UNIT V)

CHAPTER

14
social Science
Research
Cacial science research refers to the activity of gathering, analysing and
teroreting the information. Research process involves research design,
caurce methods and tools for data collection. Consequently, collected
ita is processed and interpreted to accept or reject the hypothesis.

Research of toward
Research refers to systematic and critical investigation phenomenon
increasing the existing fund of knowledge
or to create a new knowledge. Research
for clarifying the
Seeks to find out explanations of unexplained phenomenon
The search of facts can be made
doubtYul propositions and solutions of problems.
method or scientific method.
eitherthrough arbitrary (unscientific) I n this Chapter
FIDItrary method of seeking answer to questions is based on imagination, blind
DEIet or impression. It is vague and inaccurate. Scientific method is a systematic Research
and arrives at conclusions Social Science and Social
tauonal
On
approach to seeking facts. It is objective, precise
the basis of verifiable evidences. Thus, research is a systematic and logical study of Work Research
15ue or phenomenon through scientific methods. .Steps in Social Science Research
- ldentification and Formulations

|Definitions of Research of Research Problem

- Definition and Statement
n g definitions may reveal the proper meaning of the concept of research of the Problem
Ccording to Black and Champion, "Scientific research consists of obtaining - Literature Review

be used for systematic

Tmation through empirical observation that can Objectives and Hypothesis
to establish casual Formulation
cvelopment of logically related propositions attempting - Research Design
Telations among variables.
empirical
controlled, and Sample Design
Ording to Kerlinger, "Research is a systematic, natural - Sources, Methods and Tools

Cal investigation of hypothetical relations among phenomena. of Data Collection

and carried out to provide - Presentation of Data
rding to Emory, "Any organised inquiry designed
ormation for solving a problem.
-

Writing Research Reports

 Social Work (pa
276 UGC NET Tutor (Paper
A community organiser Wants to
krnow the vie.
According to L V Redman and A VH Mory, "Research decision ofth
before he takes a to
is a systematic effort to
gain new knowledge." community
programme/objectives.
change th
The above definitions reveal the
following characteristics o A director of special
school for mentally retarded o
research
Research is a systematic and critical investigation to a
wants to know whether group therapy is as effect.
of
hildke
individual therapy in increasing adaptability
phenomenon.
I t aims
retarded children. mentaly
interpreting and explaining a phenomenon.
at A Social work administrator is concerned
I t adopts of implementation of new u
scientific method. effectiveness
progran
I t is based on
empirical evidences and observable launched.
experience.
It Definitions of Social Work Research
develops generalisations, principles or theories.
I t is directed towards It may be defined as systematic investigation into.
finding an answer to the questions problems in the field of social work. The study of conce he
and solutions to the
problems. principles, theories underlying social work methods
and
Social Science and Social skills are the major areas of social work research. It inve."
the study of the relationship of social workers with th
Work Research clients, individuals, groups or communities on various le
Social work research is the of interaction or therapy as well as their atural
application of research methods
solve problems that social workers confront in the
to relationships and functioning with the organisationat
practice of social work. The information of social work structure of social agencies. It concerns itself with the
research that can be taken into consideration by social problems faced by social workers which utilises the same
workers prior to making decisions, that affects their clients, scientific methods and techniques, as does social
programmes or agencies such as use of alternative
research
Some definitions of social work research are given below
intervention techniques or change or modification of
programme/client/objectives and so on. According to Webster, "Social work research is a studious
enquiry, usually critical and exhaustive investigation or
Social work research offers an opportunity for all social
experimentation having for its aim the revision of
workers to make a difference or modification in their
accepted conclusions in the light of newly accepted facts"
practice. The social work research seeks to accomplish the
same humanistic goals. Social work research deals with According to Genevieve W Carter, "Social work researth
is the
those methods and issues, which are useful in evaluating systematic, critical investigation of questions in the
social welfare field with the
social work programme and practice. purpose of yielding answers to
In a very broad sense, social work research is the
problems of social work and of extending and generalising
application social work knowledge and
concepts."
of research methods to solve problems that social workers
confront in the practice of social work. It provides According to Macdonald, "Research in social work may
be undertaken to
information that can be taken into consideration by social encompass those questions which art
encountered in social work in
workers prior to making-decisions that affect their clients, practice
administer social work services which are soluble
or
planning o
programmes or agencies such as use of alternative
research and which are
throu
intervention techniques or change or modification of
under social work
appropriate investigatio
for
programme/client/objective and so forth. auspices."
Social work research methods and techniques which call for Nature of Social Work Research
the application by some of the situations are as follows The social work research
begins with the em
practical probie
A social case worker is interested in and its
assessing the nature objective is to produce knowledge that can be put to
and extent of the problem of his/her client, who has been use in
facing marital maladjustment.
planningor
carrying on social work progran
may be defined as a
systematic investigation intenuc
to

