Science and Tech.

1
212
Science and Technology
S.S.C Course
Andhra Pradesh Open School Society

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First Published - 2020
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DIRECTOR
A.P. Open School Society
Guntur.

+, -. !
/ 0 " 12 34
$
ii
FOREWORD
The Andhra Pradesh Open School Society (APOSS) is the first State level Open School
established in 1991. The APOSS works with the motto of providing education to the learners,
who dropped out from their formal school education owing to the unexpected problems in
their lives. APOSS aims to offer quality education with the same academic standards on par
with formal education boards. Hence, APOSS has been endeavouring to update/revise the
text books as per changing conditions in the society and needs of the learners.
This text book is developed in accordance with The National Curriculum Frame Work,
2005 and The Andhra Pradesh State Curriculum Frame Work - 2011. The text books are
developed in open distance learning methodologies keeping the distant learners academic standards
in view. The textbooks will surely provide knowledge to the learners in discharging their day-
to-day responsibilities, for their higher studies and in seeking employement. Though the textbooks
are developed in self learning mode, the learners are advised to attend personal contact prgramme
for better understanding of the subjects. The 30 days personal contact programme is meant
for clarifying the doubts and full time teaching may not be possible as in formal education. The
learners are advised to go through the text books before attending each of the personal contact
programme sessions for better understanding of the subjects.
I express my sincere gratitude to the Special Chief Secretary, School education, Govt.
of Andhra Pradesh for extending permission to develop the textbooks. I appreciate the efforts
of all the Professors, Lecturers and the Academicians who participated in the development
of Text Books. I also convey my gratitude to the Academic Department of the Andhra Pradesh
Open School Society.
My best wishes to learners ……
Dr. K.V. SRINIVASULU REDDY

Director,
Andhra Pradesh Open School Society,
Guntur, Amaravathi.
iii
Text Book Development Committee - Physical Science
Andhra Pradesh Open School Society – Amaravati
Chief Advisor
Dr. K. V. Srinivasulu Reddy, M.A., M.Ed., Ph.D.,
Director, AP Open School Society,
Guntur, Amaravathi
Chief Editors
Prof. D.S.V.V.D. Prasad Prof. P.V.V. Satyanarayana
Chairman, Professor of Chemistry (Retd.)
PG BOS in Physics Department of Physics, Acharya Nagarjuna University,
Andhra University, Visakhapatnam. Guntur.
Editors
Dr. K. Ankama Rao Dr. B. Hari Babu
Associate Professor, Associate Professor,
Head of the Department of Physics, Department of Chemistry
VSR&NVR College,Tenali. Acharya Nagarjuna University, Guntur.
Authors
Sri D.Venkata Subba Naidu, S.A(P.S) Sri A.V. Sudhakar, S.A.(P.S)
Z.P High School, Tallamapuram, D.N.R Z.P Boys High School,
Proddutur, YSR Kadapa Dist. Podalakur, SPSR Nellore Dist.
Sri Y. Guru Prasad, S.A(P.S) Sri G.K. Shamsheer Khan, S.A.(P.S)

Z.P High School, Revuru. Z.P High School, Tekumanda,
Ananthasgaram, SPSR Nellore Dist. Bangarupalyam, Chittoor Dist.
Sri V. Yekambareswara Rao, S.A(P.S) Sri S. Brahmanandha Reddy, SA(P.S)

S.S.Z.P High School, Chilakaluripet, Z.P High School, Valicherla
Guntur Dist. Hanumantunipadu, Prakasam Dist.
Physical Science Co-Ordinator

