foods

Article
Nanoliposome-Mediated Encapsulation of Chlorella
Oil for the Development of a Controlled-Release
Lipid-Lowering Formulation
Lanlan Tu 1,† , Jihao Zeng 1,† , Xue Bai 1 , Ziyun Wu 1 , Jinhong Wu 1, * and Shannan Xu 2, *

1 Department of Food Science and Engineering, School of Agriculture and Biology,

Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China; tull@gempharmatech.edu (L.T.);
1811091098@nbu.edu.cn (J.Z.); baixueff@sjtu.edu.cn (X.B.); wuziyun@sjtu.edu.cn (Z.W.)
2 South China Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences,
Guangzhou 510300, China
* Correspondence: wujinhong@sjtu.edu.cn (J.W.); xushannan@scsfri.ac.cn (S.X.);
Tel.: +86-021-3420-6613 (J.W.); +86-020-8910-8303 (S.X.)
† These authors contributed equally to this work.

Abstract: Chlorella oil nanoliposomes (CO-NLP) were synthesized through ultrasonic injection
with ethanol, and their physicochemical properties and hypolipidemic efficacy were systematically
investigated. The results revealed that the mean particle size of CO-NLP was 86.90 nm and the
encapsulation efficiency (EE) was 92.84%. Storage conditions at 4 ◦ C were conducive to the stability
of CO-NLP, maintaining an EE of approximately 90% even after 10 days of storage. The release
profile of CO-NLP adhered more closely to the first-order kinetic model during in vitro assessments,
exhibiting a slower release rate compared to free microalgae oil. In simulated in vitro digestion
experiments, lipolytic reactions of CO-NLP were observed during intestinal digestion subsequent
to nanoliposome administration. Notably, the inhibitory effect of CO-NLP on cholesterol esterase
activity was measured at 85.42%. Additionally, the average fluorescence intensity of nematodes in the
CO-NLP group was 52.17% lower than in the control group at a CO-NLP concentration of 500 µg/mL,
which suggests a pronounced lipid-lowering effect of CO-NLP. Therefore, the CO-NLP exhibited
characteristics of small and uniform particle size, elevated storage stability, gradual release during
Citation: Tu, L.; Zeng, J.; Bai, X.; Wu,
Z.; Wu, J.; Xu, S.
intestinal digestion, and a noteworthy hypolipidemic effect. These findings designate CO-NLP as a
Nanoliposome-Mediated novel lipid-lowering active product, demonstrating potential for the development of functional foods.
Encapsulation of Chlorella Oil for the
Development of a Controlled-Release Keywords: chlorella oil; nanoliposome; hypolipidemic activity; in vitro digestion simulation
Lipid-Lowering Formulation. Foods
2024, 13, 158. https://doi.org/
10.3390/foods13010158
1. Introduction
Academic Editor: Ali Khoddami
Microalgae oil, specifically chlorella oil, contains linoleic acid, γ-linolenic acid, and
Received: 23 November 2023 various other fatty acids with substantial effects on reducing blood pressure, blood glucose,
Revised: 26 December 2023
and lipids. Additionally, it is abundant in unsaturated fatty acids, including docosahex-
Accepted: 28 December 2023
aenoic acid (DHA), referred to as “brain gold”, promoting the growth and development
Published: 2 January 2024
of brain cells. This makes microalgae oil widely utilized in health products and infant
formula [1]. While it is the only FDA-approved source of DHA supplements for children,
challenges exist in its application [2]. Firstly, due to the unsaturation of fatty acids and poor
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
oxidative stability, microalgae oil not only loses its original nutritional value post-oxidation
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. but also produces harmful oxidation by-products. Secondly, microalgae oil, being a highly
This article is an open access article hydrophobic molecule with low water solubility, cannot be easily incorporated into most
distributed under the terms and water-based foods and beverages. Finally, microalgae oil often undergoes structural and
conditions of the Creative Commons functional degradation in the acidic gastric environment during digestion, leading to a
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// significant reduction in in vivo bioavailability.
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ Nanoliposomes, vesicular lipid bilayer nanocarriers with a spherical shape typically
4.0/). composed of natural, non-toxic phospholipids and cholesterol, present a viable solution.

Foods 2024, 13, 158. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13010158 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/foods

Foods 2024, 13, 158 2 of 17

The advantage of liposomes over nanometer emulsions and microcapsules lies in their
ability to form a system carrying both oil and water [3]. This enables the encapsulation
of both lipophilic and hydrophilic substances in nanoliposomes, resulting in a larger
surface-to-volume ratio. Nanoliposomes have found extensive use in functional foods,
enhancing nutrient solubility, delaying release, and maintaining substance activity due
to their high safety, non-immunological reactivity, biocompatibility, and biodegradabil-
ity [4]. Research indicates nanoliposomes as suitable encapsulants for entrapping and
delivering various vitamins to target cells, enhancing their bioaccessibility and bioavail-
ability [5]. Loading polyphenol-rich herbal extract into nanoliposomes demonstrated
significant glucose-lowering activity in vivo compared to free extract [6]. Liposomes pro-
duced from 4% phospholipids and loaded with astaxanthin exhibited high antioxidant
activity [7], with astaxanthin encapsulated in nanoliposomes achieving an 80.31% high
encapsulation efficiency [8]. In the development of fortified bread as a functional food,
fish oil nanoliposomes did not adversely affect the texture, nutritional content, or sensory
qualities of the fortified bread [9].
To enhance the application stability and bioavailability of chlorella oil, this study opted
for a specific small unilamellar vesicle nanoliposome to encapsulate it. The investigation
delves into physicochemical properties, morphological characteristics, release kinetics,
stability, and lipid-lowering activity. This study aimed to develop a novel functional
chlorella oil carrier, enhancing solubility, improving bioavailability, and achieving better-
controlled release of the encapsulated material. This study provides the theoretical basis
and technical support for the industrial production of functional chlorella oil.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Reagents
All chemicals employed in this study, including the culture medium, trichloroacetic
acid, soy lecithin, β-sitosterol, trypsin, porcine pancreatic cholesterol esterase, phosphate
salts, and boron trifluoride, were sourced from Sigma Aldrich (Shanghai) Trading Co., Ltd.,
Shanghai, China. Tween-80, sodium hydroxide, sodium chloride, n-heptane, anhydrous
sodium sulfate, Triton X-100, methanol, phosphotungstic acid, p-nitrophenyl butyrate,
taurocholate buffer and imidazole were purchased from Sinopharm Chemical Reagent Co.,
Ltd., Shanghai, China. The reagents utilized were of ACS grade. The preparation of all
solutions was executed utilizing purified and deionized ultra-pure water.

