STM 006: General Chemistry 2

MODULE 1 INTERMOLECULAR Force between molecules.

FORCES (IMF’s) - Forces of attraction or
CHEMISTRY Study of matter—what it consists of,
(CENTRAL what its properties are, and how it repulsion which act between
SCIENCE) changes. neighboring particles (atoms,
molecules, or ions).
- Part of biology and physics.
INTRAMOLECULA Force within a molecule.
CHEMIST Scientist trained in the study of
R FORCES
chemistry.
KINETIC ENERGY Energy of an object as it is in
BIOCHEMISTRY Biologists and chemists work in both
motion.
fields.
The slower the particles in a substance move, the colder it
GEOCHEMISTRY Geology and chemistry overlap in
is.
the field.
MODULE 3
MATTER Anything that has mass and takes
up space—that is, anything that is
physically real.
ATOM Smallest particle of matter.
ELEMENT Pure chemical substance consisting
of a single type of atom.
STATES OF MATTER
SOLID Matter with definite shape, mass,
and volume.
LIQUID Matter without definite shape, but
with definite volume.
GAS Matter without definite shape, mass,
and volume. VAN DER Also known as LDF.
PHASE CHANGES OF MATTER WAALS - Includes attraction and repulsions
FORCES between atoms, molecules, and
EVAPORATION Liquid to Gas
surfaces, as well as other
CONDENSATION Gas to Liquid intermolecular forces.
SUBLIMATION Solid to Gas DIPOLE- Occur when the partial charges
CARBON Most common form of burning in DIPOLE formed within one molecule are
COMBUSTION everyday life. INTERACTIONS attracted to an opposite partial charge
in a nearby molecule.
MODULE 2 - POLAR MOLECULES align so
KINETIC Offers a description of the that the positive end of one
MOLECULAR microscopic properties of atoms (or molecule interacts with the
THEORY molecules) and their interactions, negative end of another molecules.
leading to observable macroscopic LONDON Temporary attractive force that results
properties (such as pressure, DISPERSION when the electrons in two adjacent
volume, temperature). FORCE atoms occupy positions that make the
- Helps explain why matter exists in atoms form temporary dipoles.
different phases (solid, liquid, and - Sometimes called an INDUCED
gas) and how matter can change DIPOLE-INDUCED DIPOLE
from one phase to the next. ATTRACTION.
KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY OF MATTER - London forces are the attractive
forces that cause NONPOLAR
1. MATTER is made up of particles that are constantly
substances to condense to liquids
moving.
and to freeze into solids when the
2. All PARTICLES have energy, but the ENERGY
temperature is lowered sufficiently.
varies depending on the temperature the sample of
matter is in. This in turn determines whether the POLAR Occur when there is an
substance exists in the solid, liquid, or gaseous state. MOLECULES electronegativity difference between
Molecules in the SOLID phase have LEAST amount the bonded atoms.
of energy, while GAS particles have the GREATEST NONPOLAR Occur when electrons are shared
amount of energy. MOLECULES equal between atoms of a diatomic
3. The TEMPERATURE of a substance is a measure of molecule or when polar bonds in a
the average kinetic energy of the particles. larger molecule cancel each other
4. A CHANGE IN PHASE may occur when the energy out.
of the particles is changed.
5. There are SPACES between particles of matter. The HYDROGEN Attractive force between the hydrogen
average amount of empty space between molecules BONDING attached to an electronegative atom
gets progressively LARGER as a sample of matter (POLAR) of one molecule and an
moves from the solid to liquid and gas phases. electronegative atom of a different
6. There are ATTRACTIVE FORCES between atoms/ molecule.
molecules, and these become STRONGER as the - Usually the electronegative atom is
particles move CLOSER together. These attractive OXYGEN, NITROGEN, OR
forces are called INTERMOLECULAR FORCES. FLUORINE, which has a partial
STM 006: General Chemistry 2
negative charge. SOLIDS Characterized by an extended
three-dimensional arrangement of
As bonds become more POLARIZED, the charges on the
atoms, ions, or molecules in which
atoms become GREATER, which leads to GREATER
the components are generally
molecular attractions, which leads to HIGHER boiling
locked into their positions.
points.
- Components can be arranged in
IONIC FORCE Interactions between charged atoms or a regular repeating three-
molecules. dimensional array (crystal
CATIONS Positively charged ions. lattice), which results in a
crystalline solid, or more or less
ANIONS Negatively charged ions.
randomly to produce an
COULOMB’S Attractive forces between oppositely amorphous solid.
LAW charged ions.
CRYSTALLINE Have well-defined edges and faces,
- Forces INCREASES with charge SOLIDS diffract x-rays, and tend to have
and DECREASES as the distance (CRYSTALS) sharp melting points.
between these ions is INCREASED.