Smt. Ganti Rajeswari
APOSS, Guntur.
Design & Printing

Pavan Graphics
Sri Sunkara Koteswara Rao, Smt. Sunkara Sunitha,
B-31, F-3 Vignanpuri colony, Vidyanagar, Hyderabad - 500 044.
iv
Text Book Development Committee - Biological Science
Andhra Pradesh Open School Society – Amaravati
Chief Advisor
Dr. K. V. Srinivasulu Reddy, M.A., M.Ed., Ph.D.,
Director, AP Open School Society,
Guntur, Amaravathi
Chief Editor
Prof. Ummey Shameem
Chairperson, Board of Studies in Zoology (P.G).
College of Science and Technology
Andhra University, Visakhapatnam.
Editor
Sri K. Sreeramulu
Head of the Dept. of Zoology (Retd.),
VSR&NVR College,Tenali, Guntur.
Authors
Sri K. Sreeramulu Sri Meda Hari Prasad, S.A(B.S),
Head of the Dept. of Zoology (Retd.), Z.P. High School, Giddaluru,
VSR&NVR College,Tenali, Guntur. Sanjamala, Kurnool Dist.
Sri Pramod Kumar Padhy, S.A(B.S), Sri Dasarapalli David, S.A.(B.S),
Z.P. High School, Sohalalaputtuga. Assessment Cell, SCERT,
Kaviti, Srikakulam Dist Amaravati, A.P.
Sri Ch. Veerappaiah, H.M., Sri Sk. Mahmod Gouse, S.A.(B.S),
Z.P. High School, Boggaram Z.P. High School, Kandlagunta,
Ipur, Guntur Dist. Nakarekallu, Guntur Dist.
Smt. K. Manjula, S.A(B.S), Smt. G. Santhi Priya, S.A(B.S),
Z.P. High School, Palasamudram, Z.P. High School, Janapadu,
Gorantla, Ananthapuramu Dist. Piduguralla, Guntur Dist
Sri G. Salman Raju, H.M. Sri V. Narayana Rao, S.A(B.S),
VZP. High School, Lepakshi, Z.P. High School, T.K.padu
Ananthapuramu Dist. Chejerla, SPSR Nellore Dist.
Sri V. Srinivasulu, S.A(B.S),