2.2. Preparation of CO-NLP

Ultrasonic injection with ethanol was employed in the preparation of CO-NLP in this
study. Prior investigations explored the impact of various technological factors, including
the mass ratio of lecithin to β-sitosterol, the mass ratio of lecithin to chlorella oil, the
addition of Tween-80, the pH of PBS buffer, ultrasonic time, and ultrasonic power, on
key parameters such as encapsulation efficiency (EE), particle size, and the PDI. These
investigations encompassed single-factor experiments, Plackett-Burman experiments, and
Box-Behnken experiments. Optimal preparation conditions were identified as follows: a
lecithin concentration of 10 mg/mL, a lecithin to β-sitosterol mass ratio of 5.26:1 (w/w), a
lecithin to chlorella oil mass ratio of 6:1 (w/w), a Tween-80 concentration of 8.18%, a pH of
7.0, an ultrasonic time of 9 min, and an ultrasonic power of 264 W (refer to supplementary
experimental results in the Supplementary Materials). Therefore, the preparation of CO-
NLP involved the agitated dissolution of lecithin, β-sitosterol, Tween-80, and chlorella
oil in ethanol at 55 ◦ C in a water bath for 30 min, adhering to the optimal preparation
conditions. Following complete dissolution, the resultant mixture was swiftly injected
into pH 7.0, 0.05 mol/L PBS buffer using a sterile syringe, and stirred at 55 ◦ C for 30 min,
with the stirring rate set at 100 r/min. Subsequent to this, the ethanol underwent rotary
evaporation under a reduced pressure of 0.1 MPa at 40 ◦ C, yielding crude chlorella oil
liposomes. This product then underwent ultrasonication under an ultrasonic power of
264 W for 9 min via an ultrasonic cell crusher (JY92-HD, Shanghai Bilang Instrument Co.,
Foods 2024, 13, 158 3 of 17

Ltd., Shanghai, China) to generate nanoliposomes, which were then stored in a refrigerator
at 4 ◦ C for further analysis.

2.3. Analysis of Chlorella Oil Content

The soy lecithin, β-sitosterol, and chlorella oil were dissolved in a solution of
0.20 mg/mL petroleum ether. The absorbance of each sample within the range of 190
to 400 nm was measured using a UV absorbance photometer with petroleum ether as a
blank. The optimal absorption wavelength of chlorella oil was determined by comparing it
to the other samples. Subsequently, chlorella oil concentrations of 0.01, 0.02, 0.05, 0.10, and
0.15 mg/mL were prepared utilizing petroleum ether as the solvent since both soy lecithin
and chlorella oil are soluble in petroleum ether. A standard curve of chlorella oil was then
graphed at the optimal absorption wavelength for the purpose of content analysis.

2.4. Analysis of the Fatty Acid Composition of Chlorella Oil

The fatty acid composition of chlorella oil was determined using a high-performance
GC instrument (GC 2010 Plus, Shimadzu, Japan). In a flask containing chlorella oil, 8 mL
of a 2% sodium hydroxide in methanol solution was added, and reflux condensation was
performed at 80 ± 1 ◦ C until the oil droplets disappeared. Subsequently, 7 mL of a 15%
boron trifluoride in methanol solution was introduced into the flask, and the solution was
further refluxed for 2 min in an 80 ± 1 ◦ C water bath. The flask was then removed from
the water bath and quickly cooled to room temperature. Accurately measured quantities
of 10 mL to 30 mL of n-heptane were added to the flask, and the mixture was shaken for
2 min. Then, a saturated sodium chloride aqueous solution was added, and the solution
was allowed to stand for stratification. From the upper extraction solution with n-heptane,
5 mL was added into a 25 mL test tube. Following this, 3 g to 5 g of anhydrous sodium
sulfate was added, the solution was shaken for 1 min, allowed to stand for 5 min, and the
upper solution was absorbed into the injection bottle for subsequent analysis.
For the GC analysis of fatty acid composition, the specified conditions were aligned
with China’s national testing standard [10]. These included: a capillary chromatography
column with a robust polar stationary phase of polydicyanopropyl siloxane, measuring
100 mm in length, 0.25 mm in inner diameter, and 0.2 µm in membrane thickness; an
injector temperature of 270 ◦ C for the sample; a detector temperature of 280 ◦ C; a carrier
gas to helium gas ratio; a split ratio of 100:1; and an injection and an injection volume of
1.0 µL. The heating protocol involved starting at 100 ◦ C for 13 min, a heating rate of 100 ◦ C
to 180 ◦ C for 6 min, a rate of 180 ◦ C to 200 ◦ C per minute for 20 min, and a heating rate of
200 ◦ C to 230 ◦ C for 10.5 min. It is essential that the detection parameters align with the
theoretical trays (n) minimum of 2000 pieces/m, and the separation degree (R) should be
no less than 1.25.

2.5. Encapsulation Efficiency

The encapsulation efficiency (EE) of chlorella oil was determined according to Wang’s
method [11], with slight modifications. A 10 mL volumetric flask was utilized, into which
1 mL of CO-NLP and 1 mL of a 10% Triton X-100 methanol solution, acting as an emulsion
breaker, were added. Emulsion was broken by ultrasonication for 10 min, followed by vor-
tex shaking to ensure complete liposome disintegration. The mixture was then centrifuged
at 4000 rpm for 10 min. The quantification of free chlorella oil content in the supernatant
was carried out based on the standard curve of chlorella oil.
The EE was calculated using the following Equation (1):
 
mfree
Encapsulation efficiency (EE)%= 1 − × 100 (1)
mtotal

In the formula, mfree represents the content of free chlorella oil in the supernatant, and
mtotal represents the content of total chlorella oil in the supernatant.
Foods 2024, 13, 158 4 of 17

2.6. Determination of Particle Size, Zeta Potential, and Polydispersity Coefficient

The measured sample was introduced into a transparent cuvette with a refractive
index of 1.33 and maintained at 25.0 ± 0.1 ◦ C for 3 min. Following this, the nanometer-
sized zeta potentiometer (Nano-ZS90, Malvern Instruments Limited, Malvern, UK) was
employed to assess the average particle size, zeta potential, and particle size distribution
(polymer dispersibility index, PDI). The measurements for each sample were conducted
simultaneously in triplicate.

2.7. Microscopic Morphological Analysis

The CO-NLP was dispersed in water and then applied to a copper grid for dry-
ing. Following excess liquid absorption by filter paper, it underwent immersion in a 2%
phosphotungstic acid solution for staining, followed by drying, and the microscopic mor-
phological structure of CO-NLP was observed using Transmission Electron Microscopy
(TEM) [12].

2.8. Storage Stability of CO-NLP

The stability of CO-NLP was evaluated by measuring its EE, particle size, PDI, and
zeta potential over durations of 5 d, 10 d, 20 d, 40 d, and 60 d at temperatures of 4 ◦ C and
25 ◦ C, respectively.

