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BIO CH9 F4 Studywithadmin

Biology (Sunway University)

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9.1 Digestive
9.1 Digestive System
System

• The human digestive system is made up of a long and muscular

alimentary canal that starts from the mouth to the anus

• The parts of the alimentary canal include the mouth, oesophagus,

stomach, small intestine, large intestine and anus.
• The other organs in the digestive system are liver, gallbladder and
pancreas. Salivary, gastric and intestinal glands secrete digestive
juices into the alimentary canal

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TYPES OF DIGESTION
• Digestion is the process that breaks down large and complex pieces
of food into smaller and simple pieces that can be dissolved for
easy absorption.
• Digestion is made up of two parts, that is, physical digestion and
chemical digestion.

Physical digestion Chemical digestion

The mechanical breakdown of food The decomposition process of
to form small Particles complex molecules into simple
molecules
Involves chewing and peristalsis Involves enzymes reaction

DIGESTION OF CARBOHYDRATES IN THE MOUTH

• The digestive process begins in the mouth The presence of food in
the mouth stimulates the secretion of saliva from the salivary
glands.
• Saliva contains salivary amylase that hydrolyses starch to maltose.
• The pH of the saliva ranges between 6.5–7.5, which is suitable for
salivary amylase to act at its optimum.

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• Saliva helps food to form bolus and makes it easier to be

swallowed.
• When swallowing, the epiglottis will close the trachea opening to
prevent food from entering the trachea.
• In the oesophagus, the food bolus is moved by peristalsis.
• Peristalsis is the rhythmic contraction and relaxation of muscles
along the alimentary canal.
• Peristalsis pushes the bolus through the oesophagus until it enters
the stomach

DIGESTION OF PROTEIN IN THE STOMACH

• The surface of the stomach wall is lined with epithelial cells that
have undergone adaptations in structure and function to form
gastric glands
• These epithelial cells are chief cells, parietal cells and mucous cells

• Chief cells secrete pepsinogen.

• Parietal cells secrete hydrochloric acid.
• Mucous cells secrete mucus

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The functions of hydrochloric acid are to:

• prepare a medium with a suitable pH (Ph 1.5–2.0) for pepsin to act
• stop the enzymatic action of salivary amylase
• kill bacteria in food

• The function of mucus is to protect the stomach wall from the

reaction of hydrochloric acid and digestive enzymes
• The food in the stomach is mixed with gastric juice made up of
hydrochloric acid and pepsin.
• Food is churned by the peristaltic action of the stomach wall
muscles for a few hours.
• The contents in the stomach finally change to a semifluid called
chyme. Chyme enters the duodenum slowly when the sphincter
muscle relaxes.

DIGESTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES, PROTEINS AND

LIPIDS IN THE SMALL INTESTINE
• The small intestine consists of duodenum, jejunum and ileum.
• Duodenum is the first part of the small intestine which receives
chyme from the stomach.
• Duodenum also receives bile produced by the liver and pancreatic
juice secreted by the pancreas

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• Glands on the ileum wall secrete mucus and intestinal juice that
contains maltase, sucrase, lactase, lipase and erepsin.
• The alkali medium in the ileum allows enzymes to act at its
optimum

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Simple molecules produced from the digested food are absorbed in

the ileum of the small intestine.

The long ileum is adapted

to absorb nutrients because
its internal layer is folded and
covered by tiny projections called
villi

Villus has the following

adaptations to absorb
nutrients :
• The epithelial layer of the villus is
one cell thick. This helps
accelerate nutrient absorption.
• Goblet cells secrete mucus to aid
digestion.
• The network of blood capillaries
helps to transport digestive
products to the whole body.
• Lacteal carries droplets of fatty
acids and glycerol.
• The intestinal glands secrete
intestinal juices that have
digestive enzymes.

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On the surface of the villus epithelium, there are many tiny projections
called microvillus. Microvillus provides a large surface area to
increase the rate of nutrient absorption

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Digested food Absorbed Through Methods of

Absorption
Fructose Epithelial cells Facilitated diffusion
into blood
Glucose and galactose Capillaries Active transport

Amino acids Active transport

Vitamins b and c Absorbed with water

water Osmosis

Fatty acids and Epithelial cells Simple diffusion

glycerols recombine into lacteal
through the
condensation process
to form tiny droplets
of lipids in the
epithelial cells
Vitamins A, D, E, K Simple diffusion
dissolve in the lipid

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• The human circulatory system consists of the blood circulation

system and the lymphatic system to help transport nutrients to be
assimilated.
• In the assimilation process that occurs in cells, nutrients are used
to form complex compounds or structures of components.
• The blood capillaries in the small intestine combine to form the
hepatic portal vein that transports blood to the liver.
• Lacteals combine to form bigger lymph vessels in the lymphatic
system.
• Then, the contents of the lymph vessels enter the thoracic duct
that flows into the left subclavian vein. This lipid is then
transported by blood throughout the body

Metabolism of digested food

Detoxification

Storage of nutrients
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Absorption of water and vitamins

Formation of faeces

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A balanced diet refers to a diet that consists of all seven food classes
(carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, vitamins, mineral salts, fibre and
water) in the correct proportion and balanced quantity according to
individual needs so that optimal health can be maintained.

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• Obesity is caused by the storage of excess fats as a result of imbalanced food

intake and use of energy.

• Individuals who are obese need to reduce the intake of carbohydrates and fats
as well as increase the intake of vegetables and fruits.
• Otherwise, a diet with excessive saturated fats and high cholesterol may cause
diabetes mellitus and various cardiovascular diseases such as atherosclerosis
and hypertension which may result in heart attacks (myocardial infarction) or
stroke if not treated

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9.7
9.7 Health
Health Issues
Issues Related
Related to
to the
the
Digestive
Digestive System
System and
and Eating
Eating Habits
Habits

• The food class that is

most important in the
defaecation process is fibre.
• Intake of diet that is high in
fibre such as fruits and
vegetables can smoothen
bowel movements.
• This can prevent health
problems such as
constipation, colon cancer,
rectum cancer and
haemorrhoid.

functions of fibre are to:

• stimulate peristalsis
• absorb and expel toxic
substances
• regulate the absorption of
glucose especially for
diabetes mellitus patients
• increase the population of
beneficial bacteria in the
large intestine

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• Besides, the intake of a large amount of water can ensure that the
faeces stay soft and move easily along the large intestine to aid the
process of defaecation

GASTRITIS

ANOREXIA NERVOSA

BULIMIA NERVOSA

MUSCLE DYSMORPHIA

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