MPUOS Chintalapalli, Mudthur Mandel
Kurnool Dist.
Bio Science Co-Ordinator

Sri K. Ravi Kumar
APOSS, Guntur.
Design & Printing
Pavan Graphics
Sri Sunkara Koteswara Rao, Smt. Sunkara Sunitha,
B-31, F-3 Vignanpuri colony, Vidyanagar, Hyderabad - 500 044.
v
A Note to the Learners
Dear Learner,
Science and Technology plays a keyrole in the development of a country. It is no wonder
to say that the countries which developed technologically will progress automatically. Now a days
we see the presence of science in every sphere of life. Technology develops on the principles of
science. Technology reduces the physical strain, increases the speed and accuracy in the work
we do in our day to day life.
Present day human life is intertwined with Science and Technology and at the same time
causing severe harm to the environment. The increasing needs of man is destroying the nature. As
a result the natural resources are destroyed, sever adverse impact on climate and resulting natural
calamaties. The changes in food habits and life style is resulting in this pread of new diseases and
health problems throwing challenges to human existence. Again the innovations in science is the
only solution for all the above ills.
The Physics and Chemistry lessons presented in this textbook are not only helpful in your
day to day life but also helpful in your higher studies.
The lesson on mechanics will explain about the speed, velocity, momentum and force by
which we use various machines and appliances in our daily life. You will learn the Newton’s law
of motion and how it helps you in life. The lessons work and energy, Heat and Electricity will
enable you to learn their definitions meaning and their judicious use while handling such machines/
appliances.
The lessons on ‘Light’ helps you to learn about the reflection and refraction of light and the
importance of light in life. You also learn about the role of lenses in vision defects. The lesson
Acids, Bases and salts enables you to classify various substances around us. It helps to estimate
the value of PH of liquids existed in human body and study their impact on health. You also learn
about atomic structure, chemical reactions and importance of chemistry.
In Biological science section, the lessons Nutrition, Respiration, Circulatory system, Reproduction
will help you to learn about human body and to inculcate the healthy living life style. The lesson
on Natural Resources, Environment will help you to identify the importance and preservation of
flora and fauna not just for present generation but also for furture generations. The Textbook is
developed in easy to understand and self learning mode keeping the open distance learners in view.
This Textbook will definitely develop the skills i.e., expression, information gathering, reasoning
capacity in learners and impart sufficient knowledge for higher studies.
Hoping for the success in your efforts……………..
Coordinators, Scicence and Technology
vi
A Note to the Subject Counsellors
Andhra Pradesh Open School functions with the aim of providing education opportunities
to those who missed formal school education for various reasons. The learners who admit into
APOSS courses are of different age groups and academic capabilities. Hence the subject counsellors
play a pivotol role in Open Distance Education so as to create interest among learners of
heterogenous group.
The learner that approaches you does not have all the facilities that a regular student has.
The knowledge that he/she attained at earlier age might be forgotten. Hence, you must have
a lot of patience and endurance to clarify the doubts of the learners. Then only, they approach
you unreservedly. You must pull out your vigorous support for their blissful and joyful learning.
With a view to hand over the practical knowledge useful for daily life, the concepts related
to Physics, Chemistry, Botany, Zoology, Environment and Diseases their remidies are presented
in this book. The scope of the lesson, the objectives etc. are elucidated in detail with the help
of many day-to-day examples, descriptions, illustrations and pictures. The direct intraction of
the subject counsellors with the learners in PCP classes will be of more supportive for better
understanding the self learning material.
The success of a text book depends not only on the writers and the publishers but also
on the subject counsellors who transmit the material successfully to the learners. So, discuss
all the topics and motivate the learners in your contact classes. You, make clear the information
provided under ‘Introduction’ given at the opening of each chapter. You can let them know
clearly the objectives they have to achieve through this course. Encourage learners to comeout
with the points on ‘Summary’ on their own after completion of the chapter. Give confidence
to them to solve the questions given at the end of each chapter on their own. This is for their
self-evaluation. The solutions for these are given at the end of the each chapter. The answers
to intext questions given at the end of the each chapter can be checked only after the solutions
are attained by the learners on their own and you have to motivate learners as such. Encourage
them to face the examinations happily.
Hoping that you can pave the golden pathway to the learners that come within your reach
………
Academic Department
vii
Contents
S. No. Name of the Chapter Page No.
1. Mechanics 1 - 20
2. Work and Energy 21 - 36
3. Heat 37 - 54
4. Chemical Reactions and Equations 55 - 72
5. Acids, Bases and Salts 73 - 92
6. Atomic Structure 93 - 110
7. Reflection of Light 111 - 132
8. Refraction of Light 133 - 154
9. Classification of Elements - Periodic Table 155 - 176
10. Chemical Bonding 177 - 198
11. Electricity and Magnetism 199 - 230
12. Chemistry of Carbon Compounds 231 - 256
viii
Contents
S. No. Name of the Chapter Page No.
13. Nutrition – Food Supply System 257 - 274
14. Respiration - The energy Generating System 275 - 288
15. Circulatory System 289 - 300
16. Excretion - Excretory Products and their Elimination 301 - 316
17. Control and Coordination 317 - 336
18. Reproduction 337 - 362
19. Living Cell 363 - 374
20. Heredity and Evolution 375 - 392
21. Our environment – Our concern 393 - 416
22. Natural Resources – Our Concern 417 - 434
23. Common human parasites and Diseases 435 - 438
Model Question Paper 439 - 442
ix
Personal Contact Programme Schedule
S. No. Name of the Chapter P.C.P No.
1. Mechanics 1
2. Work and Energy 3
3. Heat 5
4. Chemical Reactions and Equations 7
5. Acids, Bases and Salts 9
6. Atomic Structure 11
7. Reflection of Light 13
8. Refraction of Light 14
Preparatory Exam - I 15
9. Classification of Elements - Periodic Table 17, 18
10. Chemical Bonding 20
11. Electricity & Magnetism 23, 24
12. Chemistry of Carbon Compounds 26
x
Personal Contact Programme Schedule
S. No. Name of the Chapter P.C.P No.
13. Nutrition – Food Supply System 2
14. Respiration-The Energy Generating System 4
15. Circulatory System 6
16. Excretion - Excretory Products and their Elimination 8
17. Control and Coordination 10
18. Reproduction 12
19. Living Cell 16
20. Heredity and Evolution 19
21. Our environment – Our concern 21, 22
22. Natural Resources – Our Concern 25
23. Common human parasites and Diseases 27
Preparatory Exam - II 28
Revision of Syllabus and
Public Model Paper Explanation 29, 30
xi
1
Mechanics
Mechanics is the part of science concerned with the behaviour of physical bodies when subjected
to forces or displacements and the subsequent effects of the bodies on their environment. In this, we
deal with Kinematics and dynamics. In kinematics, we describe motion of bodies without considering
the causes of motion and about rest, motion, displacement, velocity, acceleration, etc. In dynamcs, we
study motion of bodies considering the causes of motion and about force, momentum frictional force
etc.
Objectives
After completing this lesson you will be able to :
distinguish between rest and motion.
describe various types of motion such as rectilinear, circular, rotational and oscillatory.
define the distance, displacement, speed, velocity, and acceleration.
describe the uniform, non uniform velocities, accelerations.
establish the relation between distance-speed, displacement -velocity, and velocity-acceleration.
describe the average speed, average velocity.
apply these equations to make daily life situations convenient.
explain the cause of motion and the concept of force.
distinguish between balanced and unbalanced forces.