2.9. In Vitro Release Experiments of CO-NLP

A pretreated dialysis bag (with a molecular weight cutoff of 12,000 Da) was filled with
10 mL of CO-NLP using a pipette, securely fastened, and submerged in 200 mL of PBS
buffer (pH = 7.4) containing 1% Tween-80. The samples were placed on a magnetic stirrer,
rotating at a rate of 100 r/min at a temperature of 37 ± 1 ◦ C.
Subsequently, 10 mL of solution was collected at intervals of 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 24,
36, and 48 h for measurement. The PBS buffer release medium was promptly replenished
at the same temperature after each sampling to ensure a constant total volume.
The cumulative release rate (Q%) was calculated using the Formula (2):
−1
Ve ∑ti= 1 C i + V0 C t
Cumulative release rate Q(%) = × 100 (2)
m0

where Ve is the sampling volume (10 mL), V0 is the total volume (200 mL), Ci and Ct are
chlorella oil concentrations in the solution at different release times (mg/L), and m0 is the
mass of encapsulated oil in liposomes (mg).
Four release kinetic equations were selected for release analysis: the zero-order kinetic
equation, the first-order kinetic equation, the Higuchi plane diffusion equation, and the
Retger-Peppas equation. The curves were fitted to evaluate the accuracy of the fit, and then
the in vitro release type of CO-NLP was determined to elucidate the pattern of chlorella oil
liposome release.

2.10. In Vitro Digestion Experiments

An in vitro-simulated gastrointestinal tract digestion model was established following
the experimental protocol of Xu et al. [13]. This model comprised the oral stage, gastric
stage, and intestinal stage. The assessment of sample conditions during digestion involved
the measurement of particle size and zeta potential at each stage.

2.11. In Vitro Simulated Digestion Bioavailability Study

To maintain a pH of 7.0 during the simulated small intestine stage, a 0.25 mol/L
NaOH solution was incrementally added, and the consumption of NaOH was recorded at
various time intervals to assess the level of chlorella oil digestion. The rate of release of free
fatty acids (FFAs) was evaluated at 10 min intervals upon the addition of trypsin solution
in order to simulate the digestive environment of the gastrointestinal tract, as liposomes
Foods 2024, 13, 158 5 of 17

can break down, emit free fatty acids, and lower the pH value of the environment in the
presence of trypsin. Each digestion stage was terminated by transferring the digest to
a glass tube and subjecting it to agitation at 85 ◦ C for 5 min, followed by cooling in an
ice water bath. The amount of NaOH consumed served as a measure of the rate of FFA
release [4].
The rate of fat release (FFA)% was determined using the Formula (3):

VNaOH × MNaOH × MLipid

Rate of fat release (FFA)% = × 100 × 10−3 (3)
2mLipid

where MNaOH is the concentration of NaOH solution (0.25 mol/L), VNaOH is the volume of
NaOH solution used (L), MLipid is the average molecular weight of fat molecules (g/mol),
and its value is 923.08 g/mol, and mLipid is the total mass of fat in liposomes (g).

2.12. Calculation of the Particle Dimensions and Zeta Potential of Digestion Byproducts from
CO-NLP
Prior to sampling, dilution of the sample was conducted in a suitable aqueous solution
to mitigate any scattering effects. The system was then stirred at 1200 r/min to ensure
consistency. Subsequently, the mean particle size and zeta potential in both gastric and
intestinal digests were determined utilizing a nanoparticle size and zeta potential analyzer.

2.13. Assessment of Inhibitory Effects of CO-NLP on Porcine Pancreatic Cholesterol

Esterase Activity
The approach proposed by Su [14] was employed with minor modifications. In brief,
the measurement was conducted in a solution of 0.1 mol/L sodium phosphate (pH 7.04)
containing 0.1 mol/L NaCl, 0.2 mmol/L p-nitrophenyl butyrate (PNPB), and 5.16 mmol/L
sodium taurocholate buffer (STC). Initially, 10 U/mL of porcine pancreatic cholesterol
esterase and PNPB were dissolved in acetonitrile and stored at −20 ◦ C. The reaction tube
was supplemented with porcine pancreatic cholesterol esterase, and the CO-NLP was
allowed to incubate at 25 ◦ C for 5 min. The absorbance of the solution was then measured
at 450 nm using an ultraviolet-visible spectrophotometer. Table 1 details the additives and
their respective concentrations in each tube. The calculation of percent inhibition utilized
Equation (4):
A3 − A4
 
Inhibition activity (%) = 1 − × 100 (4)
A1 − A2

Table 1. The quantity of additive agents used to evaluate cholesterol esterase inhibitory activity.

Cholesterol Esterase Solution CO-NLP PNPB Buffer

Tube
(µL) (µL) (µL) (mL)
Blank 1 (A1 ) 50 - 10 1
Blank control 2 (A2 ) - - 10 1
Sample 3 (A3 ) 50 25 10 1
Sample control 4 (A4 ) - 25 10 1

Where A1 is the absorbance of the blank group (with the sample solution substituted
with an equal volume of buffer), A2 is the absorbance of the blank control group (with both
the sample solution and enzyme solution substituted with an equal volume of buffer), A3 is
the absorbance of the sample group, and A4 is the absorbance of the sample control group
(with the enzyme solution substituted with an equal volume of buffer).