A group worker wishes to assess the extent to which the add to available knowledge in a form that is icable
technique of role play is more or less effective than group and verifiable. Social commurna
work may lean upon the basic scien
discussion in increasing knowledge of drug abuse in the sense that the P u

among to use in
body or bodies of knowledge that
school going children.
practice, is derived in partsfrom the basic scien
 ncialScience Research
277
he Featres of Scial Work Research
The important featn
features of social work research Scope of Social Work Research
are as The base of social work profession is scientific that consists of
follows:

a
special body knowledge i.e. tested knowledge, hypothetical
Social work research
is an
applied research, which is knowledge and assumptive knowledge. It has significant role
derived from the
practice of social work
and contributes in
to it. transforming the hypothetical
and assumptive knowledge
to tested knowledge. It studies to establish,
I t may be addressed to
problems of
identify and
generality.
varying degrees of measure the need for service. It measures the services offered
e
been well said that
as
they relate to the needs. It tests, gauges and evaluates
I t has results of social work intervention. It lists the efficacy of
'information is inert
nowledge. The point at which basic research specific techniques of offering services. It also studies in
operational research begins is indistinct. ends and
methodology of social work.
The function of social work
research is to Social work is a diverse profession and its possible broad
seful knowledge, the function may be produce research areas might be
sequentially. discharged
The function of social work
Community development
research may be conceived Community health (including mental health)
to include production of
knowledge of different sorts. Child welfare
S
.Womenwelfare
process of Social Work Research Youth welfare Aged welfare
Social work research starts with problem identification Welfare of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes
groups
and setting up of goals. This is followed by the process of Poverty alleviation
assessment of the clients' problems. After the problem is Physical and mental disabilities
identified and needs are assessed, the next step is to set up Disaster management
goals to be achieved. The goals are required to be specific,
precisely defined andmeasurable in some way. Management of social welfare department and organisation
r
The third step in the process is to have a pre-intervention Juvenile delinquency
Issues concerning advocacy and networking
measurement, that is measurement prior to intervention.
The pre-intervention measurement is used as basis from Although, this list is not exhaustive, it's only an exemplary list
which to compare the client's condition after the which enlists broad areas which is
very frequently studied by
intervention has been introduced. Next stage is to social workers. It
might deal with characteristics of a larger
ntroduce intervention. population and the services available to them.
t is important here to note that only a single, coherent Objectives of Social Work Research
ntervention should be applied during any intervention
phase. In the last stage, assess the effects of intervention The objectives of contemporary social work as a context for
Dy comparing the two measurements that is pre thinking about the role of research as follows
tervention measurement and measurements after It outlines how research can be seen to
have contributed to
intervention. the enterprise and
might do so in the future.
I t provides an
Identification essentially mediating role between those
of Problem who were excluded and the mainstream of
which it has fulfilled in different
society, a role
ways in the cultures and
Inferences Need societies through its history.
Assessment I t aims to present a client in
objective terms, but also had a
built in belief in the fundamental
good in humanity.
I t produces a picture of the individual
Selection of Social which was both
Post-Intervention Work Research Design subjective and social and where the use of the professional
Measurement
Pre-Intervention
relationship provided the key mechanism to help
individuals be integrated
back into the mainstream of the
Measurement
Intervention society.
I t seeks to accomplish the
Process of Social Work Research same humanistic goals, as does a
social work method.
 Social Work ( .
UGC NET Tutor. paper h
278 problem is to:
research

The purpose of a
research and illustrates
solution to a problem
lt explains the methodology of social a r r i v e at dependable
and theory der.
its applications in social work setting
It is concerned with the micro-level practice such
as working
m a k e useful
generalisations
sis formation.
into the hypothesis
ment
provide insight choice of resear
direction tor the
with individuals, groups or a community.
is based on inductive reasoning carries us
from provide the
wiseful choice of statistical or
desig.\
It
observation to theory through intervention/assessment. help in
methods of interpretations. elevam
I t seeks to providethe knowledge that social
practical
workers need to solve the problems they confront. of ldentifying
tion
Social Work research seeks to give the field the information
Procedure
Problem Situation
it needs to alleviate human suffering and promote social
The identification of problem situation lowst
welfare. efforts o n the part of a resen
following procedural searcher
The understanding of the
known theories, facta
researcher's interest stu
ideas in the field of ructure
domain.
Steps in Social Science his/her problem searching
.A problem situation of research may emerge from th
Research researcher's curiosity about something shared, se.n
felt or wondered about or through the natural intere
A social science research is a systematic procedure to seek
of a researcher.
explanation to unexplained social phenomenon and to clariky
the doubtful and misconceived facts. A social science research Life situations, relationships established by related
involves the following steps: researchers and implications advanced bytechnologic
Identification and formulation ofresearch problem advancements constitute the problem situation.
New knowledge in the field of researcher's interes
Literature Review
Objectives and Hypothesis Formulation coming through the new arrivals of books, journalsand
Research Design researches extend a situation for research.
A survey of suggestions for further research at theend
Sample Design of research reports and reviews of research
Sources, Methods and Tools of Data Collection projects,
the gaps which are there in a particular field ofsocal
Processing of Data research are helpful in identifying the research
Analysis of Data problems.
Writing research reports
Through problem formulation, the researcher strives to
Identification and Formulation obtain clear and specific understanding of the problem
as

of Research Problem
as
possible, using various assessment methods and
The first and foremost step of a social science research is to
techniques, such as interviewing the individual, his per
group and family members, case history, etc.
formulate a research problem. To provide a solution for a
problem, it is necessary to have knowledge about the problem. Sources for Formulatinga
The two issues involved in formulation of
research problem
are:
Research Problem
Understanding of the problem. Sources for
Rephrasing the problem into meaningful terms from formulating a research problem are
analytical point of view. Theory It is a set of
generalisations
urrived at by careful
Kerlinger (1993), stated three basic criteria of research analysed and studied phenomenon. The inferences hich
are drawn from
problem as theories help the researcher idenuy
in
I t should express the research area. The principles that.
variables.
a
relationship between two or more derived from applicat
theories extend an authentic na
The problem should be stated formulate the research grou
clearly and unambiguously in problem.
question form.
Statement of a
Experience The
personal experience whicn
researche

