Klute 1986

Published 1986
8 Petrographic Microscope Techniques
JOHNG.CADY
Johns Hopkins University
Baltimore, Maryland
L. P. WILDING AND L. R. DREES

Texas A&M University
College Station, Texas
8-1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION
The microscope was first used in soil studies to make an inventory of

the minerals found in a variety of soils. Early examples of this approach
are in publications by McCaughey and Fry (1913, 1914). Among the
objectives of the early work were determination of source of parent ma-
terials and estimation of potential fertility reserves. Most of the work of
this period was geological-mineralogical and was not applied to solution
of soil development problems.
Kubiena's text, Microped%gy, and work by his associates at Iowa
State University introduced U.S. workers to micromorphology (Perter-
son, 1937; Johnston and Peterson, 1941). Shortly thereafter Frei and Cline
(1949), Nikiforoff et al. (1948), and Cady (1950) applied microfabric anal-
yses to pedogenesis and mineral transformation in soils and parent bed-
rocks. Micromorphology as applied in the USA is a tool-not a discipline.
It is used as an ancillary technique to support other morphological, phys-
ical, chemical, mineralogical, and biological methods. In this country,
micromorphology is in its infancy and hasn't reached the discipline status
it has in Europe and Australia. Brewer (1976), Kubiena (1970), and
FitzPatrick (1980) reviewed recent developments in applying micromor-
phology to pedogenic studies. Its applications in developing diagnostic
criteria for Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 1975) and its historical
evolution in the USA have recently been reviewed by Wilding and Flach
(1985).
The microscope is a simple, direct observational tool; the user sees
the features without intermediate calculations or inferences. However,
the observations must be analyzed and their meanings synthesized and
interpreted; hence, the results are affected by the bias, experience, skill,
and aptitude of the observer. The petrographic microscope may be used
in soils investigations to determine (i) identity, size, shape, and condition
Copyright 1986 © American Society of Agronomy-Soil Science Society of America, 677
South Segoe Road, Madison, WI 53711, USA. Methods of Soil Analysis, Part 1. Physical
and Mineralogical Methods-Agronomy Monograph no. 9 (2nd Edition)
185
186 CADY, WILDING, & DREES
of single grains and mineral aggregates in the silt and sand size range,
and (ii) the distribution and interrelations of constituents of the soil in
thin sections. Microscopic observations are often valuable when used to
interpret data obtained by other physical and mineralogical methods.
The petographic microscope differs in two ways from the basic or
biological microscope: it has devices for polarizing light, one below the
condenser and one above the objective; and it has a rotating stage, grad-
uated in degrees, for measuring angles. Other special refinements exist,
but the foregoing two are the essential ones. Descriptions of petrographic
microscopes and instructions for their use are in many standard min-
eralogy texts, including those by Kerr (1977), Wahlstrom (1979), and
Phillips (1971).
The purpose of this chapter is not to repeat information and instruc-
tions easily found in standard texts on optical mineralogy and petrog-
raphy, particularly sedimentary petrography, but to describe methods,
minerals, and structures that are peculiar to soils, based on the writers'
experience in the application of microscopy to soil genesis and classifi-
cation.
8-2 GRAINS
8-2.1 Introduction
Single grains of sand and silt size may be identified and described
by examination under a petrographic microscope. Knowledge of the na-
ture and condition of the minerals in these fractions provides information
on the source of the parent material; on the presence of lithological dis-
continuities or overlays in the solum or between the solum and the un-
derlying material; and on the degree of weathering in the soil as a key to
its history, genetic processes, and possible fertility reserve. Examples of
applications of such studies of sand or silt can be found in publications
by Haseman and Marshall (1945), Marshall and Jeffries (1945), Ruhe
(1956), Cady (1940), Willman et al. (1963), Hunter (1967), Khangarot,
et al. (1971), and Brewer (1976).
Many of the procedures used for preparation and identification are
identical with those used in sedimentary petrography (Milner, 1962;
Krumbein and Pettijohn, 1938). Modifications of these procedures that
apply to soils consider sampling and pretreatment prior to fractionation
analysis.
The first step in the study of grains is the separation of the desired
size fraction from the remaining material. Procedures for dispersion and
separation are given in chapter 15. Combined with this step, or subse-
quent to it, is the cleaning of the mineral grains, for which procedures
are given in chapter 5. It is sometimes desirable to examine soil separates
before rigorous cleaning treatments are applied, because aggregates, con-
cretions, partly weathered mineral grains, and other types of grains that
PETROGRAPHIC MISCROSCOPE TECHNIQUES 187
are worth attention and study may be removed by the cleaning treat-
ments.
All of the fractions from coarse sand to fine silt can be studied, but
the most suitable ones are those in the middle part of this size range.
There are usually too few grains of coarse sand on a slide to constitute
a good sample, and it is difficult to observe optical properties on large
grains; the grains in the fine silt range may be too small for observation
of all their important optical properties. Smithson (1961) published some
special instructions for studying the silt fraction.
Selection of the sample depends on the purpose of the analysis. For
most work, such as checks on discontinuities or estimation of degree of
weathering in different horizons, one or two of the size fractions that
make up a relatively large weight percentage of the soil are selected.
Examination of more than one size fraction is necessary in such problems
as checking for an admixture of wind-blown material in dominantly coarse-
textured residuum, and studying weathering where the process might
cause minerals formerly dominant in one size class to shift to a smaller
one.
The sample must be well mixed because the subsample on the slide
is small. If a sample of sand is in a beaker or a vial, for example, shaking
or jarring may cause heavy grains to settle and platy or prismatic grains
to accumulate toward the top. Stirring with a small flat-bladed implement
will usually mix the sample sufficiently. Steel needles or spatulas should
be avoided because they will attract the magnetic minerals. Small sample-
splitting devices are available that effectively subdivide sand and silt
samples down to amounts suitable for single slides or replicates.
A sample of the whole fraction should be examined first; and then,
if the nature of the material and requirements of the problem justify it,
the heavy and light minerals can be separated. With some types of spec-
imen it is advantageous to separate and weigh the magnetic fraction,
either before or after the heavy liquid separation. Wrapping a thin sheet
of flexible plastic around the magnet facilitates making this separation
quantitative. Such separations can be done on either dry material or
dispersed suspensions of silt and clay.
8-2.2 Heavy-liquid Separations
Heavy minerals are often indicative of provenance, weatheimg in-

tensities, and parent material uniformity. To facilitate the study of this
important suite of minerals, concentration by specific gravity separations
using a suitable heavy liquid is required. Heavy minerals will sink in the
heavy liquid while light minerals float. The heavy mineral suite is made
up of those mineral grains with a specific gravity greater than about 2.90.
Because of the differences in the specific gravities of separating liquids,
no single value is universally accepted as defining the heavy minerals.
The sand and silt fractions of most soils, however, are dominated by
light minerals such as quartz and (or) feldspars. The heavy minerals
exhibit a wide range in weatherability and mineralogy, but commonly

comprise < 1% of the grains.
Common liquids for heavy mineral separation include bromoform
(sp gr 2.89), tetrabromoethane (sp gr 2.95), and methylene iodide (sp gr
3.33). These liquids may be diluted with other solvents such as acetone,
ethanol, dimethylsulphoxide (DMSO), or nitrobenzene to produce spe-
cific gravity ranges for concentration of other minerals such as mica,
feldspars, or opal. A light liquid (sp gr <2.3) has been useful for con-
centrating plant opal and sponge spicules (Wilding et aI., 1977). Such a
light liquid can also be used to concentrate volcanic ash.
Separations in the sand fraction can usually be carried out by gravity
alone in a separatory funnel or cylinder. A lower stopcock allows removal
of the heavy minerals by gravity flow. Finer-size fractions require cen-
trifugation. In a centrifuge tube, the lower portion may be frozen in a
freezer (Matelski, 1951), with solid carbon dioxide (Fessenden, 1959), or
liquid nitrogen (Scull, 1960), while the lighter portion is decanted. For
quantitative separation of light and heavy minerals, the separation tech-
niques should be repeated several times. For grain sizes < 5 ~m, light-
heavy mineral separations are difficult or impractical because of particle
interaction and. aggregation. A surfactant may be used to help prevent
this problem (Henderson et aI., 1972). More detailed descriptions of pro-
cedures and apparatus are given by Carver (1971) and Mitchell (1975)
as well as by standard petrology texts.
Heavy-liquid separations are most effective on well-cleaned grains.
Grain coatings or organic matter may act to bind smaller grains together
to form larger aggregates. Grain coatings may also cause slight alterations
in the specific gravity of some grains. This may be significant if these
grains are near the specific gravity of the heavy liquid.
Precautions should be exercised in using heavy liquids and diluting
solvents, many of which are toxic and flammable (Hauff & Airey, 1980).
DMSO is especially hazardous, as it serves as a carrier for other toxic
substances. Contact with skin should always be avoided and the work
area should be well ventilated.
8-2.3 Slide Preparation
With a microspatula, enough sample is taken so that an area about