2.14. Assessment of the Hypolipidemic Impact of CO-NLP in the C. elegans Model

Initially, a solution of Escherichia coli (E. coli) with FEAK was prepared as follows: A
mother liquor of CO-NLP at a concentration of 500 mg/mL was prepared and stored at
−20 ◦ C. Subsequently, 10 µL of the mother liquor was added to 10 mL of concentrated
 2.14. Assessment of the Hypolipidemic Impact of CO-NLP in the C. elegans Model
Initially, a solution of Escherichia coli (E. coli) with FEAK was prepared as follows: A
Foods 2024, 13, 158 mother liquor of CO-NLP at a concentration of 500 mg/mL was prepared and stored6 of at17
−20 °C. Subsequently, 10 µL of the mother liquor was added to 10 mL of concentrated E.
coli solution and mixed. The resulting mixture was applied to the nematode growth me-
dium (NGM)
E. coli solution agar plate
and and air-dried
mixed. for future
The resulting use. was
mixture The applied
control group
to the received
nematode 10 growth
µL of
empty liposomes instead of CO-NLP. The impact of CO-NLP on lipid
medium (NGM) agar plate and air-dried for future use. The control group received 10 deposition was ob-µL
served
of emptyusing the greeninstead
liposomes fluorescence of the dhs-3:gfp
of CO-NLP. The impact mutants.
of CO-NLP on lipid deposition was
At theusing
observed L1 stage, the animals
the green wereofinitially
fluorescence synchronized
the dhs-3:gfp mutants. and then divided into
groups. AtApproximately
the L1 stage, the50animals
nematodeswerewere cultivated
initially on each
synchronized andplate
thenindivided
a consistent tem-
into groups.
perature incubator,
Approximately 50maintaining
nematodes were a temperature
cultivatedofon20 each
°C forplate
6 d. in
Subsequently,
a consistentthe animals
temperature
were rinsed with
incubator, M9 buffer,
maintaining anesthetizedofwith
a temperature 20 ◦40 mmol/L
C for imidazole, andthe
6 d. Subsequently, then examined
animals were
and captured
rinsed with M9 under a fluorescence
buffer, anesthetizedmicroscope.
with 40 mmol/LImageimidazole,
J was employedand thento examined
calculate the and
captured
average meanunder a fluorescence
fluorescence microscope. Image J was employed to calculate the average
intensity.
mean fluorescence intensity.
2.15. Statistical Analysis
2.15. Statistical Analysis
Three parallel groups were formed for each experimental group, and statistical re-
sults areThree parallelasgroups
presented mean ±were formed
standard for (SE).
error each Statistical
experimental group,
analysis wasand statisticalusing
performed results
are 26.0
SPSS presented
software as mean ± standard
(IBM, 2022, error
Shanghai, (SE). Statistical
China), analysis level
with a significance was performed
set at p < 0.05using
to
indicate statistical significance. GraphPad Prism 9.0 software (GraphPad Software, 2021,to
SPSS 26.0 software (IBM, 2022, Shanghai, China), with a significance level set at p < 0.05
indicate statistical
Shanghai, China) was significance.
utilized forGraphPad
generatingPrism 9.0 software
graphical (GraphPad Software, 2021,
representations.
Shanghai, China) was utilized for generating graphical representations.
3. Results and Discussion
3. Results and Discussion
3.1.
3.1.Analysis
Analysisof of
Chlorella
ChlorellaOil OilContent
Contentand
andFatty Acid
Fatty AcidComposition
Composition
The UV absorption spectrogram reveals the
The UV absorption spectrogram reveals the characteristic characteristic absorption
absorptionwavelength of
wavelength
chlorella oil to be 400 nm, a wavelength strategically chosen for the quantification
of chlorella oil to be 400 nm, a wavelength strategically chosen for the quantification of of chlo-
rella oil content.
chlorella Concentration
oil content. gradients
Concentration gradients of 0.01, 0.02,
of 0.01, 0.05,
0.02, 0.10,
0.05, and
0.10, 0.15
and 0.15mg/mL
mg/mL ofof
the
the
petroleum
petroleumetherethersolution
solutionofofchlorella
chlorellaoiloilwere
wereestablished,
established,and andabsorbance
absorbancemeasurements
measurements
were
wereconducted
conducted atat
the specified
the 400400
specified nmnm wavelength.
wavelength. TheTheresultant standard
resultant curve,
standard as il-as
curve,
lustrated in Figure 1, was formulated with chlorella oil concentration
illustrated in Figure 1, was formulated with chlorella oil concentration as the horizontal as the horizontal
coordinate
coordinate(x) (x)and
andabsorbance
absorbancevalues
valuesasasthethevertical
verticalcoordinate
coordinate(y). The
(y). derived
The derivedequation,
equation,
y y= =11.4010x + 0.0054 (R 2 =20.9998), was subsequently employed for the precise quantifica-
11.4010x + 0.0054 (R = 0.9998), was subsequently employed for the precise quantifica-
tion
tionofofchlorella
chlorellaoil.oil.

1.9
1.7
1.5
1.3
A400nm

1.1
0.9
0.7
0.5
y = 11.401x + 0.0054
0.3 R² = 0.9998
0.1
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16
Microalgae oil concentration（mg/mL）

Figure 1.1.
Figure AA standard curve
standard is is
curve used forfor
used quantifying chlorella
quantifying chlorellaoiloilconcentration.
concentration.

Table2 2provides
Table providesananin-depth
in-depthanalysis
analysisofofthe
thefatty
fattyacid
acidcomposition
compositioninin chlorella
chlorella oil.
oil.
Theresults
The resultshighlight
highlighteicosapentaenoic
eicosapentaenoicacidacid(EPA)
(EPA)asasthe thepredominant
predominantunsaturated
unsaturatedfatty
fatty
acidpresent
acid presentininthe
thechlorella
chlorellafatty
fattyacid
acidextract,
extract,closely
closelyfollowed
followedbybythe
themonounsaturated
monounsaturated
fatty acids palmitoleic acid and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Additionally,
fatty acids palmitoleic acid and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Additionally, palmitic palmiticacid
acid
and myristicin were identified as the primary constituents in the sample. These findings
unequivocally confirm the presence of unsaturated fatty acids (UFAs) in the chlorella oil
extracts utilized in the current study, aligning with prior research [15].
Foods 2024, 13, 158 7 of 17

Table 2. The fatty acid composition of chlorella oil.

Composition Relative Content

Octanoic acid C8:0 0.01 ± 0.00%
Carpic acid C10:0 0.03 ± 0.01%
Hendecanoic acid C11:0 10.50 ± 0.27%
Lauric acid C12:0 0.15 ± 0.05%
Tridecanoic acid C13:0 0.02 ± 0.00%
Myristic acid C14:0 11.50 ± 0.15%
Myristoleic acid C14:1 0.02 ± 0.01%
Pentadecanoic acid C15:0 1.25 ± 0.11%
Pentadecanoic acid C15:1 0.04 ± 0.01%
Palmitic acid C16:0 25.02 ± 0.74%
Palmitoleic acid C16:1 11.34 ± 0.91%
cis-10-heptadecenoic acid C17:0 6.81 ± 0.96%
Heptadecanoic acid C17:1 0.13 ± 0.02%
Stearic acid C18:0 1.02 ± 0.19%
Oleic acid C18:1n9c 2.51 ± 0.48%
Linolelaidic acid C18:2n6t 1.71 ± 0.12%
Linoleic acid C18:2n6c 1.71 ± 0.11%
gamma linolenic acid C18:3n6 0.84 ± 0.04%
arachidic acid C20:0 0.31 ± 0.02%
11-Eicosenoic acid C20:1n9 0.02 ± 0.00%
11,14-Eicosadienoicacid C20:2 0.01 ± 0.00%
cis-8,11,14-Eicosatrienoic C20:3n6 0.20 ± 0.03%
Arachidonic acid C20:4n6 1.46 ± 0.08%
cis-11,14,17-Eicosatrienoic acid C20:3n3 0.02 ± 0.00%
Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) C20:5 12.52 ± 0.19%
Heneicosanoic acid C21:0 0.02 ± 0.00%
Docosanoic acid C22:0 0.12 ± 0.02%
Erucic acid C22:1n9 0.07 ± 0.01%
cis-13,16-Docosadienoic acid C22:2 0.01 ± 0.00%
Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) C22:6n3 9.10 ± 0.13%
Tricosanoic acid C23:0 0.01 ± 0.00%
Tricosanoic acid C24:0 0.59 ± 0.31%
Nervonic acid C24:1n9 0.94 ± 0.17%

3.2. Characterization of the Physical and Chemical Attributes of CO-NLP

To explicate the physicochemical characteristics of CO-NLP, this study focused on the
systematic examination of its particle size, zeta potential, microscopic morphology, storage
stability, and in vitro release characteristics, each addressed individually.

3.2.1. Particle Size and Zeta Potential of CO-NLP

The CO-NLP demonstrated a mean particle size of 86.90 nm, displaying a singular peak
shape indicative of a normal distribution. This characteristic underscores the uniformity
and robustness of the liposome system, as illustrated in Figure 2a. The particle size
distribution further affirmed uniformity, supported by a low PDI of 0.19. The CO-NLP
exhibited a negative charge, as evidenced by its zeta potential of −25.05 mV. Notably, a
significant zeta potential, whether positive or negative, acts as a deterrent to the mutual
aggregation of liposomes, thereby enhancing their stability to a certain extent [16].
Ultrasound-induced cavitation played a crucial role in the reduction and even dis-
tribution of liposome particles. Additionally, the membrane material of CO-NLP, soy
phospholipid, carries a negative charge, fostering electrostatic repulsion between nanolipo-
somes and altering their surface charge. This phenomenon diminishes the likelihood of
polymerization and contributes significantly to improved stability.
Foods 2024, 13, 158 8 of 17

(a)

(b)

Figure 2. Diameter distribution (a) and electron micrographs illustrating the morphology (b) with a
scale bar of 100 nm (left) and 50 nm (right) of CO-NLP.