gains, help him/her

problem must be such to imply possibilities
of empirical testing. field of research.
with an
nddenttien8
in
The
developing
experiences
deen

equip
e the researd
che
th

Hence, a research problem which does not survive the above ability identify the problematuc
to ituations

salient features cannot be considered as useful and worth while. behaviours and issues for which are no
b l e aand demand
available solutions
a
thorough research o it.
 cial Science Research
279
is a
scussion It is very useful resource in the
DSearCh problem. Discussions
identification of be linked. Furthermore, the problem must be amenable for a
thers
rofessor: and other intellectual personswith researchers, study in a specified step or in a specified sequence in
Pn of thought process. It also
the newexpand
accordance with the well defined methodology.
horizon

allows the researcher to

intoclose contact with the crucial Empirical The research problem must take note of the
social work. The problem and issues
elated to researcher is helped with new aspects of real life situation so as to provide concrete data
demic inputsts to reflect and form the basis for research results.
upon problem situations and to
out ha suitable research
come
problem. Relation Between Variables The problem selected for study
Dissatisfaction While identifying research problem, a
a should express a relation between the variables contained in
eATcher goes through a
cycle of satisfaction and
the study. The problem under the study must be in a
lissatisfaction. Research 1s felt need of researcher. Need
a
a position to highlight the nature, extent and implications of
itselfleads to inadequacy and this inadequacy demand a
such relation existing among variables of the research. It is
of action through which that need is to be through this process of establishing effective relation
COu
fulfilled.
inadequacies and between variables that meaningful conclusions are
The
incompatibilities create
dissatisfaction within the researcher for which he she tries arrived at.
to identify the problem.
Verifiable Although, the results of research studies in social
Literature The review of literature sciences are difficult to reproduce, the research problem
helps the researcher to
PVDand his/her knowledge background, examine new findings should be undertaken with an intention to make it useful
in the field of study, identify gaps in knowledge, discover and replicable. It must lead to the development of other
contractions in findings and the need for fresh studies and investigations.
their direction.
Through various readings, a researcher comes
to know about the methodology of research, concept and Literature Review
theories related to field which may be useful in formulation of
Aliterature review surveys books, scholarly articles and any
a research problem.
other sources relevant to a particular issue, research area or
theory and by doing so, provides a description, summary
Definition and Statement and critical evaluation of these works in relation to the
ofthe Problem research problem being investigated. Literature reviews are
After the identification of a problem, the next step is to state designed to provide an overview of the sources while
or define it. It must be specified and narrowed down to a researching a particular topic and highlight the need for that
workable size. In the formal definition of the problem, the research in broad spectrum of the field of
study.
Tesearcher is required to describe the background of the Aliterature review may consist of simply a
summary of key
study, its theoretical basis and underlying assumptions and sources. However, a literature review in the field of social
state the problem in concrete, specific and workable
science research has an organisational
pattern and combines
questions. both summary and synthesis, often within
specific
Ato good statement of a problem must clarify exactly what is conceptual categories.
be determined or solved. The researcher should ensure
Literature review enables a researcher to reinvent the
that theit.statement is not too vague generalised while
or knowledge in his/her field of research. Furthermore, it
Framing The problem should be stated in such a way that also leads to development of research
t ndicates a relationship between two or more variables. It agumentation of research quality.
problem and
should neither involve philosophical issue, nor values or
The purpose of
literature review is to:
a
Jgemental questions that cannot be answered by
Scientific investigation. provide a contextual framework to work done in
understanding the research problem being studied.
Criteria of a Good Research Problem describe the relationship of each
Criteria of a good research problem is as follows: work to others under
consideration.
ear and Unambiguous There must be a perfect clarity in identify new ways to interpret prior research.
ne problem taken up for study. It should not give scope for reveal gaps in the
Diguous expressions and thus become confusing and existing. literature, if any.
resolve the conflicts amongst
vague. seemingly contradictory
previous studies.
gcal and Systematic The researcher must be able to locate the ongoing research within the context
aDIsh relationships in a logical manner and they should iterature.
of existing
 Social Work (Pa.
280 UGC NET Tutor aper
Sources of Literature Review Objectives and Hypothesis
Sources of literature review are: Formulation
with the
hypothes.
Primay Sources Primary sources of information inclhude
first hand accounts of experinmentation and investigation. It
The primary objective is coupled
research, primary research.
pothesis of the
study. In social science
includes articles in
professional journals, monograplhs, should be driven by the hypothesis rather than theStion
doctoral thesis, interviews, data.
questionnaires,
such as letter diaries, eye witness
works
original
accounts, autobiographies Identification of the Objectives
and reports like
proceedings of parliament, report of of the Study
governmental departments and agencies. research defino
social science
Study objective in nes t
Secondary Sources Secondary sources of information are aim of the study. Objectives are the
foundationea
summaries of infomation
specific of a
gathered from the research project. Objectives guide the entire proce
sources. These includ
primary of
translations, summaries, reviews of research.
research, abstracts, guide books and other
publications
containing factual information, commentaries and so on. The major attributes of well-ritten objectives are.
follows:
Tertiary Sources It includes textbooks these are called as
tertiary sources because Clarity ofExpression and Direction The objectives mus
they are compiled from secondary
sources.
Tertiary of information are useful in stated clear enough to indicate what the researcher is
sources
trying
providing an overview of broad summary of the field. to investigate. The overlap while stating the objectives mi
be avoided.
Steps to Conduct Literature Review Measurability The objectives must be stated in a manner
There is not one
way to conduct a literature review. A that they are measurable. In case of qualitative
research. it
literature review for a
proposal of research may be should be possible to codify the data and information
so
conducted in a systematic fashion.
Many scholars have that assessment can be made whether the
objectives have
followed a certain framework to review the literature which been achieved or not.
has been summarised
as:
Step 1 Identify the keywords which are useful in locating Comprehensiveness Since the objectives provide the
guiding
framework for a research project, the statement of
the materials (sources for literature review) in an objectives should be comprehensive enough to cover each
academic library. and every aspect of the research
Step 2 Using the identified keywords, the researcher should
study.
search the library catalogue for journals and books. Judiciousness One of the
important attribute is the
Step 3 Once the journals and books are located, a
judiciousness in and justifiability of choosing and stating
the objectives. For
researcher should try to identify the articles or is not a feasible
example,'recommending
future research
chapters which have potential to make a useful
objective'.
contribution to understanding of the literature. Hypothesis Formulation
Step 4 After identifying the useful literature, the researcher Hypothesis refers to a tentative and testable statement or
should begin to design the literature the possible relationship between two or moe
map.
Step 5 In the mean time, he/she should organise the events/variables under the
investigation.
literature into a literature map and include the In order to be useful in
study, the
hypothesis needs to to
precise references to the literature using an expressed in such a way that it might be subjected
appropriate style. empirical testing.
Step 6 After summarisation of the literature, the Definitions of
should assemble the review of literature,
researcher hypothesis are:
category According to
McGuigan (1990),
wise, theme wise and concept wise. testable statement of a potential "Hypothesis 15
It's worth mentioning that two or more relationship betwtion
to build on key points in the variables, i.e, advance
process of review of literature, a researcher should also to the problem." as
potential sor
consider the usefulness of
techniques in accessing the
literature quickly through the databases.
According to
Kerlinger (1973), "Hypothesis is
conjectural statement of the relation between two o
more variables."
 SociaScience Research
281
racteristicswillof a Good
Hypothesis This is called as directional
hypothesis because researcher
A good hypothesis meet some of the
criteria which predicated that the high vocabulary children would differ in
have been enumerated as:
I t should be conceptually clear
one
particular direction from the low vocabulary children.
Sometimes, researcher predicts only that the two groups will
It must testable.
be differ from each other but the researcher doesn't know which
It should be related to the group is higher, this is non-directional hypothesis.
existing body or
theory and
impact. Deductive Hypothesis is a
hypothesis derived from existing
t should have logcal unity
and theory and the empirical world is then explored and data are
.It should be capable of verification. comprehensiveness. collected, in order to test the hypothesis.
. It should be operatiornisable. Indective Hypothesis An inductive approach is where the
researcher begins with as few pre-conceptions as
Types of Hypothesis allowing theory to emerge from data.
possible,
There are following types of hypothesis:
Theory
Naull Hypothesis Null hypothesis is symbolised It is
Ho.
1seful tool in testing the significance of the difference.
as a Tentative Hypothesis
Null
HIDOthesis means that there is no true difference between PatternJ