22 mm square on a slide can be covered uniformly without having in-
dividual grains touch each other. A few drops of water containing a little
alcohol to reduce surface tension are added, and the grains are spread
uniformly in the liquid with a pointed nonmagnetic instrument. After
the slide has dried, the spacing of the grains can be checked with a mi-
croscope, and, if satisfactory, the mounting medium is applied. If this
procedure is followed, the grains will lie in one plane and will not drift
out when the cover glass is applied. They can be fixed more securely if
a little gelatin or gum arabic is added to the water.
A number of media are available for permanent grain mounts. Can-
ada balsam is the traditional material and still retains many advantages.
Its refractive index (RI) of 1.54 is close to that of quartz, and this aids
in distinguishing quartz from other colorless minerals, especially feld-
spars. Epoxy resins are now available in the refractive index range of
1.53 to 1.56. Piperine (RI 1.86) and Hydrax (RI 1.7) are often used in
mounting heavy minerals; their refractive index is close to that of many
of the common heavy minerals, and this facilitates their identification.
Directions for slide preparation using some of the above resins are given
by Swift (1971) as well as other standard reference works.
Permanent mounts are necessary where the same slide is needed for
several purposes; they can be kept as records, and they are almost essential
for percentage analysis by counting. There are, however, several advan-
tages in the use of immersion liquids of known refractive index (Swift,
1971; Fleischer et aI., 1984). The refractive indexes of minerals can be
determined exactly, and identification is aided in other ways as well.
Permanent mounts may have all the prismatic or platy grains in a pre-
ferred-orientation position. In an oil a given grain can be moved into
different orientations by moving the cover slip. The optical properties of
anisotropic minerals vary with crystallographic directions, and so it is
often a valuable aid in identification to see the same grain in different
positions and to observe these variations.
8-2.4 Grain Analyses
8-2.4.1 GENERAL PROCEDURE

The first step is to survey the slide with a low-power objective to
define the grain assemblage and to make a rough estimate of the relative
abundance of the minerals and other grains present. By becoming familiar
with the minerals first, whether they are identified or not, observers can
categorize minerals as they are seen. This serves two purposes: it avoids
wasting time going through identifying criteria, and it enables one to
appraise mineral properties as seen in grains of different shapes and sizes
in different positions. The most abundant minerals should be identified
first. These will probably be the easiest to identify, and their elimination
will decrease the number of possibilities to consider when the difficult
ones are to be attacked. Furthermore, there are certain likely and unlikely
assemblages of minerals, and awareness of the overall types present gives
clues to the minor species that may be expected. Practical working pro-
cedures for identifying soil mineral grains were outlined by Fry (1933),
Kerr (1977), FitzPatrick (1980), and Fleischer et al. (1984).
In actual practice, minerals are identified by a combination of fa-
miliarity with a few striking features and a process of elimination. If one
sees a dog with very short legs, it is either a dachshund, a basset hound,
or a Welsh corgi. If the short-legged dog is solid colored, it is a dachshund;
if spotted, it is a basset hound; and if its ears stand up, a Welsh corgi. It
is not necessary to make a number of observations on the length of the
hair or the configuration of the teeth. At least 80% of the sand and silt
grains in soil are identified like this, by a combination of a few distinctive
features. Unfortunately, some nontypical specimens are usually present.
Minerals and other grains not identifiable as specific minerals are com-
mon in many soils and may be important. They should be accurately
described even if they can not be identified.
A mineralogical analysis of a sand or silt fraction may be entirely
qualitative, or it may be quantitative to different degrees. For many pur-
poses a list of minerals is sufficient information. It is easy to accompany
such a list with an estimate of relative abundance. A crude scale, such
as one based on numbers from 1 to 10, can be used to express the amounts.
Presence, absence, scarcity, or abundance of certain minerals or mineral
groups can sometimes confirm the source of the soil parent material, the
presence of overlays, and the reserve of weatherable minerals.
To detect more subtle distinctions among samples, analysis is based
on a count of grains, from which a volume percentage can be obtained.
Weight percentages then can be calculated using specific gravity, and
various useful ratios can be calculated from count percentages.
The counting procedure and number of grains counted depend on
the requirements of the job, the number and proportions of minerals
present, and the distribution on the slide. Uniform coverage of the whole
area of the mount is important because grains may be segregated by shape,
size or density in spite of care taken in slide preparation. Because of the
natural variations in soils and because of the opportunity for sampling
error by the time a heavy mineral concentrate is mounted on a slide,
differences in amounts of minerals must be large and consistent to be
interpreted with confidence. Mineral count percentages should usually be
reported in whole numbers only, with no more than two significant fig-
ures.
Counting of numbers of grains of individual species can proceed on
arbitrarily or regularly spaced traverses. If the grains are large or sparsely
distributed, all grains can be counted. Various sampling methods may
be used where only a portion of the grains is to be counted. In work on
20- to 50-~m fractions with well-populated slides, all grains in individual
fields evenly spaced over the slide in a preset grid pattern may be counted.
Another method is to count all the grains lying within an arbitrarily
selected quadrant of the field of vision as the slide is moved past the
objective. Still another method is to count all the grains touched by the
cross-hair intersection in a continuous traverse.
If only a few species are present, identification of 100 to 300 grains
will provide a good approximation of composition. As the number of
species increases, the count should increase, within limits of practicabil-
ity. It is rarely necessary to count more than 1000 grains, however; in
most work, 500 to 600 is a more usual number. A multi-unit laboratory
counter can be used to tally the most abundant species without having
to take one's eyes from the microscope. Some of these counters sum the
count and ring whenever 100 counts have been accumulated. Noting the
composition of the first 100 will provide an idea of the number of grains
that should be counted to give a good sample. Discussions of the statistics
of analysis of mineral separates by counting may be found in the books
by Krumbein and Pettijohn (1938), Milner (1962), and Brewer (1976).
The detail of the analysis can be adjusted to fit the need. In some
instances only the amount or percentage of one mineral is of interest. In
others, the ratio between two minerals is needed as an indicator of source.
In still other cases, ratios between certain known weatherable minerals
and known resistant minerals are indicative of weathering or age. For
purposes other than a complete enumeration, several minor species of
uncertain identify should not cause undue concern about the validity of
the count on which interest is centered. In addition to identity and amount
of the different grains in the sand and silt fractions, it is often important
to record their morphology and condition. Evidence of wear or abrasion
and evidence of chemical alteration or weathering is the most frequently
sought information. Wear during transportation shows as rounding, es-
pecially in chemically resistant minerals that do not have good cleavage.
Quartz, zircon, and rutile are good mineral species to examine for evi-
dence of mechanical abrasion. Easily weathered minerals can be rounded
by solution; apatite, for example, is often found in ovoid grains.
In connection with observations of rounding, it should be noted that
a grain may have a round outline but still be a flat plate. If a truly rounded
grain is observed in crossed polarized light, the interference colors, which
can be read like the contour lines on a map, will rise smoothly without
steps or interruption from low order at the periphery to high order in
the thickest part. Weathering can have several manifestations ranging
from slight bleaching of color, or slight lowering of refractive index, to
replacement of one mineral by another or complete removal of a species.
Effects depend upon the chemical composition, crystal structure, and
habit of the mineral and upon the environment. Corrosion or solution
results in etching and pitting of surfaces. Minerals with pronounced cleav-
age or a fibrous or columnar habit are usually attacked most along these
planes of weakness. Hornblende, for example, appears to weather most
readily at ends of the columnar grains and in a direction parallel to the
long axis. The ends of the grains become forked and pinnacled, and pits
in the sides are elongated with the length. Gamet is isometric and cor-
rosion is random. Decomposition offeldspars follows cleavage and twin-
ning planes.
Weathering can produce coatings of clay or mixed oxides, create open
channels which may be filled with clay, iron oxide, or gibbsite, or com-
pletely alter the mineral to another mineral with little change in form.
Observations on weathering in single grains are best made in two or more
mounting media. A medium that closely matches the refractive index of
the grain makes the interior of the grain visible and tends to expose
contrasting coatings. A medium having a refractive index a few hun-
dredths of a unit away from that of the grain will show the condition of
the grain surface.
Resistance to both dissolution and alteration to secondary minerals
varies greatly. Some minerals, magnetite for example, may be resistant
in reducing environments and easily weathered in oxidizing environ-
ments. Such differences in weathering can exist between horizons in a
soil profile. Lists of minerals arranged in order of resistance are given in
many publications and are valuable guides; but, like all generalizations,
they must be used with caution. Observations on weathering will be
discussed further in section 8-3.5.
8-2.4.2 MINERALS
8- 2.4.2.1 Criteria Used in Identification. Properties important in
grain identification are listed below in approximate order of ease and
convenience of determination. Often estimates of several or even two or
three of these properties will allow identification of a grain; therefore
detailed or extremely accurate measurements are seldom necessary. In
the finer soil separates, grains may be either too small or improperly
positioned to permit measurement of some properties such as optic angle
or optic sign. It is helpful to crush, sieve, and mount a set of known
minerals for practice in estimating properties and for standards to com-
pare with unknowns.
Refractive index can be estimated by relief or determined accurately
by use of calibrated immersion liquids. When relief is used to estimate
refractive index, allowance must be made for grain shape, color, and
surface texture. Thin platy grains may be estimated low; colored grains
and grains with rough, hackly surface texture may be estimated high.
Estimation is aided by comparing unknown with nearby known minerals.
Birefringence, the difference between highest and lowest refractive
index of the mineral, is estimated by interference color (see the chart in
Phillips, 1971), taking into account grain thickness and.orientation. Sev-
eral grains of the same species must be observed because they may not
all lie in positions that show the extremes of refractive index. Mica, for
example, has high birefringence, but the refractive indexes of the two
crystallographic directions in the plane of the plates are very close to-
gether, so that the birefringence appears low when the plate is perpen-
dicular to the microscope axis. The carbonate minerals have extremely
high birefringence (0.17 to 0.24), most of the ferromagnesian minerals
are intermediate (0.015 to 0.08), orthoclase feldspar is low (0.008), and
apatite is very low (0.005).
Color aids in discriminating among the heavy minerals. Pleochroism,
the change in color or light absorption with stage rotation when one
polarizer is in, is a good diagnostic characteristic for many colored min-
erals. Tourmaline, biotite, and hornblende are examples of pleochroic
minerals.
Shape, cleavage, and crystal form are characteristic or unique for
many minerals. Cleavage may be reflected in the external form of the

