, which occur in pairs, help
a host or a network manager get specific
information from a router or another host. For
example, nodes can discover their neighbors.
Mitul Patel SECE3011-
Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
General format of ICMP messages

Maulika Patel SECE3011-

Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
 Error Reporting Messages
Destination Unreachable
• The most widely used error message is the
destination unreachable (type 3).
• This message uses different codes (0 to 15) to
define the type of error message and the reason
why a datagram has not reached its final
destination. For example, code 0 tells the source
that a host is unreachable.
• This may happen, for example, when we use the
HTTP protocol to access a web page, but the server
is down Maulika Patel SECE3011-
Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
 Error Reporting Messages
Source Quench
• Another error message is called the source
quench (type 4) message, which informs the
sender that the network has encountered
congestion and the datagram has been
dropped; the source needs to slow down
sending more datagrams.
• In other words, ICMP adds a kind of
congestion control mechanism to the IP
protocol by using this type of message.
Maulika Patel SECE3011-
Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
 Error Reporting Messages
Redirection Message
• The redirection message (type 5) is used
when the source uses a wrong router to send
out its message.
• The router redirects the message to the
appropriate router, but informs the source
that it needs to change its default router in
the future.
• The IP address of the default router is sent in
the message Maulika SECE3011-
Computer
Patel Networks B.Tech-Sem5
 Error Reporting Messages
Parameter Problem
• A parameter problem message (type 12) can
be sent when either there is a problem in the
header of a datagram (code 0) or some
options are missing or cannot be interpreted
(code 1).

Maulika Patel SECE3011-

Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
 Query Messages
• Query messages are used to probe or test the
liveliness of hosts or routers in the Internet,
find the one-way or the round-trip time for
an IP datagram between two devices, or even
find out whether the clocks in two devices
are synchronized.
• Naturally,query messages come in pairs:
request and reply

Maulika Patel SECE3011-

Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
 Query Messages
• The echo request (type 8) and the echo reply (type
0) pair of messages are used by a host or a router to
test the liveliness of another host or router. A host
or router sends an echo request message to another
host or router; if the latter is alive, it responds with
an echo reply message.
• The timestamp request (type 13) and the timestamp
reply (type 14) pair of messages are used to find the
round-trip time between two devices or to check
whether the clocks in two devices are synchronized.
Maulika Patel SECE3011-
Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
 Debugging Tools
• There are several tools that can be used in
the Internet for debugging.
• We can determine the viability of a host or
router. We can trace the route of a packet.
We introduce two tools that use ICMP for
debugging: ping and traceroute.
Note: Refer practical 2 of LAB for detailed
working of ping and traceroute

Maulika Patel SECE3011-

Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
 Congestion Control
• Another issue in a network-layer protocol is congestion control.
Congestion in the network layer is a situation in which too many
datagrams are present in an area of the Internet.
• Congestion may occur if the number of datagrams sent by source
computers is beyond the capacity of the network or routers.
• In this situation, some routers may drop some of the datagrams.
However, as more datagrams are dropped, the situation may
become worse because, due to the error control mechanism at
the upper layers, the sender may send duplicates of the lost
packets.
• If the congestion continues, sometimes a situation may reach a
point where the system collapses and no datagrams are delivered
Maulika Patel SECE3011-
Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
 Congestion Control
• Congestion control refers to techniques and
mechanisms that can either prevent
congestion before it happens or remove
congestion after it has happened.
• In general, we can divide congestion control
mechanisms into two broad categories: open-
loop congestion control (prevention) and
closed-loop congestion control (removal).

Maulika Patel SECE3011-

Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
 Open-Loop Congestion Control
• In open-loop congestion control, policies are
applied to prevent congestion before it
happens.
• In these mechanisms, congestion control is
handled by either the source or the
destination.
• We give a brief list of policies that can
prevent congestion