3.2.2. Microscopic Morphological Observation

The morphology of CO-NLP was observed using Transmission Electron Microscopy
(TEM), revealing predominantly rounded and spherical particles in the images. The par-
ticles exhibited homogeneous sizing and distinctive vesicle-like structures. They were
dispersed without apparent connections, collapse, or clustering, with only a few irregular
forms. Subsequent to ultrasonic treatment, chlorella oil liposomes exhibited a more uniform
particle distribution, with sizes below 100 nm, as illustrated in Figure 2b.
The disparity in particle size outcomes between TEM and the particle size analyzer
could be attributed to the liquid state of the microalgal oil measured by the particle size
analyzer, representing hydrodynamic particle size and resulting in a larger measured size
compared to TEM, which operates under the dehydrated composition of the sample [17].
Furthermore, the two measurement methods diverge in their underlying principles. Dy-
namic light scattering, the basis for particle size determination, relies on particle diffusion
characteristics, with the system’s viscosity impacting the results [18].

3.2.3. Analysis of the Storage Stability of CO-NLP

Figure 3 illustrates variations in EE, particle size, zeta potential, and PDI of CO-
NLP during storage at temperatures of 4 ◦ C and 25 ◦ C. The graph depicts a decrease
in CO-NLP EE from 92.84 ± 1.14% to 84.48 ± 2.86%, an increase in particle size from
86.90 ± 0.74 nm to 127.14 ± 1.37 nm, a rise in PDI from 0.19 ± 0.01 to 0.27 ± 0.02, and a
decline in zeta potential from −25.05 ± 2.07 mV to −20.93 ± 1.17 mV after 30 d of storage
at 4 ◦ C. Although the EE experienced a slight reduction below 4 ◦ C, it remained around
90% after 10 d, indicating stable CO-NLP that effectively prevented oil leakage. At 25 ◦ C,
the EE of CO-NLP decreased from 92.84 ± 1.14% to 78.14 ± 1.91%, accompanied by an
increase in particle size from 86.90 ± 0.74 nm to 156.04 ± 1.83 nm, an elevation in PDI from
0.19 ± 0.01 to 0.29 ± 0.02 over a 30 d storage period, and a reduction in zeta potential from
 nmto
nm to127.14
127.14±±1.371.37nm,
nm,aarise risein inPDI
PDIfrom
from0.190.19±±0.010.01to to0.27
0.27±±0.02,
0.02,and
andaadecline
declinein inzeta
zeta
potentialfrom
potential from−25.05
−25.05±±2.072.07mVmVto to−20.93
−20.93±±1.17 1.17mV mVafter
after30 30ddof ofstorage
storageat at44°C.
°C.Although
Although
theEE
the EEexperienced
experiencedaaslight slightreduction
reductionbelow below44°C, °C,ititremained
remainedaround around90% 90%after
after10 10d,d,in-
in-
dicatingstable
dicating stableCO-NLP
CO-NLPthat thateffectively
effectivelyprevented
preventedoil oilleakage.
leakage.At At25
25°C,
°C,the
theEEEEof ofCO-NLP
CO-NLP
Foods 2024, 13, 158 decreasedfrom
decreased from92.84
92.84±±1.14%
1.14%to to78.14
78.14±±1.91%,
1.91%,accompanied
accompaniedby byananincrease
increasein inparticle
particlesize
size
9 of 17
from86.90
from 86.90±±0.74
0.74nmnmto to156.04
156.04±±1.831.83nm,nm,an anelevation
elevationin inPDI
PDIfrom
from0.19
0.19±±0.010.01toto0.29
0.29±±0.02
0.02
over aa 30
over 30 dd storage
storage period,
period, and and aa reduction
reduction in in zeta
zeta potential
potential from from −25.05
−25.05 ±± 2.072.07 mVmV to to
−17.35
−17.35 ± 1.15 mV. The enlargement of CO-NLP primarily stemmed from their nanoliposo-
− 25.05±±1.152.07mV.
mVThe to −enlargement
17.35 ± 1.15of mV.CO-NLP primarily stemmed
The enlargement of CO-NLP from their nanoliposo-
primarily stemmed
malnature,
mal nature,coupled
coupledwith withtheir
theirlarger
largersurface
surfaceareaareaand andthe theresultant
resultanthighhighsurface
surfaceenergy,
energy,
from their nanoliposomal nature, coupled with their larger surface area and the resultant
leading
leading to
to unstable
unstable energy
energy levels.
levels. Consequently,
Consequently, CO-NLP
CO-NLP
high surface energy, leading to unstable energy levels. Consequently, CO-NLP became became
became susceptible
susceptible to the
to the
clumping
clumping of
of particles,
particles, resulting
resulting in
in an
an increase
increase inin the
the size
size of
of liposomes.
liposomes.
susceptible to the clumping of particles, resulting in an increase in the size of liposomes. This
This view
view could
could
alsobe
also
This befound
viewfound
could inthe
in thestudy
also study
be found ofWang
of Wang
in the etal.
et al.[19].
study[19]. These
ofThese results
Wangresults indicate
indicate
et al. [19]. These reduced
reduced
results stability
stability
indicate of
of
nanoliposomes
nanoliposomes
reduced at
stabilityatof 25 °C compared
25nanoliposomes
°C compared toat4 25 to 4 °C. As
°C.◦ C depicted
Ascompared
depicted in in Figure
to Figure
4 ◦ C. As 4, microalgae
4, microalgae
depicted in oil oil stored
stored
Figure 4,
microalgae oil stored at 4 C exhibited less color discoloration and particle aggregationat
at
at 44 °C
°C exhibited
exhibited less
less color
color ◦ discoloration
discoloration and
and particle
particle aggregation
aggregation compared
compared to
to storage
storage at
25°C.
25 °C.
compared to storage at 25 ◦ C.

Figure 3. Storage stability assessment of CO-NLP over time, with panels depicting (A) EE, (B) Size,
Figure3.3.Storage
Figure Storagestability
stabilityassessment
assessmentof
ofCO-NLP
CO-NLPover
overtime,
time,with
withpanels
panelsdepicting
depicting(A)
(A)EE,
EE,(B)
(B)Size,
Size,
(C)
(C)Zeta
ZetaPotential,
Potential,and
and(D)
(D)PDI.
PDI.
(C) Zeta Potential, and (D) PDI.

Figure 4. Preservation status of CO-NLP at various temperatures after a 30 d period.