grain, or may appear as cracks within it showing as regularly repeated
straight parallel lines or sets of lines intersecting at definite repeated an-
gles. The crystal shape may be quite different from the cleavage-fragment
shape. Plagioclase feldspars, kyanite, and the pyroxenes have strong cleav-
age. Zircon and rutile usually appear in crystal forms.
Extinction angle and character of extinction observed in crossed po-
larized light are valuable criteria for some groups. The grain must show
its cleavage or crystal form for extinction angles to be measured, and the
angle may be different along different crystallographic axes. Some min-
erals have sharp, quick total extinction; in others extinction is more grad-
ual; and in some minerals with high light dispersion, a dimming and
change of interference color takes place at the extinction position.
Optic sign, optic angle and sign of elongation are useful, sometimes
essential, determinations but are often difficult to make unless grains are
large or in favorable orientation. To determine optic sign, grains that
show dim, low-order interference colors or no extinction must be sought.
Grains with bright colors and sharp, quick extinction will rarely give
usable interference figures.
8-2.4.2.2 Useful Differentiating Criteria for Particular Species. The
following are the outstanding diagnostic characteristics of the most com-
mon minerals and single-particle grains found in the sand and silt frac-
tions of soils. The refractive indexes given are the intermediate values.
If these minerals and the ones in section 8-2.4.3.2 can be learned, it is
safe to say that one can identify over 80% of the grains in most soil
mineral assemblages.
Quartz has irregular shapes. The refractive index, 1.54, is close to
that of balsam. The interference colors are of low order but are bright
and warm. There is sharp extinction within a small angle of rotation
("blink or wavy extinction"). Crystal forms are sometimes observed and
usually indicate derivation from limestone, or other low-temperature sec-
ondary origin.
Feldspars: Orthoclase may resemble quartz, but the refractive index
is about 1.52 (just below that of quartz), birefringence is lower, and the
mineral may show cleavage. Microcline has a refractive index of 1.53,
and twinning intergrowth produces a plaid or grid effect in crossed po-
larized light. The refractive indexes in the plagioclase group increase with
increasing proportion of calcium. The refractive index of albite, 1.53, is
below that of quartz; the refractive index of anorthite, 1.58, is noticeably
above. Plagioclase feldspars almost always show a type of twinning that
appears as alternating dark and light bands in crossed polarized light.
Cleavage is good. Lath and prismatic shapes are common.
Mica occurs as platy grains that often are very thin. The plate view
shows very low birefringence; the edge view, very high birefringence.
Plates are commonly equidimensional and may appear as hexagons or
may have some 60° angles. Biotite is green to dark brown. Paler colors,
lowering of refractive index, and distortion of extinction and interference

figure indicate weathering to hydrobiotite or vermiculite. Muscovite is
colorless and has a moderate refractive index (about 1.59 in the plate
view). If the identification is in doubt, it is desirable to use an oil mount,
so that the grains can be seen from different angles.
Amphiboles are fibrous to platy or prismatic minerals with parallel
to slightly inclined extinction. Color and refractive index increase as the
iron content increases. They have good cleavage at angles of about 56
and 124°. Refractive index in the group ranges from 1.61 to 1.73. Horn-
blende is the most common; it is slightly pleochroic, has refractive index
close to Piperine, and usually has a distinctive color close to olive-green.
It is often used as an indicator of weathering.
Pyroxenes: Enstatite and hypersthene are prismatic and have parallel
extinction; hypersthene has unique and striking green-pink pleochroism.
Augite and diopside have good cleavage at angles close to 90° and large
extinction angles; colors are usually shades of green. Refractive indexes
of the pyroxenes are in a somewhat higher range than the amphiboles
(1.65 to 1.79).
Olivine is colorless to very pale green, is usually irregular in shape
(weak cleavage), has vivid, warm interference colors, and has a refractive
index close to that of Piperine. It is an easily weathered mineral and may
have cracks filled with serpentine or seams or crack fillings of goethite.
Staurolite is pleochroic yellow to pale brown; it sometimes contains
holes, giving a "Swiss cheese" effect. Its refractive index is about 1.74.
The grains usually have a foggy or milky appearance, possibly caused by
colloidal inclusions.
Epidote is a common heavy mineral, but the forms occurring in soils
may be hard to identify positively. Typical epidote, with its high refractive
index (1. 72 to 1. 76), strong birefringence, and pleochroism that includes
the pistachio-green color, is unmistakable. However, epidote is modified
by weathering or metamorphism to colorless forms with lower birefring-
ence and lower refractive index; and, furthermore, close relatives of ep-
idote, zoisite and clinozoisite, are more abundant than some of the lit-
erature indicates. These minerals of the epidote group commonly appear
as colorless, pale-green, or bluish-green, irregularly shaped or roughly
platy grains with high (1.70 to 1.73) refractive index. Most show anom-
alous interference colors (bright pale blue) and no complete extinction.
They can be confused with several other minerals such as kyanite and
diopside. Identification usually depends on establishing properties on
many grains.
Kyanite is common but seldom abundant. Its pale blue color, platy,
angular cleavage flakes, large cleavage angles, and large extinction angles
can usually be observed and make it easy to identify.
Sillimanite and andalusite are two fibrous to prismatic minerals with
straight extinction that resemble each other; however, their sign of elon-
gation is different; and sillimanite is colorless, but andalusite commonly
has a pink color.
Garnet grains are irregularly shaped and equidimensional. They are

isotropic and have high refractive index (1.77 and higher). Garnet of the
size of fine sand and silt is often colorless; pale pink colors are diagnostic
in larger grains.
Tourmaline has a refractive index close to Piperine. Prismatic shape
and strong pleochroism are characteristic; some tourmaline is almost
opaque when at right angles to the vibration plane of the polarizer.
Zircon occurs as tetragonal prisms with pyramidal ends, has very
high refractive index (> 1.9), straight extinction, and bright, strong in-
terference colors. Broken and rounded crystals are found frequently. Zir-
con crystals and grains are almost always clear and fresh-appearing.
Sphene in some forms resembles zircon, but the crystal forms have
oblique extinction; and the common form, a rounded or subrounded
grain, has with crossed polarizers a color change through ultra blue instead
of extinction because of its high dispersion. It is the only pale-colored or
colorless high-index mineral that gives this effect. The refractive index
is slightly lower than that of zircon, and the grains are often cloudy or
rough-surfaced.
Rutile grains have prismatic shape. The refractive index and bire-
fringence are extremely high (2.6 and 0.29). The interference colors are
usually obscured by the brown, reddish-brown or yellow colors of the
mineral. Other Ti0 2 minerals, anatase and brookite, also have very high
refractive indexes and brown colors and may be difficult to distinguish
in small grains. The latter two usually occur as tabular or equidimensional
grains.
Apatite is fairly common in youthful soil materials. It has a refractive
index slightly below that of Piperine (1.63) and very low birefringence.
Crystal shapes are common and may appear as prisms; rounding by so-
lution produces ovoid forms. It is easily attacked by acid and may be
lost in pretreatments.
Carbonates: Calcite, dolomite, and siderite, in their typical rhom-
bohedral cleavage forms, are easy to identify by their extremely high
birefringence. In soils they have other forms-scales and chips, cementing
material in aggregates, microcrystalline coatings, and other fine-grained
masses often mixed with clay and other minerals. The extreme bire-
fringence always is the clue to identification; it is shown by the bright
colors in crossed polarized light and by marked change in relief when
the stage is rotated with one polarizer in. The three can be distinguished
by refractive index measurements; siderite is the only one with both
indexes above balsam.
Gypsum occurs in platy or prismatic flat grains with refractive index
about the same as orthoclase.
Opaque minerals, of which magnetite and ilmenite are the most com-
mon, are difficult to identify, especially when they are worn by trans-
portation or otherwise affected by weathering. Observations on color and
luster by reflected light, aided by crystal form if visible, are the best
procedures. Magnetic separations will help confirm the presence of mag-

netite and ilmenite.
Many grains that appear opaque in plane polarized light become
translucent if viewed in strong crossed polarized light. Most such grains
are altered or are aggregates, rather than opaque minerals.
8-2.4.3 MICROCRYSTALLINE AGGREGATES AND AMORPHOUS