rwo population means and the difference found Deductive Observation

means is
between
Sample accidental and
Out of fluctuation of
unimportant which arises Inductive Theory
sampling by chance. Traditionally,
null hypothesis means that there is zero
relationship Hypothesis
between terms of the hypothesis.

For example, there is no Observation

relationship between
and height. The null hypothesis is an intelligence Confirmation
component of the
important Steps in Deductive and Inductive Hypothesis
decision-making
methods of inferential
Statistics. If the difference between the Need for Formulation of
found significant, the researcher can
sample of means is Hypothesis
hypothesis. It indicates that the differences are due to
reject
the null After formation of
hypothesis and its testing through various
statistical tests, a researcher can either
chance. Null hypothesis should always be specific or accept
the
reject can
hypothesis. If the hypothesis is accepted then researcher
hypothesis, i.e. it should not state about the approximation either accept or reject the
of a certain value. hypothesis. When the hypothesis
is accepted, the researcher can
The null hypothesis is expressed as: if hypothesis is
replicate the results. However,
rejected then researcher can refine or modify
H HHV S Hv the results.
Here, the null hypothesis means that the By stating a
those children who have the
population of hypothesis,
the researcher narrows the focus of
data collection effort and is able to
less than or
high vocabulary (group I) is design a data collection
equal to mean of those who lack the vocabulary procedure which is aimed at testing the
group 2). plausibility of the
hypothesis as a
possible statement of the
relationship
between the terms of the research
Alternative Hypothesis Alternative hypothesises are those problem.
values which a researcher believes to hold true and the Procedure for the Formulation
TEsearcher hopes that the sample data will lead to of
acceptance of this hypothesis as true. The alternative Hypothesis
hypothesis is symbolised as H, or H Hypothesis plays a key role in formulating and guiding the
Ihe alternative hypothesis is stated as: study, The hypothesises are derived from earlier research
findings, existing theories and personal observations and
H, =HHv>PLv experiences.A researcher should consider
He the alternative hypothesis is that the mean of
ETe, while formulating a hypothesis : following points
opulation of those who have the vocabulary greater than Expected relationship or difference between
OSe who lack the vocabulary.
example, theIn this variables.
Operational definition of variable.
enative hypothesis is that the experimental population Hypothesis should be formulated following the review of
nad higher mean than controls. literature.
 Social Work (Pan
282 UGC NET Tutor Paper
may faulty.
be
The literature leads aresearcher to expect certain Sampling procedure
method.
I n a c c u r a t e data collection
relationship. Hypothesises are the statements which are
design selected faulty.
assumed to be true for the purpose of testing of its is
Study
Inappropriate statistical methods.
validity. As suggested by Russell and Reichenbach
(1947), the hypothesis should be stated in a logical form on are incorrect.
the general implications. A hypothesis can be put in the .Conclusionsdrawn
form of an if. .. then statement; if A is true then B common errors
which exist in testing a hypothesio
Two are
.

