RT201B – Research Theory

Welcome to Research
Theory
Click to edit Master title style
 What are we doing this Semester?
• Week 1: Research as a discipline –Study Guide Unit 1

• Week 2: Research ethics and academic integrity – Study Guide

Unit 2

• Week 3: Finding and evaluating research information and

articles – Study Guide Unit 3

• Week 4: Set up and frame a study – Study Guide Unit 4

• Week 5: Assignment 1 submission – Multiple choice questions

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 • Week 6: The literature review – Study Guide Unit 5

• Week 7: Research methodology: Qualitative and

quantitative research approaches and assumptions – Study
Guide Unit 6

• Week 8: Qualitative research: Designs and data collection

– Study Guide Unit 7

• Week 9: Qualitative analysis: Data analysis and reporting –

Study Guide Unit 8

• Week 10: Assignment 2 Submission – Essay-type questions

– Units 1 – 12

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• Week 11: Quantitative research: Designs and data collection –
Study Guide Unit 9

• Week 12: Quantitative research: Data analysis and reporting -

Study Guide Unit 10

• Week 13: Management of the research process - Study Guide

Unit 11

• Week 14: Apply the principles of aesthetic report presentation

– Study Guide Units 12

• Week 15 - Revision week

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Recommended Textbook
• RT201B Research Theory Marketing Research
ISBN: 9781485129240
eISBN: 9781485129257
Wiid, J.A. & Diggines, C.N. (Eds) Juta 4th 2021

-Chapter 6, pp. 87 – 97
-Chapter 10

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Study Resources
• eLibrary: Textbooks
• Articles under ‘Additional Study Materials’ on
module website
• Study Guide
• Sources you are referred to in the Study Guide
• eDiscussion Forum

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RECAP

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 •

Research methodology:
qualitative and quantitative
STUDY research approaches and
assumptions
UNIT 6
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 • Differentiate between qualitative and quantitative
research principles
• Categorise and explain the different headings in a
methodology chapter
• Use the different types of questions appropriately in a
research context
• Identify an appropriate sampling methodology for a
study
• Decide whether the study will collect primary or
Study Unit 6 secondary data
Outcomes
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 Video: Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research: The
Differences Explained
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a-XtVF7Bofg

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 • There are two types of research methods,
• Qualitative and
• Quantitative research
• The choice of a qualitative or quantitative approach to
the study depends on
• how you have phrased your research questions
• what data you need in order to answer them.

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 • The choice of approach depends on what you want to
find out in the study;
• If you want to look for
• causality,
• generalisations,
• test a theory or idea
• to establish statistical proof of something
• collect numerical data

a quantitative approach to the study.

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 • If you want to explore a phenomenon that is
• not well known in general
• not well known in your particular context or situation
• prefer to interview a small number of people who are very
knowledgeable about your topic (experts) in depth,

you would do qualitative research.

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 • Proposes hypotheses or propositions that are not
generalisable themselves but are more a tentative
suggestion of a possible answer to a research question
or hypothesis.
• At the end of a qualitative study, the proposition or
hypothesis should be statistically testable by someone
else to see if it is generalisable or needs to be revised
in some way.

Qualitative
research
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 • Qualitative research is about rich, detailed exploration,
understanding and insight, rather than measurement.
• It tends to be sensitive to the wider context in which it
is conducted
• collecting data that is non-numerical
• seeking people’s experiences
• motivations
• interpretations,
• attitudes and
•
Qualitative •
meanings about phenomena.
more flexible than quantitative research but must still be
research approached systematically and rigorously.

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 • Qualitative research and quantitative research are
thus complementary;
• Qualitative research builds and proposes theories or
findings
• Quantitative research tests them.
• they are simply used for different purposes, and both
purposes are required.

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 Figure B.6.1 The essence of the complementarity between qualitative and quantitative research approaches

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Qualitative data = words, images, artifacts, behaviours

a) Stories – written or spoken Quantitative

b) Reflective diaries, biographies data =
numbers
c) Social media postings, blogs
d) Advertisements and other media texts
e) Interview and focus group transcripts
f) Company documents, minutes, communications
g) Public documents, archives, records
h) Artifacts, eg artworks, photographs, images
i) Actions, eg behaviours, body language, gestures
j) Delphi technique - used for consensus
 • Qualitative research is usually subjective but should
not be regarded as inherently biased.
• This might sound contradictory and is the subject of a
great deal of misunderstanding about qualitative
research but the distinction is crucial, lest qualitative
research be classified as unworthy because of
perceived bias (Kumar 2019, p. 38).
• Does not produce generalisable findings but
• constructs theoretical propositions,
Characteristics • hypotheses or
• conclusions by drawing on the expertise of a small number
of Qualitative of carefully selected individuals who are very experienced
research and knowledgeable about the specific topic.