2 Science and Technology
define the terms inertia, mass, and momentum.

state and explain the three laws of motion and explain their significance in daily life and
nature.
identifying the relation ship between force, mass and acceleration.
explain the force of friction and analyse the factors on which it depends.
1.1 Rest
What is rest ? When will you say that the body is at rest ? If an object is not moving, can we
say it is at rest ? All these questions arises in our mind. Galileo says that the physical quantity time
is constant. So whatever we measure, that should be measured in accordance with time only.
An object is said to be at rest if its position does not changes in accordance with its surroundings
and time.
Examples : Mountains, Buildings etc.. because their position does not change with time. A car in
parking slot is said to be at rest because its position does not change with respect to surroundings
and time.
Motion: An object is said to be in motion, if its position changes in accordance with its surroundings
and time.
Examples:
1. Moving cars, buses, trains, cricket balls, change their position with surroundings and time.
2. All the planets revolving around the sun. The position of the planet changes in accordance with
the sun and time.
Rest and motion are relative terms

Example:
1. The passengers sitting in a moving train are at rest with respect to each other but at the same
time they are also in motion with respect to the surroundings like trees, buildings, etc. which are
outside the train.
2. Mountains, buildings and trees are in rest with reference to the position of the earth. We can
also say that they are in motion with resepct to the sun.
Intext Questions (1.1)

1. What is rest ?
2. What is motion ?
Mechanics 3
1.2 Types of motions

If we obsereve carefully, we will find that everything in the universe is in motion. However,
different objects move differently. Some objects move along a straight line, in a curved path, and also
in some other way. According to this, we can say that there are three types of motion.
Translatory motion
Rotatory motion
Vibratory motion
Translatory motion
Observe how various objects are moving around. Do they move along a straight line ? Do they
move along a circle ?
‘In translatory motion, a body moves along a line without any rotation. The line may be straight
or curved, in translatory motion. All the particles of the body are parallel to each other and have equal
positions in equal intervals of time. A car moving in a straight line is an example for translatory motion.
Some examples of translatory motion in daily life
1. The motion of train
2. The motion of birds
3. The motion of an airoplane
4. The motion of molecules in a gas
Translatory motion is further classified into three types, they are linear motion, circular motion
and random motion.
Linear motion
‘Straight line motion of a body is known as its linear motion.’
Fig. 1.1
A man threw a ball on a level road. The path of the ball travelled in a straight line, so the motion
of the ball is linear.
Some examples of Linear motion in daily life :
1. The motion of a car on the straight road
2. The motion of a football
3. Sliding of a boy on a straight pole
4. Freely falling body
Circular motion
The motion of an object at a fixed point or axis which is outside the body is known as circular
motion. Earth revolving around the sun is an example of circular motion. The position of the earth
changes continuously and its path is circular.
Fig. 1.2 Motion of Earth

A bicycle or a car moving along a circular track possesses circular motion. The motion of the
moon aroud the earth is also an example of circular motion.
Some examples of circular motion in daily life