****°'*

should follow. Error rejection of a null hypothesis when it.isic true.

Type I
Testing of Hypothesis II Error Acceptance of a null hypothesis when .

Testing of hypothesis is an important step in research

Type itis
false.
process. The important steps in testing of a hypothesis are
asfollows Research Design
Step 1 State the Research Hypothesis (H,) There is a Research design is planning a strategy for conducting
significant difference between undergraduate and research. Research design is a detailed plan of how the goa
post-graduate students with regard to their of a research will be achieved. It constitutes the blueprinta
reading habits. the collection, measurement and analysis of data.
Step 2 Formulate the Null Hypothesis (H,) There is Three important functions of research as prescribed by
no
significant difference between undergraduate Black and Champion are as follows:
and post-graduate students with regard to their
reading habits. It provides the blue print for research.
It limits the boundaries of research activities.
Step 3 Choose a Statistical Test Let us suppose that we
have decided to use Chi-Square test (X*) for . I t enables the investigation to anticipate potend
testing the relationship between the variables problems.
considered in the research hypothesis. Thus, research design facilitates the smooth sailingo
Step 4 Specify a Significance Level Further, we research operations, thereby making research as efficient as
suppose that we would like to test our hypothesis possible yielding information with minimal expenditure of
at. 0.5 level of significance. effort, time and money.
Step 5 Compute the Statistical Test In this step, the
researcher has to cross-tabulate his/her data and Steps Involved in Research Design
compute Chi-Square Test. On computation of the Ahuja has provided seven steps involved in the process o
test, let us say that the testyieldeda value of research design as :
6.78, df =L Stating the Problem It shows the type of research it wll
Step 6 Reject/Accept the (H,) Since the calculated value and to what extent it will
contribute in expanding u
of Chi-Square is more than the critical value we academics and
reject the null hypothesis. understanding of society
Review of Other Studies It refers to
Draw the inference i.e. Accept/Reject (H,) We the process of gos
Step 7 through the findings, hypothesises or theories developeu y
accept the research hypothesis because the null other scholars in one's own
hypothesis has been rejected. Hence, we can infer discipline or other discipiu
that there is a significant difference between Operationalising
term used.
Concepts Giving specific meanings the

undergraduate and post-graduate students with

regard to their reading habits. Identifving Variables of the Study Pointing out key
variables in the study and methods of measureme
Errors in Testing of Hypothesis
Hypothesises are assumptions which might be correct or Fixing Samples Deciding the numbers
of subjects fror

incorrect. It is possible to arrive at a incorrected conclusion whom the data is to be jects a

to be choosen.
collected and how these sub
with respect to a hypothesis because:
 Science Research
goeialScr 283
S e i f i n g1 o o k
Study Whether data are to be
thronugh
tionnaires, schedules,
questio,
obtained Diagnostic Research Design Here a researcher wants to
envations. VWhethe
interviews
Whether it will be a case study, know about the root causes of the problem. He describes the
survey study, factors responsible for the problematic situation. It is a
study or
experimental
study.
problem solving research design that consists mainly:
T g n gt h e he Kind of nalysis Whether
quantitative Dr Emergence of the problem.
lysis.
a l i t a t i v ea n a h s i s

Diagnosis of the problem.

Chara
acteristicsof a Good Research Solution for the problem.
Suggestion for the solution of problem.
pesign
Experimental Research Design This type of research design
design
af
of research involves qualities, like being flexible,
rese

is often used in natural science but it is different in social

faable.applicab resourcefui reasonable, etc., then it can
as a good research design. A good research sciences. Human behaviour cannot be measured through
ined
a decrease bias and increases design test-tubes and microscopes. The social researcher uses a
aimst

dependability of the
cted and investigated. It also
method of experiment in that type of research design. One