3.2.4. In Vitro Release Studies of Microalgal Nanoliposomes

Due to the insolubility of chlorella oil in water, creating the necessary leaky condi-
tions for in vitro release proves challenging. Therefore, this study utilizes Tween-80 as
a solubilizing agent to augment the solubility of chlorella oil in PBS buffer, effectively
addressing the challenge of leaky conditions. Figure 5 illustrates the in vitro release curves
of CO-NLP, employing sampling time (t) and cumulative release percentage (Q) as the
horizontal and vertical coordinates, respectively. Initially, the release rate of chlorella oil
exhibited an ascending trend followed by a subsequent plateau, with the release rate of
CO-NLP stabilizing at 33.35 ± 0.36% within the initial 6 h. After 6 h, the release rate of
 solubilizing agent to augment the solubility of chlorella oil in PBS buffer, effectiv
dressing the challenge of leaky conditions. Figure 5 illustrates the in vitro release
of CO-NLP, employing sampling time (t) and cumulative release percentage (Q)
horizontal and vertical coordinates, respectively. Initially, the release rate of chlor
Foods 2024, 13, 158 10 of 17
exhibited an ascending trend followed by a subsequent plateau, with the release
CO-NLP stabilizing at 33.35 ± 0.36% within the initial 6 h. After 6 h, the release
chlorella oil liposomes gradually increased until 48 h, achieving a cumulative relea
chlorella oil liposomes gradually increased until 48 h, achieving a cumulative release rate
of 81.46 ± 0.83%. This indicates a noticeable slow-release effect of CO-NLP as a ca
of 81.46 ± 0.83%. This indicates a noticeable slow-release effect of CO-NLP as a carrier of
chlorella oil.
chlorella oil.

Figure 5. The in vitro

Figurerelease
5. Theprofiles
in vitroofrelease
CO-NLP were of
profiles determined by fitting
CO-NLP were four different
determined release
by fitting four different
equations. (A) zero-level kinetic equation; (B) first-level kinetic equation; (C) Higuchi plane diffusion
equations. (A) zero-level kinetic equation; (B) first-level kinetic equation; (C) Higuchi plan
equation; (D) Retger-Peppas
sion equation;equation.
(D) Retger-Peppas equation.

For a comprehensive understanding of

For a comprehensive chlorella oil release,
understanding Tableoil
of chlorella 3 presents the fitted
release, Table 3 presents th
equations and correlation coefficients (R2 ) of various models derived from the zero-order
equations and correlation coefficients (R ) of various models derived from the zero
2
kinetic equation, the first-order
kinetic equation, kinetic equation,
the first-order the Higuchi
kinetic equation, plane diffusionplane
the Higuchi equation,
diffusion eq
and the Retger-Peppas equation. The correlation coefficient
and the Retger-Peppas equation. The correlation for CO-NLP,
coefficient as displayed
for CO-NLP, in as displa
Table 3, was Q =Table
82.6282 (1 − exp ( − 0.0897t)), with an R 2 value up to 0.9911, signifying the
3, was Q = 82.6282 (1 − exp (−0.0897t)), with an R2 value up to 0.9911, signify
highest correlation coefficient. This aligns with Xiao’s [20] suggestion that the first-order
highest correlation coefficient. This aligns with Xiao s [20] suggestion that the firs
kinetic model is more suitable for elucidating drug release. The hydrophobicity of the
kinetic model is more suitable for elucidating drug release. The hydrophobicity of
encapsulated material and the cohesiveness and continuity of the liposome membrane
capsulated material and the cohesiveness and continuity of the liposome membra
significantly influence the release behavior of liposomes [21].
nificantly influence the release behavior of liposomes [21].
Table 3. There are four kinds of release kinetic models.

Fitted Equation Fitted Results R2

Zero-level kinetic equation [22] Q = 1.4402t + 22.5620 0.7764
The first-level kinetic equation [23] Q = 82.6282(1 − exp(−0.0897t)) 0.9911
Higuchi plane diffusion equation [24] Q = 12.6950t1/2 + 1.9597 0.9351
Retger-Peppas equation [25] Q = 15.20t0.452 0.9438

3.2.5. Bioavailability of CO-NLP

Currently, numerous scholars are investigating the breakdown and assimilation of oil
in the intestine by quantifying the release rate of unbound fatty acids during simulated
intestinal digestion. In the presence of trypsin and bile salts, liposomes can undergo
hydrolysis, liberating free fatty acids and reducing the pH of the environment. The lipolytic
kinetic curve of chlorella oil liposomes is illustrated in Figure 6a, a consequence of the
Foods 2024, 13, 158 11 of 17

continuous addition of NaOH solution to neutralize free fatty acids and maintain the pH
value of the digestion system constant at 7.0.

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 6. Assessment of the bioavailability and digestive properties of CO-NLP. (a) Kinetic curves
illustrating the lipolysis of CO-NLP, Where the black curve represents the CO-NLP sample and
the red curve represents the simple physical mixing emulsion made of microalgae oil and the
embedding material; (b) Particle size of chlorella oil liposomes during digestion, among them, the
red curve represents the undigested samples, the green curve represents the samples obtained after
oral simulation digestion, the blue curve represents the samples obtained after gastric simulation
digestion, and the black curve represents the samples obtained after intestinal simulation digestion;
(c) Zeta potential changes during simulated digestion, where the ns refers to no significant difference
between groups, while ** refers to significant difference between groups (p < 0.05).
Foods 2024, 13, 158 12 of 17

As depicted in the figure, the amount of free fatty acids released into the intestinal
fluid environment steadily increased with the duration of digestion. The hydrolysis rate of
CO-NLP experienced rapid escalation before stabilizing, and the release rate of free fatty
acids from CO-NLP and the physically hybrid emulsion group (the formulation is the same
as that of the nano-liposomes but the liposome structure is not formed) followed a similar
trend. Within the initial 60 min of enteric digestion, the physically hybrid emulsion group
exhibited a significantly higher release rate of free fatty acids compared to the CO-NLP
group. However, after 60 min, the release rate of CO-NLP started to surpass that of the
physically hybrid emulsion group. At the end of the simulated intestinal fluid digestion,
the free fatty acid release rate of CO-NLP was 82.57 ± 1.45%, compared to 66.26 ± 1.87%
in the hybrid emulsion group, indicating that CO-NLP is more proficient at undergoing
lipolysis reactions in intestinal digestion.
The large specific surface area and weak spatial site resistance of nanotransport carriers,
such as nanoliposomes, facilitate enhanced interaction between pancreatic lipase and
encapsulated lipids, leading to a more efficient lipolytic reaction [26]. Additionally, the
primary constituents of pancreatic enzymes in the small intestine—lipase, phospholipase
A2, and cholesterol esterase—can break down lipids. Pancreatic lipase facilitates the
hydrolysis reaction of fatty acids in phospholipids, resulting in the liberation of fatty
acids and monoacyl lysophospholipids [27]. The disruption of the phospholipid emulsion
layer structure by this digestion product leads to a further increase in the release rate
of free fatty acids from liposomes [28]. Phospholipase A2 facilitates the breakdown of
the sn-2 ester bond in phospholipids, resulting in the production of glycerophosphate
and lysophospholipids; furthermore, cholesterol esterase, also referred to as bile salt-
stimulating lipase, can hydrolyze phospholipids [29]. Additionally, bile salts have the ability
to stimulate cholesterol enzymes, enabling the breakdown of lecithin and the formation
of unbound fatty acids, resulting in a considerably elevated release rate of free fatty acids
from CO-NLP compared to the control group in the later stages of digestion.