Maulika Patel SECE3011-

Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
 Open-Loop Congestion Control
1. Retransmission Policy
• Retransmission is sometimes unavoidable. If the
sender feels that a sent packet is lost or corrupted,
the packet needs to be retransmitted.
• Retransmission in general may increase congestion
in the network. However, a good retransmission
policy can prevent congestion.
• The retransmission policy and the retransmission
timers must be designed to optimize efficiency and
at the same time prevent congestion
Maulika Patel SECE3011-
Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
 Open-Loop Congestion Control
2. Window Policy
• The type of window at the sender may also affect
congestion. The Selective Repeat window is better
than the Go-Back-N window for congestion control.
• In the Go-Back-N window, when the timer for a packet
times out, several packets may be resent, although
some may have arrived safe and sound at the receiver.
• This duplication may make the congestion worse. The
Selective Repeat window, on the other hand, tries to
send the specific packets that have been lost or
corrupted. Maulika Patel SECE3011-
Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
 Open-Loop Congestion Control
3. Acknowledgment Policy
• The acknowledgment policy imposed by the receiver
may also affect congestion.
• If the receiver does not acknowledge every packet
it receives, it may slow down the sender and help
prevent congestion.
• Several approaches are used in this case. A receiver
may send an acknowledgment only if it has a packet
to be sent or a special timer expires. A receiver may
decide to acknowledge only N packets at a time
Maulika Patel SECE3011-
Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
 Open-Loop Congestion Control
4. Discarding Policy
• A good discarding policy by the routers may
prevent congestion and at the same time may
not harm the integrity of the transmission.
• For example, in audio transmission, if the
policy is to discard less sensitive packets
when congestion is likely to happen, the
quality of sound is still preserved and
congestion is prevented or alleviated.
Maulika Patel SECE3011-
Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
 Closed-Loop Congestion Control
• Closed-loop congestion control mechanisms
try to alleviate congestion after it happens.
• Several mechanisms have been used by
different protocols. We describe a few of
them here.

Maulika Patel SECE3011-

Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
 Closed-Loop Congestion Control
1. Backpressure
• The technique of backpressure refers to a
congestion control mechanism in which a
congested node stops receiving data from the
immediate upstream node or nodes.
• This may cause the upstream node or nodes to
become congested, and they, in turn, reject data
from their upstream node or nodes, and so on.
• Backpressure is a node to-node congestion control
that starts with a node and propagates, in the
opposite directioMnituloPatfel data fSElCoE3011w-, to the source
Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
Backpressure method for alleviating
congestion

Maulika SECE3011-
Computer
Patel Networks B.Tech-Sem5
 Closed-Loop Congestion Control
2. Choke Packet
• A choke packet is a packet sent by a node to the
source to inform it of congestion.
• Note the difference between the backpressure and
choke-packet methods.
• In backpressure, the warning is from one node to its
upstream node, although the warning may
eventually reach the source station.
• In the choke-packet method, the warning is from
the router, which has encountered congestion,
directly to the sou Mritc
ule
Pates
l tation
Computer Networks
SEC.E3011-
B.Tech-Sem5
Choke packet

Maulika SECE3011-
Computer
Patel Networks B.Tech-Sem5
 Closed-Loop Congestion Control
3. Implicit Signaling
• In implicit signaling, there is no communication
between the congested node or nodes and the source.
• The source guesses that there is congestion
somewhere in the network from other symptoms.
• For example, when a source sends several packets
and there is no acknowledgment for a while, one
assumption is that the network is congested.
• The delay in receiving an acknowledgment is
interpreted as congestion in the network; the source
should slow downMaulika SECE3011-
Patel Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
 Closed-Loop Congestion Control
4. Explicit Signaling
• The node that experiences congestion can explicitly
send a signal to the source or destination.
• The explicit-signaling method, however, is different
from the choke-packet method.
• In the choke-packet method, a separate packet is
used for this purpose; in the explicit-signaling
method, the signal is included in the packets that
carry data.
• Explicit signaling can occur in either the forward or
the backward dire Mc
itt
ul iPo
aten
l
Computer Networks
SECE3011-
B.Tech-Sem5
IPv6 ADDRESSES

Despite all short-term solutions, address depletion is

still a long-term problem for the Internet. This and
other problems in the IP protocol itself have been the
motivation for IPv6.
The following lists the main changes in the IPv6 protocol:
• larger address space
• better header format
• new options, allowance for extension, support for
resource allocation, and support for more security.

Maulika Patel SECE3011-

Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
Note

An IPv6 address is 128 bits long.

Maulika Patel SECE3011-

Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
IPv6 address in binary and hexadecimal colon notation

Maulika Patel SECE3011-

Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
Abbreviated IPv6 addresses

Maulika Patel SECE3011-

Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
Reserved addresses in IPv6

Maulika Patel SECE3011-

Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5
THANK YOU
Maulika Patel SECE3011-
Computer Networks B.Tech-Sem5