SUBSTANCES
8-2.4.3.1 Criteria Useful in Identification. Most microcrystalline ag-
gregates have one striking characteristic feature: they show birefringence
but do not have definite, sharp, complete extinction in crossed polarized
light. Extinction may occur as dark bands that sweep through the grain
or parts of the grain when the stage is turned, or it may occur in patches
of irregular size and shape. In all positions, some part of the grain is
bright except in a few types of grains such as well-oriented mineral pseu-
domorphs and certain clay-skin fragments. Aggregates and altered grains
should be examined with a variety of combinations of illumination and
magnification in both plane and crossed polarized light. The principal
properties that can be used to identify or at least characterize aggregates
are given below.
C%r, if brown to bright red, is usually related to iron content and
oxidation of the iron. Manganese and organic matter may contribute
black and grayish-brown colors.
Refractive index is directly related to density. Elemental composition,
atom packing, water content, and porosity all influence refractive index.
Strength of birefringence is a clue to identity of the minerals. Even
though the individual units of the aggregate are small, birefringence can
be estimated by interference color and brightness.
Morphology may provide clues to the composition or origin of the
aggregate. Some aggregates are pseudomorphs after primary mineral grains,
and characteristics of the original minerals such as cleavage traces, twin-
ning, or crystal form can still be observed. Morphology can sometimes
be observed in completely altered grains-even in volcanic ash shards
and basalt fragments. Other morphological characteristics may be ob-
serVable in the individual units or overall structure; for example, the
units may be plates or needles, or there may be banding.
8-2.4.3.2 Useful Differentiating Criteria for Particular Species. For
purposes of studies of soil genesis, the aggregates in sand and silt fractions
are not of equal significance. Some are nuisances, but must be accounted
for, and others are particles with important diagnostic value. Useful dif-
ferentiating criteria for some of the commonly found types of aggregates
are given below.
RockJragments (Lithorelicts) include chips of shale, slate, schist, and
fine-grained igneous rocks such as rhyolite. Identification depends on
recognition of structure and individual components and on consideration
of possible sources.
Clay aggregates occur in a wide variety offorms. Silt and sand bound
together into larger grains by a nearly isotropic brownish material usually
indicate faulty dispersion. Clay skins may resist dispersion and conse-
quently may appear as fragments in grain mounts. Such fragments are
usually brown or red and translucent, with wavy extinction bands. Care
may be needed to distinguish them from weathered biotite. Clay aggre-
gates may be mineral pseudomorphs. Kaolinite pseudomorphs after feld-
spar are common, and montmorillonite aggregates, pseudomorphic after
basic rock minerals, have been observed. Montmorillonite in this form
shows high birefringence, and its extinction is mottled or patchy on a
small scale. Coarse kaolinite flakes, books, and vermicular aggregates
resist dispersion and may be abundant in sand and silt; these particles
may resemble muscovite, but they are cloudy, show no definite extinction,
and have very low birefringence.
Volcanic glass is isotropic and has a low refractive index-lower than
most of the silicate minerals, ranging from 1.48 in the colorless siliceous
glasses to as high as 1.56 in the green or brown glasses of basalt com-
position. Shapes vary, but elongated, curved shard forms, often with
bubbles, are fairly common. This glassy material may be observed sticking
to other minerals, and particles may contain small crystals of feldspar or
incipient crystals with needle and dendritic forms. The basic glasses
weather easily, and so the colorless siliceous types are more common in
soils.
Allophane is present in many soils derived from volcanic ash. It can
seldom be identified directly, but its presence can be inferred when sand
and silt are cemented into aggregates by isotropic material with low re-
fractive index, especially if volcanic ash shards are also present.
Opal, an isotropic material, occurs as a cementing material and in
separate grains, some of which are of organic origin (plant opal, sponge
spicules, diatoms). Its refractive index is very low « 1.45, which is lower
than the value for volcanic ash). Identification may depend in part on
form and occurrence.
Iron oxides may occur separately or as coatings, cementing agents,
and mixtures with other minerals. They impart brown and red colors
and raise the refractive index in the mixtures. Goethite is yellow to bright
red. The refractive index and birefringence are higher in the red varieties,
which seem to be better crystallized, often having a prismatic or fibrous
habit. Aggregates have parallel extinction. In oriented aggregates, the in-
terference colors often have a greenish cast. Hematite has higher refractive
index than goethite and is granular rather than prismatic. Large grains
of hematite are nearly opaque.
Gibbsite often occurs as separate, pure, crystal aggregates, either alone
or inside altered mineral grains. The grains may appear to be well-crys-
tallized single crystals, but close inspection in crossed polarized light
shows patchy, banded extinction, indicating intergrown aggregates. It is
colorless, and the refractive index (l.56 to l.58) and birefringence are
higher than the values for quartz. The bright interference colors and
aggregate extinction are characteristic.
Chert occurs as aggregate grains with patchy extinction. The refractive
index is slightly lower than that of quartz, and the birefringence is lower
than that of gibbsite. It sometimes occurs in pseudomorphs after fossils
and sometimes in grains with the exterior form of quartz crystals.
Glauconite occurs in the form of an aggregate of small micaceous
grains with high birefringence. When fresh, it is dark green and almost
opaque, but it weathers to brown and more translucent forms. It is dif-
ficult to identify on optical evidence alone.
Ti02 aggregates have been tentatively identified in the heavy mineral
separates of many soils. These bodies have an extremely high refractive
index and high birefringence like rutile, and the yellow to gray colors are
similar to those of anatase. They are granular and rough-surfaced. This
habit of growth, with its little spurs and projections, suggest that Ti0 2
aggregates may be secondary.
8-3 THIN SECTIONS
8-3.1 Introduction
"A crushed or pulverized soil is related to the soil formed by nature

like a pile of debris to a demolished building" (Kubiena, 1938). The
architecture of a building can no more be determined from a pile of
rubble than the structure or site-specific composition of a soil from a
crushed bulk sample. Micropedology (micromorphology) may be defined
as the science that studies micro fabrics of soils in their natural undis-
turbed arrangement. Examination of thin sections with a polarizing light
microscope can be considered an extension offield morphological studies.
More recently this technique has been coupled with submicroscopy meth-
ods (Bisdom, 1981) and contact microradiography (Drees & Wilding,
1983). Originally, the primary thrust of micropedology was to further
understanding of pedogenesis (Kubiena, 1938, 1970; Parfenova & Yari-
lova, 1965), but recent work also relates microfabrics to applied soil
considerations such as soil strength and structural faulting (Morgenstern
& Tchalenko, 1967; McCormack & Wilding, 1974; Crampton, 1974;
Douglas, 1980; Low et a1., 1982; Collins & McGown, 1983), influence of
ped cutanic surfaces on root-soil interaction (Soileau et a1., 1964; Khalifa
& Buol, 1968; Miller & Wilding, 1972; Gerber et a1., 1974; Blevins et a1.,
1970), and quantitative measurement of soil structure and porosity (Jon-
gerius et a1., 1972; Bullock & Murphy, 1980).
The results of micromorphological studies are most useful when they
are combined with all other available field and laboratory information.
Such information includes complete description of the profile sampled,
including study of structure and special features with a hand lens. Levels
of resolution should increase progressively from the visible range to field
SCALE OF OBSERV AllON
x
w
>
u..
C>
Q
---l
W
u..
........................
.................
Landscape Hand Stereo x- ray Microprobe
Setting Specimen Microscopy Micro-
Radiography
Pedon Hand Light SEM TEM

Lens Microscopy
VISUAL LIGHT SUBMICROSCOPY

MICROSCOPY
Fig. 8-1. Schematic illustration of the relationship between increasing levels of resolution
and the area of the field under view.
hand lens, to steroscopic microscopy (Fig. 8-1). The microscopist should

take the samples personally, so he or she will know how the detailed view
relates to the whole object and will know what the problems and hy-
potheses are. One takes for granted that such field study includes notes
on parent material, geomorphic position and history, macroclimate and
microclimate, past vegetation, and present land use. Some of this infor-
mation may not be available and may itself be the object of the inves-
tigation. Micromorphology has been used to look for effects of past veg-
etation and to identify layered or transported parent materials, for example.
For the purposes of communicating information about objects and
features observed in thin section, a nomenclature specific to soils has
been developed. The purpose of microfabric terminology is to provide a
shorthand whereby a single term imparts a mental image of the micro-
scopic field. It is an attempt to avoid long descriptions of microfabrics.
A major problem is the difficulty in separating descriptive observation
from genetic interpretation. Brewer's (1976) terminology is descriptively
based without genetic inference. This clarifies communication because a
number of microfabric features may form by different genetic processes
(e.g., argillans). The terminology developed by Brewer was adapted from
earlier terms of Kubiena (1938) and from the geologic literature. Most
workers in the USA have adopted the terminology of Brewer (1976) for
microfabric descriptions. It is more complete and systematic than ter-

minology by Kubiena (1938). A brief listing of nomenclature terms com-
monly used in describing thin sections is given as a glossary at the end
of this chapter and is taken from Brewer (1976).
Microfabric features can also be recorded by taking photomicrographs
and/or sketches of characteristic elements of the fabric. Examples of this
approach are given by Grossman et al. (1959), Alexander and Cady (1962),
Flach et al. (1969), and Brewer (1976). A reference scale should be placed
directly on the photomicrograph and the polarizing light mode should
be noted in the caption.
8-3.2 Sampling
Samples may be natural clods, cores, or any other blocks or units of

soil volume that can be collected without serious physical disturbance.
Moist, fine-textured, cohesive structured units remain intact, but may
part to smaller structural aggregates upon drying. Aluminum foil or plastic
sheeting can be wrapped around the samples to avoid this problem in
transporting samples to the laboratory. For loose, noncohesive, coarse-
textured materials, a perforated can may be used to carry the samples.
It may be gently pressed into the soil to be sampled; excess soil is trimmed
off, and the can capped for transit. Upon reaching the laboratory, the
sample may be dried and impregnated prior to removal from the con-
tainer. Kubiena boxes have been widely used in Europe and Australia
for sample collection (FitzPatrick, 1980). An alternative technique for
soils that are organic and incoherent with an abundance of roots or a
high percentage of coarse skeletal materials is to freeze a soil block with
liquid N2 and transport it to the laboratory in a frozen state (Blevins et
aI., 1968). Some investigators (Brasher et aI., 1966; Murphy et aI., 1981)
coat delicate or fragile samples in the field with paraffin or synthetic resin
(such as liquid Saran) before shipping to the laboratory. One hazard of
this approach is possible incompatibility between the coat and the im-
pregnating agent if the coat is not completely removed. Also, fabric dis-
ruption of the soil may occur during removal of the coat prior to im-
pregnation. The vertical orientation should always be marked directly on
the sample if possible; it may also be marked on the sample container
or with tags as appropriate.
8-3.3 Impregnation
Most soil samples are not sufficiently indurated to permit thin section
preparation without fabric alteration or disruption. Thus, soil samples
must be impregnated with some suitable material that will harden, not
alter the soil fabric due to volume changes, remain clear and isotropic
in polarized light, and have an acceptable refractive index.
Several impregnating media meet the above requirements. Polyester
resins have been, and continue to be, widely used. These resins may be
diluted with monomeric styrene or acetone to lower their viscosity and