1. The motion of an electron around the nucleus
2. The motion of toy car on the circular track
3. The motion of planets around the sun
4. Hands of a clock.
5. Athlete running in a circular path
Mechanics 5
Random motion
The disorderded or irregular motion of a body
is called random motion. Have you noticed the type
of motion of insects and birds? Their movements
are irregular and disorder. The motion of insects
and birds is random motion. The motion of dust or
smoke particles in the air is also random motion.
The brownian motion of a gas or liquid molecules
aligning in a zigzag manner is also an example of
random motion. Random motion of gas molecules
is called Brownian motion.
Fig. 1.3 Random motion of the particles
Rotatory motion
The motion of a body on its own axis passing through its centre of mass or along its own axis
is called rotatory motion.
Some examples of rotatory motion in daily life.
1. Motion of the fan
2. Motion of earth
3. Motion of the top
4. Motion of wheel
5. Motion of wheel of a bicycle
Vibratory or oscillatory motion

‘The to and fro motion of a body about its mean
position is known as vibratory motion.
A bob suspended with help of string is shown
in the Fig. 1.4. Pull a bob aside and release it. It moves
back and forth about its mean position. The motion of A B
the bob repeats from one extreme to the other extreme
on same path. It is called an oscillatory motion. O
Fig. 1.4 Motion of pendulum
Examples of vibratory motion:

1. Motion of pendulum of a clock about its mean position.
2. Motion of the hammer of a ringing electric bell.
3. Motion of the string of a sitar.
Distance and displacement are two physical quantities that may seem to mean the same thing
yet have distinctly different definitions and meanings.
Distance is a scalar quantity that refers to how much length of the path an object has covered
during its motion.
The path length travelled by the body is called distance.
While measuring the distance travelled by the body we calculate the length of the path covered.
It is represented with letter ‘d’.
Units CGS system - Centimeter or cm:
MKS or SI system - Meter or m
Displacement is a vector quantity . It refers to how far the object displaces from its position
in a specified direction. It refers to the over all change in position. We can also say that it is the
shortest distance travelled by an object. In finding displacement, the initial and final positions of the
object are only important. It doesnot require the path travelled by the object. It is represented with
letter ‘s’.
The distance between initial and final positions of a body in a straight line is called displacement.
Units CGS system Centimeter or cm : MKS or SI system meter or m
Example : Eswar goes from his house to a factory by a motorcycle in 15 minutes.
Fig. 1.5
Mechanics 7
Displacement is shortest distance between house and factory in a straight line S = 120 m
Distance travelled by Eswar, d = 200 m

1. Give some examples of translatory motion in daily life ?
2. What is random motion ?
3. Units of displacement in CGS & SI sytem.
1.3 Speed
Usually we travel to visit different places.To reach a place , we need to estimate how far the
place is and the time it takes to travel. By this we will know how far we have to travel and how
quickly we can reach that place.Hence the measure of how fast we can reach a place is called SPEED.
Speed = Distance travelled by the body in unit time.
Distance travelled
Thus, Speed = time taken
Its SI unit is meter / second which is written as ms 1.

CGS unit is centimeter / second. The other commonly used unit is km h 1.
1000 m 5
i.e., 1kmh1 = ms 1
60 u 60s 18
Intext Questions(1.3)
1. Define speed ?
2. Write the SI units of speed ?
1.4 Velocity
We may have different ways to reach a destination. But usually we choose the shortest path.
That is why we can reach our destination quickly. The shortest distance to our destination is called
displacement. The physical quantity which has direction is called vector quantity and the physical quantity
which does not have direction is called scalar quantity. The displacement has direction so it is a vector
quantity . The direction of displacement can be shown from initial position and final position .How
quickly the displacement occurs is called velocity. The rate of displacement of a body is called velocity.
Both velocity and speed have same units.