- Have distinctive internal
- The LARGER the molar mass (in some cases), the structures that in turn lead to
STRONGER the IMFs. distinctive flat surfaces, or faces.
- MORE HYDROGEN BONDS means STRONGER IM - Faces intersect at angles that
FORCE. are characteristic of the
WEAKEST TO 1. London Dispersion Force substance.
STRONGEST 2. Dipole-Dipole - When exposed to x-rays, each
ATTRACTION 3. Hydrogen Bonding structure also produces a
distinctive pattern that can be
MODULE 4 used to identify the material.
LIQUID STATE OF MATTER AMORPHOUS Have irregular or curved surfaces,
1. Intermediate phase between solid and gas. SOLIDS do not give well-resolved x-ray
2. Particles in a liquid are subject to molecular diffraction patterns, and melt over a
attraction. wide range of temperatures.
3. Particles have more space between them, so they - When cleaved or broken, they
are not fixed in position. produce fragments with irregular,
4. Attraction between the particles in a liquid keeps the often curved surfaces; and they
volume of the liquid constant. have poorly defined patterns
5. Movement of the particles causes the liquid to be when exposed to x-rays because
variable in shape. their components are not
6. Liquids will flow and fill the lowest portion of a arranged in a regular array.
container, taking on the shape of the container but - Almost any substance can
not changing in volume. solidify in amorphous form if the
7. The limited amount of space between particles liquid phase is cooled rapidly
means that liquids have only very limited enough.
compressibility. GLASS Amorphous translucent solid.
EVAPORATION Process of changing from a liquid CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS AMORPHOUS SOLIDS
or solid state into vapor (like fog,
mist, or steam). Definite and regular Arranged irregularly and
geometry and have long do not have any definite
BOILING POINT Temperature at which the vapor range as well as short geometry and have short
pressure of a liquid equals the range order range order
pressure surrounding the liquid and
the liquid changes into a vapor. High melting points Devoid of sharp melting
- Liquid in a partial vacuum has a points
lower boiling point than when External forms have No external regularity
that liquid is at atmospheric regularity when formed when formed
pressure.
Clean surface after Exhibit irregular cut
VAPOR Measure of the tendency of a cleavage with knife
PRESSURE material to change into the gaseous
Definite heat of fusion Do not possess any
or vapor state, and it increases with
particular heat of fusion
temperature.
Very rigid and molecules Do not exhibit rigidity and
SURFACE Property of the surface of a liquid
cannot be deformed by deformation could be
TENSION that allows it to resist an external
mild distorting fore done by bending or
force, due to the cohesive nature of
compressing them
the water molecules.
True solid Super cooled liquids or
COHESIVE If the IMFs between LIKE
also pseudo solids
FORCES molecules are strong, the drop of
liquid is maintained. Anisotropism Isotropism
ADHESIVE If the forces between UNLIKE CRYSTALLINE FACES Intersect at right angles.
FORCES molecules are strong, the liquid is CLEAVING A CRYSTAL Deformation of the ionic
said to the wet the surface. OF AN IONIC crystal causes one plane of
MODULE 5 COMPOUND ALONG A atoms to slide along
PLANE OF IONS anther. The resulting
STM 006: General Chemistry 2
repulsive interactions
between ions with like
charges cause the layers to
separate.
LATTICE OF Atoms form a regular
CRYSTALLINE QUARTZ arrangement in a structure
(SiO2) that consists of linked
tetrahedra.
CLEAVAGE SURFACES Tend to have curved,
OF AN AMORPHOUS irregular surfaces when
SOLID cleaved.
MODULE 7
SOLUTION Homogeneous mixture
composed of two or more
substances.
- In such a mixture, a
SOLUTE is a substance
dissolved in another
substance, known as
SOLVENT.
SOLVENT Component that is present
in greater quantity.
- Determines the state of
matter in which the
solution exists.
SOLUTE Component in lesser
quantity.
Types of Solute Solvent Example
Solution
GASEOUS Gas Gas Air
SOLUTION
LIQUID Gas Liquid Carbonated Drinks
SOLUTION Liquid Liquid Alcohol in water
Solid Liquid Syrup
SOLID Gas Solid Hydrogen in
SOLUTION Liquid Solid Palladium metal
Solid Solid Amalgam (mercury
and silver, brass,
steel)
CONCENTRATION Refers to the amount of
solute in a solution or
solvent.
WATER Universal solvent
- Its molecules have a
polar arrangement of
oxygen and hydrogen
atoms—one side
(hydrogen) has a
positive electrical charge
and the other side
(oxygen) has a negative
charge. This allows the
water molecule to
become attracted to
many other different
types of molecules.