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 • Examples of qualitative study topics
• Flexibility in management: How to improve decision-making
as a manager
• Ways to influence the eating habits of children
• The effects of digital marketing on modern businesses

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 Therefore, the findings of qualitative studies are the
starting point of many quantitative studies when
statisticians test the findings of the qualitative
research…

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 • Takes an objective route and collects numerical data to
test theories and ideas.
• Quantitative studies are constructed to gather data
from large samples representative of a defined
population, with the intent of generalising the
findings.
• Quantitative research attempts the precise
measurement of something.
• Business research based on quantitative methods
usually seeks to measure consumer behaviour,
Characteristics knowledge, or attitudes.
of Quantitative • Quantitative methodologies seek to answer questions
related to how much, how often, how many, when,
research and who.

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 • Examples of quantitative studies could be used to
answer questions like
• Is there a market for your products and services?
• How much market awareness is there of your product or
service?
• How many people are interested in buying your product or
service?

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 Population
• a group (of persons, institutions, events, phenomena) or
other subjects of study that one wants to describe or about
which one wants to generalise" (Vogt & Johnson 2011, p.
293).
• described in terms of its specific characteristics so that
members can be clearly identified and either included or
excluded as part of the sample.

Sections of
the
methodology
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 Sample
• a smaller part of the population selected for study
• sample is expected to reveal important information about
the larger group.

• In the case of quantitative research, the sample should

ideally be randomly selected for the findings to be
generalisable to the population.
• The sample size is calculated to ensure representivity, e.g.
with the Raosoft sample size calculator

Sample

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 • In qualitative research, the sample is selected
purposively according to specific criteria
• Characteristics, qualifications, experience, and expertise in
the research topic.
• A great deal of data should be collected from the qualitative
sample, so the volume of data collected is substantial even
though the sample size may be small.

‘Sample’ in a
qualitative
study

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 • Sampling is the process by which units of analysis (e.g.
people, data sources) are selected from the
population.
• For quantitative research,
• the sample is usually selected randomly to increase the
chance of representivity and generalisation.
• For qualitative research,
• the sample is selected purposively using specific inclusion
and exclusion criteria.

Sampling
method
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 Qualitative sampling strategies are PURPOSIVE or non-random; there are
several different approaches:
Strategy Description
Convenience People available and willing to participate at the time

Criterion sampling Selection on the basis that certain criteria are met
Typical case Average or normal case of the study phenomenon
Homogenous Similar characteristics or attributes across the sample group
Maximum variation Wide range selected to exemplify complexity
Deviant / extreme case Atypical case, very little known, an outlier

Critical case A specific event, provides compelling insight into a phenomenon

Snowball Participants are asked to recommend others like themselves

Quota Ensures a spread according to specified criteria

Miles and Huberman, 1994

Koeber & McMichael 2008 Qualitative sampling methods
 • The actual data collection instrument (e.g. questionnaire,
interview guide, mathematical model, conjoint
questionnaire) that will be used for the study should be
described.
• Indicate how each section contributes to answering a
specific research question in your research.
• All research questions should be answered by the data
gathered with the instruments.
• If it is a standard instrument that has been previously
published or used before; reference it, justify its selection
and discuss its advantages and shortcomings as they relate
to your use of it.
Data • Create the actual instrument to be derived from the
literature review/prior research and place it in an
collection Appendix.
instrument
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 • Nominal data is collected in qualitative studies
• eg. male/female, nationality, hair colour
• Interval and ratio data are distinctly quantitative.
• Commonly known as scaled variables. They’re often
expressed as a unit, such as degrees, age, weight.
• Ordinal data are like Likert scales and superficially look
as though they are numerical, but in fact, the intervals
between each point on the scale are not absolute, so
Likert data are not truly numerical, although they are
often treated numerically.
Data • This happens because the Likert scale labels are often
labelled numerically, creating an incorrect impression.
collection
information
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 • Example of a Likert scale

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 • Describe how you will analyse your data;
• Each dataset may require a different analysis
• Justify the selection of that analytic method
• Reference the methodological sources and describe or
explain how these methods will be applied in your
own analysis.
• For example, content analysis (for qualitative research),
descriptive or inferential statistics, conjoint-/ chi-square- /
cluster- / ANOVA analysis, correlation- / regression analysis
(for quanitative research)

Data
analysis
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 • Identify and anticipate potential methodological
constraints to the interpretation of your study
• Often related to sampling factors or analysis methods.
• Describe the implications of these limitations, e.g.
• qualitative research has a limitation of not being
generalisable
• quantitative research does not seek subtle nuances in data
and that it does not account for the effects of context

Limitations
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 • Refers to the quality, accuracy, intersubjective
agreement or truth value of or about an object of
discussion,
• e.g. a measurement instrument, a research design, an
inference, a claim or a conclusion (Vogt & Johnson 2011, p.
415).
• When evaluating published research, validity refers to
the degree to which the researchers gathered data
appropriate for answering their research questions
and how believable their results, findings and
Quality of conclusions are.
research:
Validity
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 • The consistency of research results; if the study were
repeated or redone by different researchers, would
the findings be sufficiently similar to confirm the
original results?