improve impregnation. Styrene will mix with most polyester resins and
not affect hardening. Acetone, however, must be allowed to volatilize
before hardening can be completed. The hardening time can be controlled
by adjusting the quantity of organic oxidant catalyst. Heating at 70 to
80°C completes the hardening process.
More recently, epoxy resins have been successfully used for soil im-
pregnation. Materials such as Scotchcast No.3 (Trade name for 3M epoxy)
have low viscosity, refractive index of 1.53, short polymerization time,
and high thermal stability. The high thermal stability is important for
electron microprobe analysis.
For impregnating with any of these materials, samples must be dry.
For best results, the impregnating solution is slowly added to the sample
under vacuum. After impregnation the sample may be allowed to harden
at atmospheric conditions or under a pressure of several atmospheres.
The pressure aids in forcing the impregnating solution into unfilled voids.
Procedures and media for impregnating with polyester resins are given
by Bourbeau and Berger (1947), Buol and Fadness (1961), Jongerius and
Heintzberger (1963), Cent and Brewer (1971) and Ashley (1973). Methods
for epoxy resin impregnation are outlined by Hagni (1966), Sinkankas
(1968), Innis and Pluth (1970), and Middleton and Kraus (1980).
Organic soil materials usually contain abundant amounts of water
and shrink upon air- or oven-drying. Unless samples are freeze-dried,
techniques which require a dry sample are not suitable because of possible
natural fabric alteration. Moist organic soil materials have been success-
fully impregnated with Carbowax 6000 (Union Carbide Chemical Co.)
(Mackenzie & Dawson, 1961; Langton & Lee, 1965). Carbowax 6000
melts at about 55°C and is soluble in water. Clods are submerged in
Carbowax for several days to a week at 60 to 65°C to allow the Carbowax
to replace the water. Carbowax has the disadvantage of being quite soft
and slightly birefringent. Care must be exercised during cutting and grind-
ing. An alternate method for moist samples is to slowly replace the water
with acetone, then impregnate with a polyester resin (Miedema et aI.,
1974). These wet sample methods can also be used for soils that contain
large amounts of allophane.
Each soil behaves somewhat differently in the various impregnating
media; in actual practice each worker must develop his or her own sat-
isfactory impregnating procedure. In general, soils of medium and coarse
textures and those containing predominantly kaolinite clays are easy to
impregnate. Medium- and fine-textured samples that contain swelling
clays are more difficult to impregnate and require special care at all stages.
No medium or procedure will work with all soil samples; in many re-
spects, impregnation remains more of an art than a science.
8-3.4 Cutting and Finishing
Ifthe sample can be successfully impregnated, the rest ofthe process

of cutting, polishing, mounting, and finishing is essentially the same as
that used by geologists for preparing rock sections. A complete set of

general instructions for making sections of a variety of materials is given
in articles by Reed and Mergner (1953) and Ireland (1971). Sometimes
reimpregnation of surfaces with one of the epoxy or polyester cements
is needed after cutting. Samples containing smectite often must be cut,
ground, and polished in the absence of water-either dry, or in kerosene
or mineral oil.
Making thin sections is an art that requires some practice and pa-
tience. Essentially it consists of the following steps after impregnation.
1. A rectangular block or slab is cut to the dimensions of a finished
section.
2. One side of this block is ground and polished to produce a flat, smooth
surface free of scratches or imperfections. The condition can be checked
with a binocular microscope or a hand lens.
3. After polishing, the block is carefully cleaned and cemented to a clean
microscope slide with epoxy or balsam.
4. Excess material is removed with a diamond cut-off wheel and the
specimen is ground to the required thickness with successively finer
grades of abrasive powder. A useful slide holder for this stage has been
devised by Cochran and King (1957).
5. The slide is carefully cleaned and dried, and a cover glass is cemented
in place.
Individual workers make adaptations to this general procedure to
meet conditions and frequently change it to cope with new kinds of soil
and new problems. Some additional tips are given in the following par-
agraphs.
Often impregnation will be incomplete, or the impregnating liquid
will not reach the center of the specimen. After the specimen has been
cut into rough blocks for finishing, the faces can be reimpregnated if soft
spots are seen. Re-treatment with the same plastic may not be successful
because the solvent may soften the previously set plastic. However, a
low-viscosity epoxy such as used for mounting the cover glass may be
spread over the surface and allowed to soak into the empty pores. An
alternative method is to coat the surface with a layer of precooked balsam
or other synthetic balsam-like resin and heat in an oven at about 100°C
for several hours. Polishing the block for mounting must be done with
care. The excess layer of balsam or epoxy must be removed without
exceeding the penetration depth of these impregnants.
Polishing of the surface for mounting requires a lap wheel for abrasive
powders or abrasive paper discs. Successively finer grit sizes are used
(200-600 grit) until the surface is ground smooth and flat. The polished
surface should have an almost mirror-like finish. For most soil samples,
glycol or a light cutting oil is used as a lubricant during polishing. For
highly cemented or indurated samples lacking swelling clays, water may
be used as a lubricant.
Epoxy has generally replaced Canada balsam or Lakeside 70 as the
preferred mounting medium. Several commercial epoxies are especially

made for thin section work. They have low viscosity, a refractive index
near 1.54, a long pot life, and they cure at low temperatures. Hardening
at room temperature avoids possible warping and differential expansion-
contraction effects that may occur when samples are heated using ther-
mally cured resins. Because epoxy may take several hours to cure, a
pressure clamp or bonding jig is important to hold the block in place, to
apply a uniform pressure across the surface so that the film of epoxy
between the slide and block will be of uniform thickness.
An accurate diamond cut-off wheel is used to remove excess material.
Remaining excess material is removed by using successively finer abra-
sives, with final polishing done by hand on a piece of plate glass. Thick-
ness is usually checked by interference colors of sand grains, but many
finer-textured soils and high iron-oxide materials that are opaque or have
very fine structural elements must be ground thinner than the standard
30 /Lm. Thickness control depends on repeated examination and grinding
until exposure of as much fine structure as possible is accomplished with-
out losing the section. When the thickness is being checked, the section
should be coated with a thin film of immersion oil or index oil to avoid
the strong contrast in refractive index between the air and the section.
Without oil, it may look thicker and more featureless than it really is.
Most sections are thinner at the edges than in the center because of the
motions used in grinding, but this may be an advantage, enabling one
to see morphology in a third dimension.
Cover glasses may be permanently mounted with epoxy or synthetic
resins. If the slide is to be used for other purposes, such as staining or
microprobe analysis, the surface can be protected with a viscous mount-
ing oil and a cover glass while in storage. By this procedure, the thin
section may be examined and photographed with a cover glass that can
be easily removed for subsequent analyses.
Cleanliness in thin-section preparation is essential. When a shift from
a coarser to a finer abrasive is made, the sample must be washed, brushed,
or air-blown to remove coarser grit that will likely scratch the section.
When the block is mounted on the slide, it should be as clean as possible
so that the grinding compound is not occluded in the surface pores;
likewise, the finished section should be well cleaned before the cover glass
is applied. Lintless paper or lens tissue should be used to clean the section
because entrapped lint is highly birefringent and may cause image con-
fusion.
Abrasive powders and papers are obtained from many scientific sup-
ply houses or firms dealing in geologic, metallurgical, or lapidary equip-
ment and supplies. A number of commercial firms manufacture spe-
cialized equipment for thin section preparation (Microtec, Logitech,
Hillquist, Highland Park, Leco, Buehler). This equipment ranges from
simple cut-off wheels to automatic apparatus that cut and grind to final
thickness. The advantages in making one's own sections are that a large
number of sections can be made from any sample at a variety of ori-

entations, and the specimen can be studied at all stages of the work-as
a polished section by reflected light, for example. Structural features of
interest that are noted can be preserved in the sections. Special treatments
can be used, such as staining or acid washes to remove carbonates, thus
revealing other structures.
8-3.5 Observations and Interpretations
8-3.5.1 UNITS OF ORGANIZATION, DESCRIPTION, AND ANALYSIS

For structure and fabric analysis, soil materials can conveniently be
placed in the following units of organization: peds, pedological features.
and s-matrices (Brewer, 1976). Selected italicized terms are defined in the
Glossary (section 8-5). The primary ped is the basic unit of description
in pedal soil material, and the whole soil in apedal materials. The s-
matrix is the material within the simplest peds or apedal material. It
excludes pedological features other than plasma separations. The ele-
ments of the s-matrix include skeleton grains, plasma, and associated
voids. Pedological features are recognizable units either within the s-ma-
trix or forming surfaces of weakness between peds. They are distinguish-
able from the associated material because of origin, concentration of
plasma, mineralogical composition, or differences in arrangement of the
constituents. The following sections address identification, composition
and micromorphology of these units of organization.
8-3.S.t.t S-Matrix.
8-3.5.1.1.1 Skeleton Grains
Identification of sand and silt grains in thin sections is carried out
by standard methods given in petrography texts (Kerr, 1977). The general
approach is the same as that outlined in sections 8-2.4.2 and 8-2.4.3,
except that refractive index can be used only roughly, and more weight
is placed on the other optical and morphological properties. It is rarely
necessary to be concerned with minerals that occur in small quantities
or to attempt quantitative mineralogical analysis with a thin section. The
usual soil thin section contains too few grains to be usable for such work.
Rough information on particle-size distribution can be obtained in some
materials with replicate sections, however.
The thickness ofthe section limits the size of grain that can be iden-
tified. If the section is 30 ~m thick, grains smaller than this will be over-
lapping or buried in the matrix and can not be seen clearly enough to be
identified, unless they have some outstanding property such as extremely
high birefringence or refractive index (calcite and rutile, for example).
If identification and mineralogical analysis are important for the
problem being studied, it is best to do this work on separated size fractions
and to use the thin sections mainly for information about the arrangement
of the components. The methods and types of samples supplement each