intormation and allows

generates complete group is subjected to experiment called independent
chance to a
on reflect variable while other is considered as control group called
arent features. A research design appropriate many
for a
ite dependent variable. The result obtained by the comparison
rlar research problem, usually involves the of both the two groups. Both have the cause and effect
onsideration of the tollowing factors-
relationship between each other.
The means of obtaining information.
Cross Sectional Design The purpose of a cross sectional
The availability and skills of the researcher and his/her
research design is to examine variation across cases
stait. people, households or
(whether they might be
The objective of the problem to be studied.
organisations), usually in terms of range of variables of
The nature ofthe problem to be studied. interest to the researcher.
The availability oftime and money for the research work.
It aims to make quantitative measures on the topic ot
interest from a relatively large number of cases and at a
Types of Research Designs
single point of time.
There are different types of research designs depending on
the nature of the problem and objectives of the study. Longitudinal Design It is developed to measure change in
attitudes or behaviours by comparing data from studies
Following are the types of research design:
conducted at two (or more) points in time. A kev feature of
Eplanatory Research Design In explanatory research longitudinal designs is that they enable examination ot
design, a researcher uses his own imaginations and ideas. It social process and change and as such, allow the researcher
S based on the researcher's personal judgement and to gain insight as to the relationships between variables and
obtaining information about something. He is looking for in some cases, even to infer causality.
the unexplored situation and brings it to the eyes of the
Case Study Design It has a qualitative orientation which
Prople. In this type of research, there is no need of
involves intensive, detailed and in-depth research among a
hypothesis formulation. small sample of carefully selected cases or even of a
DEsriptive Research Design In descriptive research design, single çase,. The purpose of using a case study design is to
examine the intricacies and complexities of the situation (or
esearcher is interested in describing a particular situation setting or group) selected tor study in order to reveal its
Penomenon under his study. It is a theoretical type or
Carch design based on the collection, designing and most important teatures.
entation of the collected data. Descriptive research
covers the characteristics of people, materials, Sample Design
CConomics characteristics such as their age, education, A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample
narital status and
income, etc. from a given population. It refers to the technique or the
The
qualitative datais mostly collected through knowledge, procedure adopted by a researcher in selecting items for
attitude,
uchDeliefs and opinion of the people. Examples
of the sanple. Sample design may as well lay down the
number of items to be included in the sample i.e. the size of
Signs are the wspaper articles,
films, dramas
aocumentaries, etc. the sample, Sample design is determined before the data are
collected.
 UGC NET Tutor Social Work (Pan
284
(Paper n
are randon variations in
There are
manysample designs from which a researcher Sampling Error These
can choose. Some designs are relatively more estimates around the true population parameters amp
easier to apply
precise and and are equally likely to he
e, they
be in eithe
than others. Researcher must occur randomly
happens to be of compensato
select/prepare a sample design which is reliable and directions, their nature
atory
such errors haprene to ber nd
appropriate for the research. the expected value of
Sampling error can be
measured for a given sample desi
Features of a Good Sample Design measurement of sampling error is usualk an
size. The
de
Features of a good sample design are precision of the sampling plan. Sampling error
size.
I t should yield a truly with increase in sample
representative sample.
I t has a very small sampling error. size of sample data has ite
However, increasing the ts
I t must be liable with respect to funds available for limitations viz, a large sized sample increases the OWn
COst o
bias.
carrying out the research. collection of data and systematic
I t should be such so that
systematic be bias can
controlled in a better way. Sources, Methods and Tools
Sample should be such that the results of the sample of Data Collection
study can be applied to other studies as well.
Different types of methods and data collection toole
are
employed in collection of data. Data can be primary o
Types of Sample Designs
secondary data.
Sample designs can be categorised on the basis of
representation or element selection. Sources of Data
O n the representation basis, the sample may be Data can be defined as the qualitative or quantitative valus
probability sampling or non-probability sampling. of a variable. Data is thought to be the lowest unito
Probability sampling is based on the concept of random information from which other measurements and analysis a
selection, whereas non-probability sampling is be done. Data can be numbers, images, words, figures, facts or
non-random sampling ideas. Data in itself cannot be understood and to t
On the basis of element selection, the sample may be information from the data one must interpret it into
either restricted or unrestricted. When each sample meaningful information. There are two types of data sourtes
element is drawn individualy from the population at
i.e.primary data and secondary data.
large, then the sample so
drawn is known as
unrestricted sample', whereas all other forms of Primary Data
sampling are covered under the term 'restricted Primary data are the information collected by a researcher
sampling specifically for a research assignment. Primary data are
original in nature and directly related to the issue or problen
Representation Basis
Element and current data. Primary data is collected by researchet
Selection Non-Probability
Technique Probability Sampling through various methods, such as interviews, surves
Sampling
questionnaires, etc.
Unrestricted Simple random sanpling. Haphazard sampling or

Sampling convenience sampling. Advantages of Primary Data

Restricted Complex random Purposive sampling such The primary data are original and relevant to the toptc
Sampling sampling (such as cluster asquota sampling and the research study so that the degree of accuracy shouldr
sampling, systematic judgement sampling.
sampling, stratified very high.
sampling, etc.). Primary data can be collected through a number otwa
like, interviews, telephone, surveys, focus groups.
Sampling Bias and Sampling Error I t can also be collected across the national borders throu
Sampling Bias It results from errors in the sampling emails and posts. It can include a
large population and
procedures and it cannot be reduced by
or eliminated
geographical coverage.
The responsible for w to the
increasing the sample size. causes
Primary data is current and it can give a realistic vew
sampling, defective
these errors are inappropriate researcher about the topic under consideration.
measuring devices, non-respondents and natural biasness Reliability on primary data is very high because are

