PYCHOLOGY HL IA

Effects of Color(s) on Memory Retention

Word count- 2199

Candidate Code: jhq678 (002279 -0042)

Group Code: jgc157(002279- 0039),
jhq678 (002279 -0042),
jdr 272 (002279- 0016).
 INDEX

Introduction: 2
Exploration 3
Experimental design: 3
Sampling Technique: 3
Choice of Participants: 4
Controlled variables: 4
Choice of Materials: 5
Procedure: 5
Analysis: 6
Descriptive data- 6
Inferential data- 8
Evaluation: 10
Bibliography 11
Appendix 12
Appendix i. Internal Assessment Proposal Form 12
Appendix ii. Letter of consent 12
Appendix iii. Briefing Instructions 14
Appendix iv. List of words 15
Appendix v. Raw data and inferential statistics 17
Appendix vi. ANOVA TEST 18
Appendix vii. Debriefing Instructions 19

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 Introduction:

Cognitive psychology includes the study of memory, decision making and others.
Memory has always had an important role in human life, everything we learn and do
depends on our memory. Numerous studies have been done to find ways to
enhance human memory, specifically using colors. Different colors evoke different
emotions. If color increases arousal, and arousal increases memory, then color
increasing memory is possible. This hypothesis was, proved by Spence et al. Faber
Birren1 proposed that warm shades like red can raise arousal more than cold shades
like green. Birren’s proposal was supported by Greene et al. who found that warm
colors induced arousal more than other colors. It was found by Roozendaal, that
arousing events can increase memory. This hypothesis was further proved by
Wolters and Goudsmit.

On the other hand, McConnohie2 proved the exact same hypothesis to be true using
alphanumeric characters. He displayed the presentation to students of middle school
and asked them to recall what they saw immediately after seeing the presentation
and again, after one hour. He continued doing this three times, and used a different
background color every time. McConnohie observed that the presentation with the
white as background color gave higher retention rates immediately, and also one
hour later. Blue and green are cold colors and that is why they don’t have as much of
an arousing effect as white does leading to this result.

Another researcher Lynnay Huchendorf3 carried out a research in which 115

undergraduates received warm colored, cool colored, a mathematical task, a blank
sheet and a demographic question list. One minute was given to participants to
memorize the vocabulary. The mathematical task was done. Finally, on the recall
sheet, they attempted to remember as many words as possible. The words
remembered was the dependent variable. The hypothesis was that participants
receiving warm-colored packets would remember more vocabulary than those
receiving the cool-colored packets or white packets.

So, the aim of our study was to investigate the effect that color has on memory
retention in humans within the age of 16 and 18.

The investigation is of high value as it answers many researchers with sufficient

information about the relation between the color and the ability to recall the stimulus
given. It shows the effect of different colors on memory retention using different color
tones. The results of this investigation can be used as an essential tool for students
facing difficulties in memorizing things to enhance their performance.

1
Birren Color Theory. Wonderful Colors RSS. http://www.wonderfulcolors.org/blog/birren-color-
theory/.

2
Olurinola, D. O. (2015). Colour in Learning: It’s Effect on the Retention Rate of Graduate Students .
https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1080132.pdf.

3
Huchendorf, L. (2007). The Effects of Color on Memory .
https://www.uwlax.edu/globalassets/offices-services/urc/jur-online/pdf/2007/huchendorf.pdf.

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The Independent variable for the study was the color of the visual stimuli.

The Dependent variable for the study was the number of correct words the
participants can recall.

Experimental Hypothesis(H1):

The research hypothesis is that the number of words recalled by the participants in
the warm color condition will be significantly more than the words recalled in other
color conditions.

Null hypothesis (H0):

The null hypothesis is that there will be no significant difference reported in the
number of correct words recalled by the participants with respect to the color tone of
the stimulus. So, results will be the same for the words recalled in all the conditions
of warm, cold or neutral.