other: grains in thin sections are seen as slices in random orientation;
cleavage and interior structure can often be seen best in the sections; and
the whole range of sizes is also visible.
Visible grains will be, in part, single minerals (usually quartz); but
aggregates and compound grains are common, especially in transported
material like loess and till. Recognition of aggregates, concretions, pseu-
domorphs, and weathered grains is more important in thin-section studies
than in sand and silt petrography. It can be easier because interior struc-
tures are exposed. Grains of this type may be important in soil genesis
studies but are often destroyed or eliminated by sample preparation pro-
cedures that separate sand, silt, and clay. Most sections are thinnest at
the edge, and examination here with high power reveals patchy aggregate
extinction, birefringence and refractive index data, and morphology of
aggregates and small structural features.
When skeleton grains are in the finer silt separates, identification of
individual grains is difficult or impossible optically. For this reason x-
ray diffraction, thermal analysis, or some other analytical technique is
needed for identifications and relative estimates of minerals in fractions
too small for optical verification.
8.3.5.1.1.2 Plasma
Plasma in thin sections occurs as clay, free oxides, organic matter,
and soluble fractions subject to mobilization, concentration, and/or re-
organization. Clay may occur in the soil matrix (s-matrix) not only as
individual domains (plasma aggregates) distributed randomly through
the s-matrix, but also as preferred patterns of plasma aggregates due to
stress (plasma separations) or illuviation (plasma concentrations). The
latter commonly occur as clay in fillings, coatings, and bridges (argillans).
Even though the individual clay particles are submicroscopic, the clay
can be described, characterized, and sometimes identified. Completely
dispersed and randomly arranged clay will exhibit no birefringence and
will appear isotropic in crossed polarized light. Seldom, however, does
the clay in a soil occur as dispersed individual domains ofthat size. More
commonly clay in the s-matrix consists of individual plasma aggregates
of larger size, which are randomly oriented and yield a flecked birefr-
ingence pattern. Plasma assembles into birefringent plasma aggregates
when plate-shaped particles are reoriented by pressure or by translocation
and illuviation.
Except for halloysite, the silicate clay minerals in soils have a platy
shape. The a and b crystallographic axes are within the plane of the plate,
and the c axis is almost perpendicular to this plane. The crystals are
monoclinic, but the distribution of atoms along the a and b axes is so
nearly the same, and the c axis is so nearly perpendicular to the other
axes, that the minerals are pseudohexagonal. The optical properties as
well as the crystal structure and general habit of clay particles are anal-
ogous to those of the micas, and the micas can be used as a model when
establishing and describing the properties of clays.
The speed oflight traveling in the direction of the c axis and vibrating
parallel to the a axis is almost the same as that vibrating parallel to the
b axis; therefore, the refractive indexes are very close together, and in-
terference effects seen in crossed polarized light will be small when ob-
served along the c axis.
Light vibrating parallel to the c axis travels faster than in other di-
rections, and hence the refractive index is lower. If the edges of crystals
or plasma aggregates are viewed along the a-b plane between crossed
polarizers, two straight extinction positions can be seen and interference
colors will show in other positions.
Figures 8-2A and 8-2B illustrate opitcal properties for plasma con-
centrations. If the plasma aggregates are organized into patterns where
the domains are predominantly parallel, highly birefringent, and contin-
uous, optical effects will be observed with band extinction. Thus the
degree of orientation of plates into aggregates, the pattern of aggregate
orientation, and the process that oriented the aggregates can be deduced
partly or in whole from optical phenomena.
Kaolinite has refractive indexes slightly higher than quartz and has
low birefringence. In the average thin section, interference colors are gray
to pale yellow. In residual soils derived from coarse-grained igneous rocks,
it often occurs as book-like and accordion-like aggregates of silt and sand
size called plasma aggregates.
Halloysite, because of tubular habit, should not show birefringence
even though it could form oriented aggregates. It sometimes does have
very faint patternless birefringence, possibly caused by impurities or re-
fraction of light at interfaces between particles.
The 2: 1 lattice minerals have high birefringence and show bright
intermediate-order interference colors when the edges of the aggregates
are viewed. It is seldom possible to distinguish between clay-size smectite,
mica, vermiculite, and chlorite in thin section. These clay minerals usu-
ally occur as a mixture of the minerals, and are often stained by and
mixed with iron oxides and organic matter.
Oxides, oxyhydroxides, and hydroxides of iron, manganese, and alu-
minum pose more problems in identification-especially iron and man-
ganese, which are poorly crystalline, fine-grained, and often opaque to
transmitted light. Reflected light may help in differentiating organic plasma
fragments from iron components. Organic matter will appear pearly or
milky in reflected light; iron and manganese oxides have a black or rusty-
brown metallic luster.
Carbonates commonly form the plasmic element in crystic fabrics
(disseminated carbonates) of soils in semiarid and arid environments
(Mollisols, Aridisols, Vertisols, and Alfisols). Carbonates occur as aggre-
gate structures whether of lithogenic or pedogenic origin. They can often
be identified under high magnification by their high birefringence and
rhombohedral forms. Further, they readily react to acids. Gypsum may

be identified by its euhedral crystal form, but more soluble salts such as
halite are rarely identified in thin sections.
Dispersed organic matter in soils gives thin sections a dusky, dull
appearance and decreases significantly the light intensity passing through
the section. Fragments of well-decomposed materials are nearly opaque;
but organic matter with slight decomposition will exhibit red to strong
brown colors in plane polarized or crossed polarized light, and may be
confused with argillans if cell or fiber structure is not visible.
8-3.5.1.1.3 Voids
Voids associated with the packing volumes of primary minerals in
the s-matrix are called simple packing voids (Brewer, 1976). In fine-grained
s-matrices, the voids commonly are ultrafine «5 tLm) and beyond the
resolution of a light microscope. If such voids are important to the ob-
jectives of the study they can be resolved and quantified by SEM back-
scatter techniques (Jongerius & Bisdom, 1981). In coarser-textured s-
matrices, packing voids are easily identified. In void analysis the observer
must remember that the two-dimensional thin-section slice can intersect
voids of various geometry at any angle, that some of the features can be
artifacts, and that the lower limit of the observable size range of voids
is controlled by the thickness of the section.
Size, shape (wall conformation and smoothness), arrangement, and
morphological classification of voids must be described. Brewer (1976)
classifies voids as packing voids, vughs, vesicles, channels, chambers, and
planes. He provides an excellent discussion of their morphology and
possible mechanisms of formation. Smoothed walls (by coatings or pres-
sure rearrangement) are called meta voids and indicate biological or phys-
ical origin, while those walls that appear to be physically and chemically
unaltered are called artha voids.
Packing voids are due to random packing of individual skeleton grains
(simple) or nonaccomodating structural units (compound). Vughs are
relatively large voids, other than packing voids, that are generally irregular
in shape and not interconnected with other voids of similar size. Vesicles
differ from vughs principally in their smooth regular wall conformation,
generally circular in cross-section, that is believed to be formed by ex-
pansion and movement of gas bubbles. Channels are tubular voids that
are significantly larger than those resulting from normal packing of skel-
eton grains. They commonly have smoothed walls, regular conformation,
and relatively uniform cross-section diameters. Chambers differ from
vughs in that their walls are regular and smoothed, and from vesicles
and vughs in that they are interconntected through channels. Biological
activity of fauna and flora is likely responsible for most channels and
chambers observed. Planes are voids that are linear in shape and form
surfaces of weakness along accomodating ped structural surfaces. They
may be ortho, but more commonly are meta where the surfaces are
smoothed by plasma concentration coatings or pressure rearrangement

of the plasma. Brewer (1976) has suggested subclasses of joint, craze, and
skew planes based on surface wall conformation, regularity, and distri-
bution of planar voids.
Visible porosity can range from essentially none, as in some fragipans
(Fig. 8-3C) and glacial tills, to situations where large voids make up a
significant part of the thin section, as in A horizons of Mollisols with
well-developed structure and in coarse, well-sorted sands.
Large-scale pore space can be described by its relation to shapes of
the grains or aggregates and by estimates of percentage. Areas can be
measured with a grid eyepiece or by various transect-measuring statistical
methods like those used for modal analysis of rocks (Anderson & Binnie,
1961). Although only areas are measured, the volume of various con-
stituents can be estimated in this way. More quantitative analysis can be
made by application ofa Quantimet (Jongerius & Bisdom, 1981; Bullock
& Murphy, 1980). If pore area or volume and pore arrangement are
important aspects of the study, a soluble dye may be added to the im-
pregnating plastic (Lockwood, 1950) so that colorless sand grains can be
distinguished from pores without using crossed polarized light.
Voids are distinguished from colorless skeleton grains by checking
for anisotropism when the stage is rotated with polarizers crossed. Voids
are isotropic unless an anisotropic impregnating agent is used. A grain
being viewed down the optic axis will also exhibit an isotropic image;
therefore a check for interference figure should be made.
For final verification, the section should be viewed in plane polarized
light; voids should be white unless the impregnant is colored. Mineral
grains are often clearly differentiated from voids by sharp, straight-edged
boundaries, by fractures and inclusions, by relief differences, and by color
and/or pleochroism.
8-3.5.1.2 Pedological Features.
8-3.5.1.2.1 Papules and Argillans
By far the greatest interest in micromorphology, at least in the USA,
has centered on the arrangement of clay as an indication of the genetic
processes that have operated or are currently operating, and on the re-
lation of clay to soil structure. Examples of several common types of clay
arrangement and associated features follow.
In soils developed from residual materials, or in saprolite, clay weath-
ers from primary minerals and occurs as papules in a form roughly pseu-
domorphic after rock minerals (Figs. 8-3A and 8-3B). Clay may also
occur as plasma aggregates such as the vermicular or accordian-like ka-
olinite books shown in Fig. 8-4B. Such clay pedological features often
exhibit continuous patterns of plasma aggregates with band extinction.
Regular, intact arrangement ofthese clay materials generally is diagnostic
of in situ clay formation and may be diagnostic for residual materials.
Clay aggregates can also become rearranged by pressure applied differ-