Quality of
research:
Reliability
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 Quantitative & Qualitative rigour equivalents
Construct Quantitative Qualitative term Meaning
term
Truth value External validity - Transferability Useful in similar contexts
generalisability
Applicability Internal validity Credibility Does it ring true?
Consistency Reliability Dependability Replicability in similar contexts /
similar participants
Neutrality Objectivity Confirmability Findings are a result of the inquiry
not researcher bias

Validity = instrument measures what it is meant to measure

Reliability = accuracy and repeatability of measuring instrument
Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry (Vol. 75). California: Sage
Morse, J. M. (2015). Critical analysis of strategies for determining rigor in qualitative inquiry. Qualitative Health Research, 25(9), 1212-1222
Tracy, S. J. (2010). Qualitative quality: Eight “big-tent” criteria for excellent qualitative research. Qualitative Inquiry, 16(10), 837-851
**Anderson, V. (2017). Criteria for evaluating qualitative research. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 28(2), 125-133.
 • Open questions are appropriate for qualitative
research (big answers)
• Closed questions (small answers) are appropriate for
quantitative research.

• Qualitative research asks ‘how and why’

questions and ’the ways in which’, ‘perceptions of...’
i.e. open questions that have lengthy, complex, rich,
detailed and nuanced answers.
• Quantitative research asks questions seeking ‘what’,
Types of ‘whether’, ‘the extent’, ‘amount’, usually short and
precise answers like ‘yes or no’, or ‘X%’ etc.
questions
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 TYPES OF QUESTIONS

OPEN CLOSED LEADING

Can never be answered Often answered with yes Always answered with
with yes or no or no yes or no

Answer could be almost Answer off a limited list, The answer is

anything e.g. colours, numbers suggested in the
question

Encourage conversation Discourage conversation Manipulative

Free to reply One / few word answers Do not need an answer

Lengthy, detailed reply Brief reply An attempt to force

Types of agreement to your

personal opinion

questions
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 Open Closed Leading

You do not have to

Have to think deeply to think much to answer
answer

Uses questions Uses questions

words/phrases such words/phrases such
as: In which way, why, as: Which, who,
what, how do you, when, what, how
please tell me about . . many, will you, do
.? you, won’t you,
are you, aren’t you?
Did you? Whether or
not?
Seeks feelings, Seeks facts and

Types of opinions, perceptions,

beliefs, values,
experiences
either/or answers

questions Non-threatening
(except why)
Can be offensive if too
direct
Can be threatening - in
a corner

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 • Primary research
• original research conducted by a researcher where they
design the study and collect the data themselves, so they
are in control of all aspects of the research undertaking,
including the interpretation of the findings.
• The original analysis of the collected data is referred to as
the primary analysis.
• If someone else takes this raw data and analyses it, that is
referred to as a secondary analysis. The secondary analysis
of existing data is quite common in many business
disciplines.

Primary
Research
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 • Secondary research,
• When a researcher uses data that has been collected by
someone else or another institution or body (second-hand
data) and makes the data available for others to interpret,
even though it was collected for some other purpose.
• Sometimes this data is made available in databases
purchased by libraries, health institutions and financial
institutions. A great deal of secondary data already exists in
client organisations, and this can be accessed for research
purposes.
• Secondary data is used extensively in business, marketing,
and supply-chain consulting research.
Secondary
Research
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 • Examples of secondary data
• Sales invoices
• Quarterly sales report
• Customer letters
• Past marketing research studies

Read on external sources of secondary data source

Secondary
Research
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 • Check whether the work is current:
• When was the work done? How long ago?
• Does it make use of or rely on outdated ideas, figures and
so on? Has it been overtaken by recent
discoveries/changes?

Evaluation
of
Secondary
data
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 • Check the validity, reliability and accuracy of the research
• What was the research design? Was it appropriate to produce
valid and reliable evidence in answer to the research question?
• What sampling procedure was used? Was it appropriate for the
aims of the research?
• What was the sample size and the size of any sub-samples
reported? Are they robust enough for any claims that are made?
• What method(s) of data collection were used? Was it
appropriate?
Evaluation • What was the response rate? Is it large enough to ensure a
representative sample? How good was the design of the
of questionnaire or discussion guide?
• How accurate is the data?
Secondary • What quality standards were employed in the research process?

data
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 Video: How to Write a Research Methodology in 4 Steps
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yplWZs3dqNQ&t=
106s

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 QUESTIONS

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 Read on qualitative research
designs
HOMEWORK

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 Qualitative research: designs and
data collection
Next Topic

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 THANK YOU

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