Exploration

Experimental design:

Both repeated and independent measure design was adopted for the experiment.
People were tested in such a way that they went through a pair of similar and
different conditions to minimize the participant variable; they also went through
different conditions so that one condition doesn’t affect the results of the other as a
pair of conditions were used. Control group of people went through all the conditions.
Counterbalancing was also used to control the order effects in all the conditions.

The experiment had the following three conditions which were paired in different
groups: condition 1(cold), condition 2(warm), condition3(neutral). Colors were paired
together and groups were formed as group 1- cold and neutral, where participants
were shown different texts with a cold and neutral background. Group 2- warm and
neutral, group 3- warm and cold, group-4 control group where the text is shown with
a warm, cold and neutral background.

Sampling Technique:

The sampling technique used for this experiment was purposive sampling along with
convenient sampling as participants were recruited randomly according to our
convenience; they were selected by the researcher if they incorporate characteristics
that are of researchers’ interest pertaining to the investigation. Hence, the method
saved time and was efficient but cannot be relied on for generalization and be
biased.

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Choice of Participants:

The participants were IBDP students of age 16 to 18 with a command on the English
language which was important as the experiment would include dealing with English
vocabulary. They were selected using purposive sampling and were grouped
randomly into 4 groups. Total of 18 participants was selected and each condition had
4 participants except the control group where 6 participants were allocated. A
number of participants in each group was decided on the basis of counterbalancing
method requirements.

Controlled variables:

The independent variable for this experiment is the three background color tones
along with three different lists of words, whereas the number of words recalled by the
participants is the dependent variable.

The controlled variables were-

 The time given for remembering the words,

 the number of participants
 order of the visuals shown

The filler task was to watch an engaging animated video for 4 mins after each text.

Table 1.1 Random grouping of participants

Warm group Cold group Warm and cold Control group

group

N1, W2 N1, C2 W1, C2 N1, W2, C3

W1, N2 C1, N2 C1, W2 N2, C3, W1

N2, W1 N2, C1 W2, C1 W1, N3, C2

W2, N1 C2, N1 C2, W1 W3, C2, N1

C2, N1, W3

C3, W1, N2A

Neutral- N Text1- 1

Cold - C Text2- 2

Warm - W Text3 - 3

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Choice of Materials:

● Consent form - to make sure that ethical considerations are followed.

● Laptop/mobile phone/tablet – due to the pandemic the experiment had to be
done online.
● Wordlists with different background-color – for different conditions.
● Access to an online platform for video call – required to connect with
participants for the experiment.
● Wi-Fi – for internet connection.
● Timer – to ensure the time given is controlled.

* briefing and debriefing instructions can be found attached in appendices.

Procedure:

● Prior to the experiment, the participants were selected by opportunity

sampling. Then they were briefly instructed4 about the experiment, it’s
procedure and aim. then they were requested to fill and sign a consent form5
to continue with the investigation.
● Following the ethical guidelines, the names of the participants were kept
confidential.
● After this, the link to join a google meet and timings were assigned to
everyone.
● The participants were allocated to 4 groups, with each group being given a
different pair of conditions with each participant being given conditions in a
different order.
● A different presentation was created for every participant as the order of text
and background color was different which was then presented on screen by
the participant to make sure that there is no distraction and the timer was set
to 10 mins and they memorized the text after which they were asked to recall
and type the words in the next empty slide for 5 mins. After this, they were
shown a cartoon video for 4 mins and then they continued with the next text.

The ethical guidelines were followed and the participants were instructed before and
after the experiment, they were informed about their right to withdraw from the
experiment at any stage and that the anonymity will be maintained. The participants
were safe from any kind of harm physical or psychological. Consent forms with
signature were received from all the participants before the experiment.

Appendix iii. Briefing Instructions

4
Appendix iii. Briefing Instructions

5
Appendix ii. Letter of consent

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 Analysis:

Descriptive data-

The results of the experiment were analyzed by taking out the mean and the
standard deviation. The results are as follows.