entially to produce shear; these striated aggregates are optically identified
as plasma separations. Stress-oriented argillans occur when platy clay
particles become oriented by slip along a plane, as in slickensides and
pressure faces of Vertisols or in soils derived from fine-textured glacial
till (McCormack & Wilding, 1974). Plasma separations may also occur
within the s-matrix (masepic plasmic fabric), along root channels or planar
voids (vosepic), and around skeleton grains (skelsepic). Root pressure,
differential wetting and drying, mass movement, and crystal ice growth
can produce pressure orientation.
Pressure orientation can be inferred when smooth faces with striated
coatings are seen on structural units. It cannot be seen in plane polarized
light. In plane polarized light, the clay in the section may be homogeneous
and rather featureless. In crossed polarized light, a reticulate pattern of
striated orientation appears, consisting of bright lines showing aggregate
birefringence often intersecting at regular angles. The effect is that of a
network in a plaid pattern (/attisepic fabric). There may be numerous sets
of micro-shear planes that will appear in different positions as the stage
is turned. Pressure-oriented clay is illustrated in Fig. 8-2C.
Illuviated argillans (translocated clay) have several features that dis-
tinguish them from stress argillans and from residual clay as papules.
Illuviated argillans occur as distinct zones of plasma concentration along
conductive voids. They usually have a sharp boundary with the s-matrix
and conform closely to convoluted or irregular void walls. Several com-
mon forms of translocated clay are shown in Fig. 8-2A, 8-2B, 8-2D, 8-
3A, 8-3D, 8-4A, 8-4B, and 8-4C. It is more homogeneous than matrix
clay and is usually finer. It is often of different composition from the
matrix, especially if it came from another horizon. It shows lamination,
indicating deposition in successive increments. And, finally, these bodies
of translocated clay will show birefringence and extinction, indicating
that they are continuously oriented plasma aggregates of parallel plates.
If they are straight, they will have parallel extinction; if curved, a dark
band will be present wherever the composite c axis and composite a and
b axes are parallel to the vibration planes of the polarizers. These dark
bands sweep through the argillan when the stage is rotated. Features of
such curved plasma concentrations are shown in Fig. 8-3D.
Swelling, slump, and mass movement in soils may cause illuviated
argillans to become distorted and broken. Pores may collapse or be plugged
with translocated clay and the lining then becomes an elongated argillan.
New ped faces develop, and the old argillans are found as embedded
fragments in the s-matrix; ultimately they may be reincorporated into
the matrix and disappear (see Fig. 8-4A).
Many of the translocated cutans are composed of more than one kind
of material. Complex cutans include absorbed organic matter (organo-
argillans) and iron oxides (ferri-argillans). Compound cutans consist of
alternate layers of mineralogically and/or chemically different substances

or of different fabrics (i.e. bands of argillans, ferrans, and mangans; Brewer,
1976).
Other kinds of plasma concentrations consisting of soluble salts, car-
bonates, sesquioxides, and silica occur as coatings along or subcutanic
to conductive voids. When they impregnate the s-matrix subjacent to
voids they are termed neocutans, but when they are not immediately
subjacent to a void surface they are termed quasicutans (Brewer, 1976).
The latter occur as mottles in the s-matrix. Criteria for optical identifi-
cation of these substances are given in the early part of the chapter.
8-3.5.1.2.2 Glaebules
Glaebules are defined as approximately equant to prolate three-di-
mensional bodies within the s-matrix that differ from the host material
because of a greater concentration of some constituent (often plasma) or
a difference in fabric (Brewer, 1976). They are of variable composition,
including clay minerals (papules as discussed under section 8-3.5.1.2.1),
carbonates, sesquioxides, manganese oxides, silica, and pedorelect soil
material of different source from the s-matrix (Brewer, 1976). The sharp-
ness of the glaebule boundary may be helpful in differentiating allogenic
versus authigenic origin. Further, size, shape, and mineralogy of skeleton
grains and clay orientation within the glaebule should be the same as in
the host s-matrix if it formed in situ.
Distribution of skeleton grains is commonly less dense in glaebules
than in host s-matrix because of the greater concentration of plasma.
Crystallization of the plasma impregnating a nodule can force skeleton
grains further apart than in the original host s-matrix; such is the case
with carbonate and some iron nodules.
Concretions have a concentric banded plasma distribution, while nod-
ules have undifferentiated plasmic fabric. Concretions are commonly high
in sesquioxides and/or Mn0 2 and are nearly opaque, although they may
exhibit light and dark bands. Others may exhibit banded carbonate fabrics
of different grain size and iron impurities. Concretions in the form of
tubules occur along channels, apparently in response to root activity that
causes fluxes in redox, pH, and soil moisture content. These concentra-
tions may be of calcite, lepidocrocite, or goethite, or ferro-manganiferous
in composition (Brewer, 1976; Miller & Wilding, 1972; Chen et aI., 1980).
Nodules commonly occur in soils when neo- and quasi-forms of man-
gans, ferrans, sesquans, and ca1cans are further impregnated with re-
spective plasma. This represents a conversion of soft mottles and se-
gregtions to indurated nodules. Upon weathering, mafic-rich lithorelicts,
such as shale, may also be transformed to sesquioxidic nodules (Ritchie,
et aI., 1974).
A somewhat related type of dense body is illustrated by soil nodules
of residual B-horizon material left isolated in the lower E horizon, as the
E horizon tongues down into the B horizon. These have a higher clay
content than the surrounding matrix, and boundaries are regular and
usually rather sharp. Such pedorelic nodules may become centers of ac-
cumulation of iron and manganese. With development, they may become
smaller and rounder and ultimately may become pellet-like.
Mottles, concretions, and nodules are cemented to varying degrees,
and so they may move as sand or gravel when material is transported.
Comparing their interior composition with that of the surrounding matrix
and examining the continuity (or lack of it) at their boundaries will enable
one to decide whether these aggregates are formed in place or not.
8-3.5.1.2.3 Organic Matter

Amorphous coatings of organic matter with or without admixed iron
and aluminum are common, especially in Spodosols or soils influenced
by the podzolization process. This material is dark brown to black, is-
otropic or faintly birefringent, and often flecked with minute opaque
grains. It occurs as the bridging and coating material in the horizons of
sandy Spodosols (Soil Survey Staff, 1975, Fig. 5A-B, p. 101).
Organic residues such as living and partly decomposed roots are
usually recognizable by their cellular structure. The birefringence of many
plant fibers often causes them to be confused with minerals. Chitinous
remains of arthropods and egg capsules also may resemble an inorganic
structure. Anything with unusually symmetrical shape or regular cellular
form should be suspected to be of organic origin.
8-3.5.2 ARTIFACTS
Artifacts are caused by grains tearing out of the section, by scratches
during grinding, and by splitting of the section when the cover glass is
pressed down. These features usually have unnatural-looking boundaries
with a ragged appearance. Splitting may follow natural structural lines;
if it does, the face will show some evidence of a coating or of compression
or alignment of grains. Ifit is a random split, it will cross natural features.
In some soils, sand grains have compressed oriented clay coatings. Such
grains may fall out during grinding and leave a smooth, coated hole.
Recognition of such holes may depend on comparison of their shape and
lining with the situation around grains of similar size. Other artifacts that
may cause confusion are: grains of the abrasive grinding powder (car-
borundum, Ah03, garnet); cellulose fibers, hairs and bristles from clean-
ing tissues, towels, and brushes (these often have high birefringence, but
their fibrous structure is apparent); and air bubbles, which have high
negative relief.
8-4 APPLICATIONS
Optical petrography may be useful in investigating the origin of soil

parent material. Certain suites of minerals are associated with specific
rock sources; hence, overlays and unconformities may be suspected from

certain kinds of discontinuities in the mineralogical composition of sam-
ples taken at different depths in a given profile. For example, the finding
of fresh feldspar and hornblende in the silt fraction in the A and B ho-
rizons and only resistant minerals in the C horizon may indicate an
overlay of eolian deposits younger than the underlying material. Evidence
of volcanic ash (glassy shards, plagioclase feldspar types) may be critical
in explaining some soil properties.
Shape, size, and spacing of the primary mineral grains may be related
to source of parent material, mode of deposition, and changes caused by
weathering and soil development. Large, angular quartz grains suggest
granite or related rocks, and material in place or transported only a short
distance. Rounding indicates water transportation, and rounding plus
frosting and pitting indicates movement by wind. These latter observa-
tions, however, can be more easily made on cleaned separates with a
stereoscopic or SEM microscope than in thin section. Stratification of
coarse and fine particles usually indicates alluvium. Alignment of platy
particles can indicate depositional stratification but can also be caused
by pressure, shear, or frost action. Spacing of primary or skeletal grains
can be a valuable reference datum for volume changes in weathering and
for interhorizonal and local losses and gains; leaching or removal of ma-
terialleaves the resistant grains closer together; additions such as trans-
located clay or iron oxide may force them apart. Ratios between resistant
minerals can serve as a check on the homogeneity of the original parent
material in a soil development study and as a base for calculations of
loss and gain (Barshad, 1964; Brewer, 1976).
Effects of weathering in formation of parent materials and in soil
profiles can be investigated by optical petrography. Decrease or disap-
pearance of minerals or groups when compared against resistant minerals
provides an index of weathering. The condition of remaining minerals
also answers some questions: for example, one can tell whether the min-
erals are altering to clay or other secondary products or whether the
products are being carried away in solution. Thin sections make possible
observations of minerals in the process of alteration with the products
in place. Examples are alteration offeldspar to halloysite, augite to smec-
tite, feldspars or mica to kaolinite, and micas to vermiculite. Stages of
weathering can be followed, and the source of secondary minerals can
be observed directly.
Clay illuviation can be observed in a sequence of thin sections from
the clay-depleted E horizon, to the tongued transition zone at the top of
the B/E horizon, to the Bt horizon with its variety of clay accumulation
features, and to the C horizon with its indigenous clay. Clay distribution
and arrangement vary greatly among different soil orders and much work
remains to be done on origins of soil clay and reasons for its distribution
and concentration. A review of this work is provided by Wilding and
Flach (1985).
Petrographic studies may aid in understanding the development of