of respondents. collected by the concerned and reliable

party
SociaScience Research 285

pisadvantages of Primary Data

of
Observation
For collect on primary
data where interview is to be Observation is a complex research method because it
often
ducted the coverage is limited and
requires a large requires the researcher to play a number of
roles and to use a
number of researchers.
number of techniques.
Alot of time and etforts are consumed for data collection.
On the basis of his knowledge, skills and experiences, a
simary data may have design flaw such as with respect to the
Prim
researcher collects the data without contacting
esign of surveys. T he question must be kept simple and
desig respondents. The results of observation entirely depend on
easy to understand.
the talents of the researcher.
Sone respondents do not give timely responses.
This method is used by expert persons in the research.
Sametimes, the respondent may give fake, socially
acceptable answers and try to cover up the realities. Observation methods can overcome some of the criticisms
of quantitative research methods (validity, bias, etc.) and
, With more people, time and cost of data collection information or
can be useful when its subject can't provide
goes high. can only provide inaccurate information.
Secondary Data
Interview
Secondary data are the data which are collected by a third In this method, the interviewer personally meets the
narty ( other than the group involved in research) for some informants and askS necessary questions to them regarding
other purpose at a difterent time in the past. These may be the subject of enquiry. Usually, a set of questionnaire is
available in the form of ritten, typed or electronic forms. carried by him and questions are also asked according
A variery of secondary intormation sources is available to
to that.
the researcher gathering the data.
The interviewer sufficiently collects the data from the
Secondary data is also used for acquiring the initial informants by cross examining them. The interviewer must
insight into the research problem. Secondary data is be very efficient and tactful to get the accurate and relevant
clasified in terms of its source either internal or external. data from the informants. This method enables a researcher
Internal data is secondary data available within the to collect data from illiterate people too. The data so
organisation, whereas external data is obtained from outside gathered is reliable since, it has been obtained by cross
Sources.
examining the responders.
Advantages of Secondary Data Questionnaire
Collection of secondary data is cheaper and faster to
Questionnaire is a set of questions which is prepared to
access collect answers from respondents with respect to a relevant
Secondary data act as a guiding framework in pYoceeding research topics. A questionnaire is a series of questions
for the specific research. asked to individuals to obtain statistically useful
I t provides a way to access the work of other scholars. information about a given topic.
When
Disadvantages of Secondary Data properly constructed and responsibly administered,
questionnaire becomes a vital tool by which statements can
The data collected by third party may not be reliable. be made about a specific group or people or entire
Secondary data distort the results of the research
can
populations. Inappropriate questions, incorrect ordering of
significantly. questions incorrect scaling or bad questionnaire format can
Secondary data can also raise the issues of authenticity
make the survey valueless.
and copyright.
A good questionnaire serves the four basic purposes:
Methods and Tools of Data Collect the appropriate data.

Collection
Th are three primary methods of data collection, namely
Make data comparable and amenable to analysis.
Minimises the biasness in formulating and asking question.
ODservation, interview and questionnaires Makes the questions engaging and
varied.
 286
UGC NET Tutor Social Work (Pan.
ork (Paper
The data can be classified
on the basis of
Processing of Data Descriptive characteristics-eg.
sex, caste, etc,

The processing of data is an essential dimension of stream .Time, situation and

area specific characteristics
lining the facts and writing of a research report. as continuous or discrete.
Nature of data
Processing of Data
Presentation of Data
could be tabular, staticti.ical a
Processing of Presentation The presentation of data
of tabular form, data relat
Primary Data of Data cartographic. In case
different variables should
be classified and comn t
Various statistical techniques are available to deri
lerive he
Editing of Coding of Organisation
Data Data of Data
Classification
of Data
accurate precise results.
and

Since, techniques have large range coupled with

limitations of their own selection of appropriate techniae
he
Tabular Statistical needs to be made
for this purpose. Cartographir
Cartographic
Presentation Presentation Presentation the construction of graphs
involve
f Data
presentations
charts, diagrams and maps. The data is transformes
Diagrammatic
Presentation into cartographic system which is used for visul
of Data presentations. Furthermore, diagrammatic presentations are
also used to portray the processed data. Diagrams included
Processing of a Primary Data are both graphical as well as geometric in nature.
The primary data is collected from the field remains in the
raw form of statements,
digits and qualitative terms. The Analysis of Data
raw data contains error, omissions and inconsistencies. It
requires corrections after careful scrutinising of the Analysis of data employs various methods and proceses
Broadly, it can be categorised as qualitative data analysis
completed questionnaires.
and quantitative data analysis.
The following steps are involved in processing of primary
In qualitative data analysis, methods of analysis involve
data
identification of/common patterns within the responses
Step1 Editing of Data It is done in two stages:
which are collécted through interviews, focus groups
-

Field Editing Review of editing by investigator

experiments, etc. The data so obtained is critically analysed
to complete the abbreviated form during
for achieving the research.
interview of the respondent.
- Post Ficld Editing Review is done after the Data analysis for quantitative studies involves critical
analysis and interpretation of figures and numbers
completion of field survey or interview. and attempts to find rationale behind the
Step 2 Coding of Data It involves the assigning of the emergente
of main
findings. Comparison of primary research finding
alphabetical or numerical symbols to answers to the findings of the literature review are
which are mutually exclusive to each other. critically important
for both types of studies i.e. and
Coding is done to keep the limited alternatives. qualitative quantitative
Step 3 Organisation ofData The data information so
obtained in the study is organised in a master Writing Research Reports ndard
chart. The large chart contains all the relevant Research studies, when reported, follow certain stanuar
data. The information arranged in organisation of patterns, styles and formats for maintaining parnyyin
erned
data is in ascending or descending order which is reporting and for easy grasp by others who are concere
known as Array of Data'. with the ation
study. In writing a research report, its presernd
style of references and citation, appendices and
Step 4 Classification of Data The large data set is
grouped for similar details of the individual paraphrasing are important.
responses. The process of organising data into
groups and classes on the basis of certain
Presentation of Research Report
characteristics is known as classification of data. The entire research report is mainly divided into three nnajor
divisions, i.e.
beginning, main body and end.
 cocial Science Research
Socio
287

B e g i n n i n g

Review of the Literature The second chapter of a research

eginning of a report is crucial for the entire report consists of the review of important literature with
The
work. It
contains
the following items: respect to the problem under study. This includes the
Title Page Ihe title page carries a abstraction of earlier research studies and the theoretical
er
concise and
COtely descriptive title of the research study. articles and papers. It helps a researcher to formulate his/her
a0brieflv convey what the study is about. TheTheformat
title research problem and theoretical framework for the entire
nd shoitle
of the page follows the following downward
vertical
study. Also, it helps in formulating the broader assumptions
to about the factors/variables involved in the study.
order