Graph 1.1 The standard deviation of the number of words recalled in different
conditions

Graph 1.2 Comparison of the mean recall of words in different color conditions

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Table 1.2 Mean and standard deviation of the data

words recalled in words recalled in words recalled in

warm cold neutral

Average 30 41.21428571 30.14285714

Standard
Deviation 11.83865897 23.31450051 17.77144271

As it is quite evident from the above data that the color difference has caused
minimal differences in the number of words recalled by our participants. We can see
that the words recalled are only 1.37 percent higher in cold condition than the warm
color condition. It is evident that the words recalled with the warm background
(orange) on an average are not more than neutral and cold, which shows that
according to this experiment warm color tone does not help individuals to recall
words better. However, there was a huge variance noted within all the conditions.
The reason for the variation in recall could be language adroitness or level of
motivation towards the experiment. The lack of seriousness can be a major reason
as it was evident throughout. Moreover, for deeper analysis other tools are also used
to interpret the data.

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Inferential data-

Table 1.3 Raw and inferential data6

Name of the words recalled in words recalled in words recalled in
participant warm cold neutral
Subject 1 - 84 62
Subject 5 - 34 18
subject 10 - 13 3
Subject 11 - 40 25
Subject 2 47 48 34
Subject 15 36 33 -
Subject 16 35 44 -
Subject 9 32 21 -
Subject 8 42 91 -
Subject 3 44 47 63
Subject 7 11 32 28
Subject 12 40 54 30
Subject 13 13 21 42
Subject 14 27 15 21
Subject 6 35 - 23
Subject 4 20 - 46
Subject 17 20 - 13
Subject 18 18 - 14
Average 30 41.21428571 30.14285714
Standard Deviation 11.83865897 23.31450051 17.77144271

Table 1.4 ANOVA TEST7

Anova: Single
Factor
SUMMARY

6
Appendix v. Raw data and inferential statistics

7
Appendix vi. ANOVA TEST

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 Groups Count Sum Average Variance
words recalled
in warm 14 420 30 140.1538462
words recalled
in cold 14 577 41.21428571 543.5659341
words recalled
in neutral 14 422 30.14285714 315.8241758

ANOVA
Source of
Variation SS df MS F P-value F crit

Between
Groups 1159 2 579.5 1.739293194 0.1889921431 3.238096135

Within Groups 12994.07143 39 333.1813187

Total 14153.07143 41

A single factor ANOVA test8 was carried out for the data results. As there are 3 sets
of data samples and both repeated and independent measure design was used in
the experiment.9 The results for the ANOVA test show that the p value is 0.189
which is more than the significant level which was 0.05 (p>0.05).

Therefore, the null hypothesis cannot be rejected which means that according to this
experiment the number of words recalled in different conditions are not significantly
different and the retention level in different color tones more or less similar stating
that different color tones do not enhance or reduce the memory retention in IBDP
students. Therefore, our hypothesis is rejected.

8
Appendix vi. ANOVA TEST
9
Popov, A., Parker, L., & Seath, D. (2017). Psychology course companion. Oxford University Press.

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 Evaluation:

It is very noticeable in the results gathered in the experiment; we were not able to
support the findings of McConnohie (1999). He found that the participants recalled
more words from the white background than the cold color background, this is totally
opposite to our findings. The reason behind such outcomes could be because of a
small sample for the investigation, the difference in practices of participants in terms
of color while memorizing, due to technology.

One of the strengths of our investigation was that the words were adopted from
different fields of knowledge and literature to maintain the level and cover the wide
range of vocabulary. This was also useful to avoid familiarity with a certain range of
vocab as a confounding variable.

It was also made sure that the participants were not able to cheat as this one of the
important factors for the experiment being conducted online. The text was cleared
from the presentation as soon as the participants started listing the words they can
recall. They were also asked to present their screen throughout the investigation.
This was done to maintain the authenticity.

Another strength of the investigation was that technology was used, that is
PowerPoint was used to show the words for the same amount of time which
eliminated human error. Both independent and repeated measure design was used
which eliminated the difference between the participants’ skill or memory retention
since the average of each condition was compared.