certain types of concretions, laterite, and pans. Rearrangement and re-
crystallization of oxides to cause cementation and sequences of changes
whereby mottles become hard plinthite nodules may be investigated
(Alexander & Cady, 1962).
The microscopic view of soil approaches the view seen by the plant
root and permits close, direct investigation of the physical and miner-
alogical environment of roots (Blevins, et al., 1970). Thus, optical pe-
trography is useful also in investigations of tilth, seedling emergence, and
penetration of air, water, and roots (Miller & Wilding, 1972; Jongerius
et al. 1972). The shape and sometimes the binding agent of soil aggregates
can be observed. Arrangement and continuity of pore space can be traced.
Compaction and orientation of particles in "traffic" pans can be con-
firmed. Surface crusts can be observed directly (Evans & Buol, 1968).
Microscopy gives information about the form and location of chem-
ical elements in the soil (Brewer, 1973). It provides a direct look at the
interior arrangement of the soil-the location and condition of the sand,
silt, and clay, and the distribution and character of the secondary min-
erals. Such information is a helpful adjunct to classification and mapping
of soils and to the development of improved systems that will serve more
accurately to extend the knowledge on specific areas to other areas having
similar properties (Wilding & Flach, 1985).
8-5 GLOSSARY OF MICROMORPHOLOGY TERMS
Agglomeroplasmic fabric-The plasma occurs as discontinuous or incom-

plete fillings in the intergranular spaces between skeleton grains.
Alban-a cutan composed of materials that have been strongly reduced.
Apedal-Applied to soil materials without peds.
Argillan-A cutan composed dominantly of clay minerals.
Asepic fabric-Plasmic fabrics that have dominantly anisotropic plasma
with anisotropic domains that are unoriented with regard to each
other; they have a flecked extinction pattern and no plasma separ-
ations.
Calcan-A cutan composed of carbonates.
Chambers-Vesicles or vughs connected by a channel or channels.
Channel-A tubular-shaped void.
Concretion (micromorphological). A glaebule with a generally concentric
fabric about a center which may be a point, line, or plane.
Craze plane-Planar voids with a highly complex conformation of the
walls due to interconnection of numerous short planes.
Cutan-A modification of the texture, structure, or fabric at natural sur-
faces in soil materials due to concentration of particular soil con-
stituents or in situ modification of the plasma.
Fecal pellets-The excreta of fauna.
Ferran-A cutan composed of a concentration of iron oxides.
Ferri-argillan-A cutan composed of intimately mixed clay minerals and

iron oxides.
Granular fabric-There is no plasma, or all the plasma occurs as pedo-
logical features.
Glaebule-A three-dimensional pedogenic feature within the s-matrix of
soil material that is approximately prolate to equant in shape.
Gypsan-A cutan composed of gypsum.
Joint Planes-Planar voids that traverse soil in a regular parallel or sub-
parallel pattern.
Lithorelict-A pedological feature derived from the parent rocks; usually
recognized by their rock structure and fabric.
Mangan-A cutan containing enough manganese to effervesce upon ap-
plication of H 20 2 •
Matran-A cutan that contains s-matrix skeletal grains within the plasma
concentration.
Nodules-Glaebules with an undifferentiated fabric; in this context un-
differentiated fabric includes recognizable rock and soil fabrics.
Organan-A cutan composed of a concentration of organic matter.
Packing voids (simple). Voids formed by the random packing of single
skeletal grains.
Packing voids (compound). Voids formed by the random packing of peds
that do not accommodate each other.
Papules-Glaebules composed dominantly of clay minerals with contin-
uous and/or lamellar fabric and sharp external boundaries.
Pedal-Applied to soil materials, most of which consist of peds.
PedologicalJeatures-Recognizable units within a soil material which are
distinguishable from the enclosing material for any reason such as
origin (deposition as an entity), differences in concentration of some
fraction of the plasma, or differences in arrangement of the constit-
uents (fabric).
Phytoliths-Inorganic bodies derived from replacement of plant cells; they
are usually opaline.
Plasma-That part of the soil material that is capable of being or has
been moved, reorganized, and/or concentrated by the processes of
soil formation. It includes all the material, mineral or organic, of
colloidal size and relatively soluble material that is not contained in
the skeleton grains.
Plasma aggregate-Preferential alignment of individual plasma grains
into larger anisotropic domains that can be recognized in thin sec-
tions.
Plasma concentration-Concentration of any of the fractions of the plasma
in various parts of the soil material.
Plasma separation-Features characterized by significant change in ar-
rangement of the constituents rather than change in concentration
of some fraction of the plasma. For example, aligning of plasma
aggregates by stress at or near the surface of slickensides.
Porphyroskelic fabric-The plasma occurs as a dense groundmass in which

skeleton grains are set after the manner of phenocrysts in a por-
phyritic rock.
Primary fabric-The fabric within an apedal soil material or within the
primary peds in a pedal soil material; it is an integration of the
arrangement of all the pedological features enclosed in the s-matrix
and the basic fabric, or fabric of the s-matrix.
Rock nodules-Nodules with recognizable rock fabrics.
Sepic fabric-Plasmic fabrics with recognizable anisotropic domains that
have various patterns of preferred orientation; i.e., plasma separa-
tions with a striated extinction pattern are present.
Sesquan-A cutan composed of a concentration of sesquioxides.
Skeletan-A cutan composed of skeleton grains.
Skeleton grains-Individual grains that are relatively stable and not read-
ily translocated, concentrated or reorganized by soil-forming pro-
cesses; they include mineral grains and resistant siliceous and organic
bodies larger than colloidal size.
Skew planes-Planar voids that traverse the soil material in an irregular
manner and are formed mostly by soil desiccation.
S-matrix (of a soil material)-The material within the simplest peds, or
composing apedal soil materials, in which the pedological features
occur; it consists of the plasma, skeleton grains, and voids that do
not occur as pedological features other than those expressed by spe-
cific extinction (orientation) patterns. Pedological features also have
an internal s-matrix.
Unaccommodated-Applied to peds. Virtually none of the faces of ad-
joining peds are moulds of each other.
Vesicles-Relatively large, smooth-walled, regular vughs.
Vughs-Relatively large voids, usually irregular and not normally inter-
connected with other voids of comparable size; at the magnifications
at which they are recognized they appear as discrete entities.
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Published 1986

8 Petrographic Microscope Techniques

L. P. WILDING AND L. R. DREES

8-1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION

The microscope was first used in soil studies to make an inventory of

8-2.2 Heavy-liquid Separations

Heavy minerals are often indicative of provenance, weatheimg in-

exhibit a wide range in weatherability and mineralogy, but commonly

8-2.3 Slide Preparation

With a microspatula, enough sample is taken so that an area about

8-2.4 Grain Analyses

8-2.4.1 GENERAL PROCEDURE

many minerals. Cleavage may be reflected in the external form of the

lowering of refractive index, and distortion of extinction and interference

Garnet grains are irregularly shaped and equidimensional. They are

procedures. Magnetic separations will help confirm the presence of mag-

8-2.4.3 MICROCRYSTALLINE AGGREGATES AND AMORPHOUS

8-3 THIN SECTIONS

"A crushed or pulverized soil is related to the soil formed by nature

SCALE OF OBSERV AllON

Pedon Hand Light SEM TEM

VISUAL LIGHT SUBMICROSCOPY

hand lens, to steroscopic microscopy (Fig. 8-1). The microscopist should

microfabric descriptions. It is more complete and systematic than ter-

Samples may be natural clods, cores, or any other blocks or units of

diluted with monomeric styrene or acetone to lower their viscosity and

8-3.4 Cutting and Finishing

Ifthe sample can be successfully impregnated, the rest ofthe process

that used by geologists for preparing rock sections. A complete set of

preferred mounting medium. Several commercial epoxies are especially

number of sections can be made from any sample at a variety of ori-

8-3.5 Observations and Interpretations

8-3.5.1 UNITS OF ORGANIZATION, DESCRIPTION, AND ANALYSIS

of the components. The methods and types of samples supplement each

rhombohedral forms. Further, they readily react to acids. Gypsum may

smoothed by plasma concentration coatings or pressure rearrangement

Clay aggregates can also become rearranged by pressure applied differ-

alternate layers of mineralogically and/or chemically different substances

8-3.5.1.2.3 Organic Matter

Optical petrography may be useful in investigating the origin of soil

rock sources; hence, overlays and unconformities may be suspected from

Petrographic studies may aid in understanding the development of

8-5 GLOSSARY OF MICROMORPHOLOGY TERMS

Agglomeroplasmic fabric-The plasma occurs as discontinuous or incom-

Ferri-argillan-A cutan composed of intimately mixed clay minerals and

Porphyroskelic fabric-The plasma occurs as a dense groundmass in which

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