3.2.6. Changes in Particle Size and Zeta Potential during Digestion of CO-NLP
The determination of particle size in the digestive product serves as a pivotal indicator
of the digestive system, enabling the assessment of chlorella oil absorption status during the
digestive process. Zeta potential, as a measure of the charge count on a particle’s surface,
is commonly employed to signify the stability of a digestion system. Both particle size
and zeta potential play a critical role in determining the physicochemical properties of the
system throughout digestion. Figure 6b illustrates the mean particle size and zeta potential
of the digestion products at various stages of digestion.
Subsequent to the in vitro digestion of CO-NLP, significant alterations manifested in
their composition, structure, and stability. As depicted in Figure 6b, the treatment with
simulated oral, simulated stomach, and simulated intestinal fluids induced fluctuations
in the average particle size of CO-NLP. In the simulated oral phase, CO-NLP underwent
flocculation, resulting in an increased particle size of 89.35 ± 1.38 nm. During the stomach
phase, CO-NLP exhibited a higher flocculation rate, yielding an average particle size of
122.00 ± 7.81 nm for chlorella oil liposomes. Conversely, in the simulated intestinal phase, a
reduction in particle size occurred, with an average size of 97.69 ± 0.60 nm for CO-NLP. The
absorption of pepsin into the system transpires as CO-NLP traverses simulated gastric juice.
The low pH in gastric juice, coupled with the absence of electrostatic repulsion or spatial site
resistance, ensures system stability, causing aggregation and an increase in particle size [30].
CO-NLP and their encapsulations undergo hydrolysis by pancreatic lipase and bile salts in
simulated intestinal fluid during the simulated intestinal phase. The resultant free fatty
acids, bile salts, and phospholipids form a colloidal structure, potentially causing a decrease
in the mean particle size of CO-NLP. Simultaneously, augmented electrostatic repulsion
hinders oil droplet gathering, leading to a reduction in system particle size post-intestinal
digestion [31]. The decrease in liposome particle size in the small intestinal environment
Foods 2024, 13, 158 13 of 17

may be attributed to the presence of bile salts, which possess surfactant properties that
disrupt the phospholipid bilayer of liposomes [32].
Zeta potential is employed to calculate the surface charge of particles, and in the
context of CO-NLP solution testing through in vitro digestion, alterations in zeta poten-
tial indicate a shift in the system’s interfacial makeup, as evident in Figure 6c. With the
progression of digestion, there is a tendency for the zeta potential to decrease and then
increase. Following simulated oral cavity digestion, a slight decline in the zeta potential
of CO-NLP was observed, presumably influenced by the anionic element (mucin) present
in saliva affecting the particles’ electrical characteristics [1]. After the simulated stomach
stage, a significant decrease in the particles’ negative charge occurs due to the low pH
and high ionic strength of the system post-digestion by simulated gastric juice. The acidic
environment induces protonation of free fatty acids (-COOH), decreasing the overall charge
on the particle’s surface, while strong ions create an electrostatic barrier [33]. The zeta
potential experiences a substantial decrease due to gastric juice digestion. Finally, the
zeta potential of CO-NLP in the simulated intestine phase increases to 26.73 ± 1.81 mV.
Pancreatic lipase breakdown of microalgal oil produces anionic free fatty acids and mono-
glycerides, increasing the net charge of CO-NLP in simulated intestinal fluid. Consequently,
the zeta potential exhibits a substantial increase in its absolute value [34]. Makino et al. [35]
have demonstrated that the hydrophobic groups of phospholipids, when exposed to bile
salts, can migrate to the surface of aqueous solutions, potentially causing an increase in the
negative charge on the surface of liposomes after small intestinal digestion. Additionally,
hydrolysis of phospholipids from liposome wall materials can lead to an increase in the
negative charge.

3.3. Evaluation of the Lipid-Lowering Activity of CO-NLP

3.3.1. Inhibition Activities of CO-NLP on Cholesterol Esterase
Recent scientific investigations have yielded compelling evidence supporting the
medicinal properties of bioactive compounds derived from microalgae, suggesting their po-
tential utility in addressing and preventing obesity [36]. In an illuminating study, Regueiras
et al. [37] demonstrated the capacity of Chlorella vulgaris and Chlorococcum amblystomatis
to modulate lipid metabolism in zebrafish larvae, concurrently mitigating steatosis in
HepG2 liver cells burdened with excessive fatty acids. Furthermore, research by Yang
and collaborators [38] revealed that Chlorella unsaturated fatty acids (C. UFAs), rich in
linoleic acid, positively influenced body weight (resulting in a 13.93% reduction after 16
weeks of treatment), improved blood glucose levels (a 19.29% decrease), and enhanced lipid
profiles (with a 23.45% reduction in triglycerides and an 8.76% decrease in total cholesterol)
compared to C57BL/6J mice on a high-fat diet. This notable effect may be attributed to
the reduction of hepatic lipid accumulation, achieved through the down-regulation of
lipogenic genes (PPARγ, C/EBPα, LPL, aP2, FAS, and SREBP-1c) and the up-regulation of
the lipolytic gene (adiponectin), representing a plausible underlying mechanism.
Pancreatic cholesterol esterase plays a pivotal role in the breakdown of dietary choles-
terol esters via bile salt as well as the degradation of triglyceride-phospholipids, potentially
impeding the absorption of dietary cholesterol [39]. The inhibition rate of CO-NLP on
cholesterol esterase exhibited a dose-dependent nature, with a steady increase in inhibition
rate corresponding to the rise in CO-NLP (Figure 7). Compared with blank nanoliposomes,
the liposomes containing chlorella oil significantly increased the inhibitory activity of
pancreatic cholesterol esterase, indicating the function of chlorella oil in lipid lowering.
 lesterol esters via bile salt as well as the degradation of triglyceride-phospholipids, poten-
tially impeding the absorption of dietary cholesterol [39]. The inhibition rate of CO-NLP
on cholesterol esterase exhibited a dose-dependent nature, with a steady increase in inhi-
bition rate corresponding to the rise in CO-NLP (Figure 7). Compared with blank nanolip-
osomes, the liposomes containing chlorella oil significantly increased the inhibitory activ-
Foods 2024, 13, 158 ity of pancreatic cholesterol esterase, indicating the function of chlorella oil in lipid low- 14 of 17
ering.