A limitation of the study was, that only the words present in the list were counted and
the words which were similar or were a synonym to the word in the list were not
counted. And a few participants were confused if they were supposed to write the
exact words or they were allowed to write synonyms as well. There was a time
limitation which could have led to them not being able to read the words and
remember them thoroughly which affected the language used by the participants.

Other limitations included distraction from the surroundings also from their device
notifications, participants who used mobile phones had less readability as the size of
the text would be smaller and difficult to read from the phone screen as compared to
the laptop.

Participants were all teenagers collected using opportunity sampling and had the
usual behavior of not taking such experiments seriously which might have caused
inaccuracy in data results as they might or might not have had tried to remember and
recall the words. Although When asked if they remember only the reported number
of words, they responded positively but it was self-reported information it might or
might not be true.

A simple procedure was used where the sides were presented on screen and they
memorized the text for 10 min after which they were asked to recall and type the
words in the empty slide for 5 mins. After this, they were shown a video for 4 mins
and then they continued with the next text.

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There were other variables which couldn’t be controlled because of the nature of the
investigation. The level of English adroitness couldn’t be controlled which could
influence the capacity to recall. The internet connectivity issues caused problems
with regards to the time limit with a few participants.

The experiment was modified due to the ongoing pandemic i. e conducted online
using G-meet.

It is difficult to generalize our findings as our sample for investigation was of high
school students who in general have the exposure to reading more often than other
adults. In addition, they are asked to remember and recall more often. However, as
they were all high school students, and they were compared to themselves.

So, from our study, we can conclude that different color tones do not affect the level
of memory retention in IBDP students.

Bibliography

● Dzulkifli, M. A., & Mustafar, M. F. (2013, March). The influence of colour on

memory performance: a review. The Malaysian journal of medical sciences :
MJMS. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3743993/.
● Birren Color Theory. Wonderful Colors RSS.
http://www.wonderfulcolors.org/blog/birren-color-theory/.
● Articles on Higher Education. Jobscentral Learning.
https://learning.jobscentral.com.sg/study-in-sg/articles/on/357/the-secret-
power-of-colour-on-human-cognition.
● (PDF) How Color Enhances Visual Memory for Natural Scenes.
ResearchGate.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7400127_How_Color_Enhances_Vi
sual_Memory_for_Natural_Scenes.
● Olurinola, D. O. (2015). Colour in Learning: It’s Effect on the Retention Rate of
Graduate Students . https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1080132.pdf.
● Huchendorf, L. (2007). The Effects of Color on Memory .
https://www.uwlax.edu/globalassets/offices-services/urc/jur-
online/pdf/2007/huchendorf.pdf.
● Popov, A., Parker, L., & Seath, D. (2017). Psychology course companion.
Oxford University Press.

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Appendix

Appendix i. Internal Assessment Proposal Form

Study to be replicated: McConnohie (1999)

Material required:

● Consent form
● Laptop/mobile phone/tablet
● Wordlist with different background-color
● Access to an online platform for video call
● Wi-Fi
● Timer
● Word list

Procedure:

There will be 3 groups with 4 participants each and a control group with 6
participants. They will be given consent forms to confirm their decision to participate
in the experiment. They will be briefed and debriefed before and after the experiment
and will be shown a list of words with different color tone backgrounds and will be
asked to recall and type the words they remember in a blank slide. They will be sent
a presentation on google slides where the whole experiment will take place
(experiment couldn’t be carried out in person because of the current pandemic
situation).

Ethical consideration: informed consent will be obtained from each participant prior
to the experiment. Anonymity will be maintained. They were told about their rights to
withdraw anytime. The study must not cause harm or any negative effect on
participants mentally or physically as they will just be asked to remember and recall
English vocabulary.

Appendix ii. Letter of consent

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Appendix iii. Briefing Instructions

Good morning to one and all present here! Firstly, I would like to thank everyone
present here for taking out time to participate in our experiment. We would like to
inform you that all of you have been divided into 4 groups consisting of 4 participants
in 3 of them and 6 in one. As we are about to start our experiment soon, I would like
to remind you all that you had been sent a consent form earlier on WhatsApp or
email which you all need to read carefully and fill properly. This consent form will
guarantee you your confidentiality and also your right to withdraw from this study at
any time.