Title
Design of the Research The design of the research is usually
described in the third chapter of the study. It provides a
description of the research methodology, variables, sample
Relationship of the report to a degree, or course
or and listing of the tools and techniques employed in the
organisational requirement.
study.
Analysis and Interpretation of Data This chapter includes
-

Name of the Researcher

the outcome of the whole report. The collected data are
Name of the
Supervisor presented in tabular form and analysed with the help of
statistical techniques. The tables are interpreted and if
necessary findings are presented graphically.
Name of the Institution
Main Findings and Conclusion This is the fifth chapter of a
Date of Submission
*** ***
research report. In this chapter, major findings are
presented in non-technical language so that even a non-
a

PrefacelAcknowledgement A preface should include the specialist can make sense out of them. The main findings
reasons why the topic was selected by the researcher. It may are followed by a discussion of the results/findings. The
explain the history, scope, methodology and the major findings are matched against the findings of other
researchers opinion about the study. related research works which have already been reviewed

The inner title page records the acknowledgement with through literature survey. Accordingly, the hypotheses are
accepted or rejected.
sincerity for the crucial help received from others to conduct
the study. The acknowledgement should be non-emotional Summary Some researchers include a summary along-with
the report as the last chapter. Summary is provided to sum
and simple.
up precisely the whole of the research report right from the
Table of Contents It indicates the logical division of the
theoretical background to the suggestions for further study.
Teport into various sections and sub-sections.
List of Tables The table of contents page is followed by the End
page containing a list of tables. The list contains exact title It includes the references and appendices which is found at
of each table, table number on which the table has the end of a research report.

appeared.
References
Glossary A short dictionary, explaining the
glossary is a
Articles. papers, books, monogràphs, etc., which are quoted
echnical terms and phrases used by author with special
inside the text should always accompany relevant
in alphabetical order.
Onnotation. These are arranged references. i.e. the author and the year of publication.
Besides, full reference should be placed in the reference
Main Bodyy sertion of the report. Reference styles are standardised rules
actual work done
ne main body of the report presents the It for presenting information about the sources used in a text.
Yan investigator or a researcher. has following
Iypically. a style will deseribe how to organise informationi
components: about author, publication year, title and page numbers.
Eroduction It constitutes the first chapter of a research There are many different ways to organise the references of
Cport. It introduces the topic or problem under a text. Some reference styles follow the author-year format,
VEstigation and its importance. The introductory chapter while others are based on footnotes and/or numerical
field of study, its
es the theoretical background of the references.
uicance, scope and limitations
of the investigations.
 Social Work(
UGC NET Tutor
288
There are mainly two style manuals detailing general form Referring Web-Based Documents
papern
and style for research reports. These internet is a rich source
are
day world, of
American Psychological Association, Publication
Manual, 3rd ed Washington, DC: American
In present
and professional knowledge.
World Wide Web (WWW) is the easiest and
Cademie
Psychological Association, 1983. mechanism on the Intermet.When
popularly used browsing
The Chicago Manual of Style, 13th rev. ed. Chicago a website is
accessed, the entire website (not a
University of Chicago Press, 1982. document o n the site), the
address of the site is
provide
specil
Style of Referencing and Citation the text. It is not necessary
to enter in the reference s n
For exampl ,http://www.webct.com/(This site
There are mainly two types of referencing as: tools for development of web-based courses). provides
(i) Arranging references in alphabetical order where the Citation of specific document on a website has a sini
researcher has cited the name of the author and year of format to that for print. The web information is given attthe
imila
publication/completion of the, work in the text. end of the reference section. The date of retrieval of the si
(ii) Arranging references in a sequence as they appear in ne ste
the text of the research report. In this case, related should be given because documentS on the web can chan
in content or they may be removed from a site. For examnis
statement in the body of the text is numbered. Duchier, D (1996), Hypertext, New York: Intellige
However, most research reports use alphabetical listing
Software Group. [Online] http://www.isg.sfu.ca/duchier/mi
of references. hypertext-review/chapter4.html [Accessed on 25/1/99.
For example, entries in a reference section may look
likethe following: Appendices
-

Gannicott, K and D (1994), Educational

Throsby, Usually, appendices are used to present the rawdata,the
Quality and Effective Schooling, UNESCO (Book), true copy of the tools used in the study, important
Paris. statistical analysis, calculations, photographs and chartsnot
-

Koul, BN, Singh, B and Ansari, MM (1988), used inside the text. These are ordered serially, ike
Studies in Distance Education, IGNOU and AU, Appendix-1, Appendix-2 or they can also be serialised with
New Delhi. capital letters (Appendix-A, Appendix-B, etc.). The
Some of the other used reference styles in academic writing appendices provide reference facilities to readers and others
who are interested in that particular field of investigation.
are:

Harvard Author-year, a general reference system used in Paraphrasing

many disciplines. Paraphrasing means retelling a passage of the original text
Modern Language Association (MLA) Author-page number, using one's own words and the sentence structures

widely used in linguistics and literature. However, the author of the original piece of text must also
be given reference for the same. Paraphrasing is widely used
It is worth mentioning here that different academic journals m
use different reference styles. If you are planning to publish in research papers and argumentative essays. It helps
changing the stylistic characteristics of a sources, so as
in a journal, the instructions for authors will normally
adapt in for the readers. Also, it helps in omision of
include information about referernce style.
unnecessary details.