Figure 7.
Figure 7. The
The inhibitory
inhibitoryactivity
activityofofthe
theCO-NLP
CO-NLPand
andthe blank
the nanoliposome
blank on on
nanoliposome thethe
cholesterol es- esterase.
cholesterol
terase.
3.3.2. Assessment of the Hypolipidemic Impact In Vivo of CO-NLP in C. elegans MODEL
3.3.2. Assessment of the Hypolipidemic Impact In Vivo of CO-NLP in C. elegans MODEL
C. elegans is a good model organism for lipid storage studies due to its possession of
C. elegans
regulatory is a good
factors andmodel organism
metabolic for lipidakin
pathways storage studiesgoverning
to those due to its possession of
adipose deposition
regulatory factors and metabolic pathways akin to those governing
and related metabolic diseases in mammals. Numerous lipid deposition mutants have adipose deposition
and related metabolic diseases in mammals. Numerous lipid deposition mutants have
been generated in C. elegans, including the dhs-3::gfp mutant, which manifests green
been generated in C. elegans, including the dhs-3::gfp mutant, which manifests green flu-
fluorescence on lipid droplet surfaces, facilitating the facile observation of changes in lipid
orescence on lipid droplet surfaces, facilitating the facile observation of changes in lipid
deposition. Therefore,wewe
deposition. Therefore, employed
employed dhs-3::gfp
dhs-3::gfp mutants
mutants to observe
to observe the impact
the impact of CO-NLP of CO-NLP
on
on lipid accumulationinin
lipid accumulation C.C. elegans,
elegans, with with
imageimage analysis
analysis performed
performed using J.Image
using Image The J. The
results depictedininFigure
results depicted Figure 8 indicate
8 indicate thatthat
the the
meanmean fluorescence
fluorescence intensity
intensity of the blank
of the blank
nanoliposome
nanoliposome group group was
was 2.540
2.540 ± 0.043,
± 0.043, whereaswhereas that
that of the ofµg/mL
500 the 500 µg/mL
CO-NLP CO-NLP
group was group
was ± 0.02±(p0.02
1.22 1.22 (p < 0.001),
< 0.001), signifyingsignifying a reduction
a reduction of nearly of nearly
52.17%. 52.17%.
This This result
result suggests thatsuggests
CO-NLP
Foods 2024, 13, x that
FOR CO-NLP
PEER attenuates
REVIEW lipid accumulation
attenuates in C. elegans,
lipid accumulation in C. implying a potentiala reduction
elegans, implying potential in in
reduction in15 of 18
vivo
in vivoadipose
adiposedeposition.
deposition.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 8.images
Figure 8. Representative Representative images
of dhs-3::gfp of dhs-3::gfp
fluorescence influorescence in worms
worms induced induced
by blank by blank nanolipo-
nanoliposomes
somes and CO-NLP. (a) Blank nanoliposome group (dark field, 100 px). (b) DMSO group (bright
and CO-NLP. (a) Blank nanoliposome group (dark field, 100 px). (b) DMSO group (bright field,
field, 100 px). (c) CO-NLP group (dark field). (d) CO-NLP group (bright field).
100 px). (c) CO-NLP group (dark field). (d) CO-NLP group (bright field).
4. Conclusions
The inherent hydrophobic characteristics of chlorella oils, combined with their lim-
ited water solubility, impede their integration into the majority of water-based food and
beverage products. However, the use of liposome encapsulation facilitates their uniform
dispersion in water.
In this study, chlorella oil nanoliposomes (CO-NLP) were synthesized employing a
Foods 2024, 13, 158 15 of 17

4. Conclusions
The inherent hydrophobic characteristics of chlorella oils, combined with their lim-
ited water solubility, impede their integration into the majority of water-based food and
beverage products. However, the use of liposome encapsulation facilitates their uniform
dispersion in water.
In this study, chlorella oil nanoliposomes (CO-NLP) were synthesized employing a
method involving ethanol injection and ultrasonication. The CO-NLP demonstrated a
phospholipid bilayer structure, boasting an encapsulation efficiency of 92.84 ± 1.14%, an
average particle size of 86.90 ± 0.74 nm, and a PDI of 0.19 ± 0.01. TEM revealed that the
CO-NLP exhibited a spherical morphology with consistent size, maintaining exceptional
stability at 4 ◦ C. In vitro release experiments revealed a gradual release effect of CO-NLP,
aligning closely with the primary release kinetic model. Simulated in vitro digestion
experiments underscored the heightened efficacy of CO-NLP in lipid breakdown during
intestinal digestion. The inhibition rate of cholesterol esterase by CO-NLP was determined
to be 85.42 ± 0.25% at a concentration of 500 µg/mL. Notably, the average fluorescence
intensity of C. elegans in the CO-NLP group was 52.17% lower than that of the control
group, indicating the superior hypolipidemic function of CO-NLP.
These findings provide a solid theoretical foundation for the development of hypolipi-
demic functional foods. Liposome technology holds promise for enhancing the stability of
chlorella oil and augmenting its bioavailability through controlled release, thereby foster-
ing the integration of chlorella oil into food applications. The advancements in this study
offer crucial technical support for the practical utilization of CO-NLP, opening up a broad
spectrum of potential applications.

Supplementary Materials: The following supporting information about the preparation technology
of chlorella oil nanoliposomes can be downloaded: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/foods1
3010158/s1, Figure S1: Effect of lecithin and β-sitosterol mass ratio on the EE (a), particle size, and
PDI (b) of CO-NLP; Figure S2: Effect of lecithin and chlorella oil mass ratio on the EE (a), particle size,
and PDI (b) of CO-NLP; Figure S3: Effect of Tween-80 amount added on the EE (a), particle size, and
PDI (b) of CO-NLP; Figure S4: Effect of PBS buffer pH on the EE (a), size, and PDI (b) of CO-NLP;
Figure S5: Effect of ultrasonic duration on the EE (a), size, and PDI (b) of CO-NLP; Figure S6: Effect of
ultrasonic power on the EE (a), size, and PDI (b) of CO-NLP; Table S1: Plackett-Burman design matrix
and corresponding results for CO-NLP encapsulation; Table S2: Analysis of variance for Plackett-
Burman design investigating the impact of various process conditions on the encapsulation rate of
CO-NLP; Table S3: Analysis of variance for the Plackett-Burman design examining the influence
of different process conditions on the particle size of CO-NLP; Table S4: Design and results of the
Box-Behnken experiment; Table S5: Design and results of the Box-Behnken experiment; Table S6:
Analysis of variance for the developed regression equation; Table S7: Analysis of variance for the
developed regression equation; Table S8: Verification of experimental results for CO-NLP.
Author Contributions: L.T.: Conceptualization, Data curation, Investigation, Methodology, Writing—
original draft; J.Z.: Formal analysis, Methodology, visualization, Writing—review and editing,
Writing—original draft; X.B.: Methodology and Software; Z.W.: Methodology and Formal analysis;
J.W.: Conceptualization, Data curation, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Writing—
review and editing; S.X.: Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Writing—review. All authors have
read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was funded by the Financial Fund of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural
Affairs, P. R. China (NFZX2021); the Bayannaoer City National Industrial High-Tech Industrial
Demonstration Zone key project of “Science and Technology to promote Inner Mongolia development”
(grant number NMKJXM202209-2); the Central Public-interest Scientific Institution Basal Research
Fund, CAFS (No. 2023TD16).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Data is contained within the article and Supplementary Materials.
Foods 2024, 13, 158 16 of 17

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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