If you have any questions you are free to ask.

Post Submission of the Consent Forms-

Group-1, 2, 3

As you are done with the filling of the forms, we would like to start with our
experiment. We would be showing you two texts which we have taken from different
sources. They are written on different background colors. During the experiment, you
would be required to read the material for 10 mins and then type down everything
that you remember from texts in blank slides of the presentation for 5 mins that
would be shared with you by us on your respective email IDs. There should be no
distraction in the room you are during the experiment.

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If you have any questions you are free to ask.

Group-4

As you are done with the filling of the forms, we would like to start with our
experiment. We would be showing you three texts which we have taken from
different sources. They are written on different background colors. During the
experiment, you would be required to read the material for 10 mins and then type
down everything that you remember from texts in blank slides of the presentation for
5 mins that would be shared with you by us on your respective email IDs. There
should be no distraction in the room you are during the experiment.

If you have any questions you are free to ask.

Appendix iv. List of words

Text 1 Text 2 Text 3

world color Tide

Chance animals coming
virus Means Narrow
strong matter strip
Some Chance Firm
seen depends beach
coming Many Water
long time Considerations white,
Thomas’s majority stumbling
gaze cases Stuff
wandered tends near
Group protect palm
people animal Terrace
Approaching danger Ralph
Froze rendering chose
Aris Less needed
Minho Conspicuous Think
elbowing Perhaps only
Pointing coloring allow
boy mainly Feet
Group B Protective move
Already ought without
broken brightly watch
grin Colored Suddenly
jogging over. Animals pacing
Behind cases Water
Thomas Vivid overcome
couple themselves Astonishment
girls protective found

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Maze kingfisher understanding
Whoever Itself wearisomeness
People brightly Life
taken colored where
good easy every
Job. blue Path
reached harmonizes improvisation
Thomas Water considerable
stood bird one’s
front darts waking
Hug, stream life
Hand flash spent
Instead. sunlight. watching
shook Desert Stopped
Glad animals facing
Guys generally Strip
okay. Desert remembering
You too for instance first
Seeing Lion enthusiastic
familiar Antelope exploration
face wild donkey part
realize all sand-colored brighter
bitterness Indeed Childhood
felt Canon Tristram smiled
about Desert Jeeringly
happened neither trees turned
between Brushwood, back
Scorch undulation towards
gone. surface platform
Where afford time
Everyone slightest come
Darkened protection assembly
Most Foes concealing
Aren't modification splendors
Anymore assimilated Sunlight
taken surrounding carefully
another country over
Before Absolutely points
Process necessary Speech
Teresa without lost
Appeared. exception himself
clear upper maze
throat plumage thoughts
rid every rendered
Lump Bird vague
suddenly fur lack
Formed Smaller words
Teresa mammals express
Felt skin tried

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flurry snakes Frown
conflicted Lizards walked
Emotions one Faster
Barely uniform aware
Word Sand urgency
Tom next declining
stepped point little
close mature Created
eyes Caterpillars speed
sad. Brown breathed
Glad probably Face
okay Caterpillar wind
eyes more pressed
moistened Conspicuous grey
Tears among shirt
Yeah Green Against
Leaves chest
otherwise noticed
case. mood
Comprehension
folds
stiff

Appendix v. Raw data and inferential statistics

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Appendix vi. ANOVA TEST

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Appendix vii. Debriefing Instructions

Thank you for taking out time and being a part of this experiment. Through this
investigation, we are trying to understand or determine the effects of color tone on
memory retention. There were three conditions: warm, neutral and cold. If you want
to know about the result of your own experiment, please let us know. We would
really appreciate it if you don’t mention this experiment to anyone else.

We are open to any question(s) regarding the experiment.

Thank you, have a great day and year ahead!

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