SI unit is meter / second or kilometre / hour.
CGS unit is centimeter / second.
Velocity is a vector quantity, it has direction. Its direction is along the direction of displacement.
Speed is a scalar quantity so it has no direction.
Displacement
velocity = Time taken
Average speed and average velocity : Generally bodies move in unequal speeds that is body
travels unequal distances in equal intervals of time or equal distances in unequal intervals of time. So
when a body is in non uniform motion, its speed cannot be estimated . In such a case, we find the
average speed of the body .
Average speed : The ratio of total distance traveled by the body to the total time taken is called
average speed .
total distance travelled

Average speed = total time taken
Similarly we can also define average velocity.

Average velocity : The ratio of total displacement covered by the body to the total time taken is
called average velocity .
total displacement
Average velocity = total time taken
Uniform velocity : If a body has equal displacement in equal intervals of time however small these
intervals may be then the body is said to be in uniform velocity.
Non uniform velocity : The body travells unequal displacements in equal intervals or equal displacements
in unequal intervals of time then the body is said to be non-uniform velocity.
1. A body moving with constant speed in a circular path. Here, although the A
E
body is travelling with the constant speed its direction changes, for instance
if the body lies in position A its direction is east, and if comes to the position W
B
B its direction is west. Its magnitude of velocity is constant but direction changes.
so the body is travelling with non uniform velocity.
Mechanics 9
2. A body is moving with variable speed in a straight line. even though its direction of motion is
constant the body is said to be in non-uniform velocity. For example a body starts from rest.
A car reaching the traffic signals.
Acceleration
When a body is in non uniform motion, it has different velocities at different intervals of time.
If the velocity of the body increases with time, then it is said to be in acceleration.
Acceleration : The rate of change of velocity of a body is called acceleration.
Change in velocity
Acceleration =
Time interval
SI unit is m/s2
CGS unit is c/s2.
Acceleration is a vector quantity. Its direction is along the direction of change in velocity.
For example, if the velocity of the body changes from 5 m/s to 25 m/s in the time interval of 4 secs.
0 5m/s 10m/s 15 m/s 20 m/s 25 m/s
Fig. 1.6
25 5
Acceleration = = 5 m/s2
4
As shown in figure 1.6, a body is moving with acceleration along positive X-axis. Here the
velocity of the body increases at the rate of 5 metre/second.
If the change in velocity of the body is equal in equal intervals of time then the body is said to
be in constant acceleration.Then the body is said to be in uniform acceleration.
In figure 1.7, the velocity- time graph, a body moving with uniform acceleration is shown. The
nature of the graph is straight line and inclined to the time axis. If the velocity of the body decreases
with time, then the body is said to be in negative acceleration called retardatio n.
Velocity (ms1)
X
Time(s)
Fig. 1.7 velocity - time graph of an object moving with uniform acceleration
When velocity of the object is contstant, acceleration will be zero. Thus, for uniform motion,
the acceleration is zero and for non-uniform motion, the acceleration is non-zero.
Equations of motion: A body starts with velocity u, after t seconds its displacement is s and the
velocity is v.
1. Derivation v = u + at is velocity acquired by the body in time ‘t’.
Initial velocity = u;
Final velocity = v;
Change in velocity = Final velocity – Initial velocity = v u
Change in time = t at t= 0s at 't'
s
Change in velocity
Acceleration a=
Time Fig. 1.8
vu
a =
t
or at = v u
v u = at
v = u + at ...... (1)
1 2
2. Derivation S = ut + at .
2
Total displacement
Average velocity =
Total time
vu s
2 t
2.s = (v + u).t
Mechanics 11
2s = (u + at + u).t ... (from i)
2s = (2u + at).t
2s = 2ut + at2
2s 2ut at 2
dividing with 2 on both sides
2 2 2
1 2
S = ut + at
2
3. Derivation v2 u2 = 2as
Change in velocity
Acceleration a =
Time
vu
a =
t
at = v u
vu
t =
a
Total displacement
Average velocity =
Total time
vu s
2 t
Substitute t value from (1) in the above equation
vu s
2 vu
a
(v + u) (v u) = 2as
v2 u2 = 2as

1. Define velocity.
2. What is uniform acceleration.
3. Define acceleration.
1.5 Force
In our daily life we observe that some effort is required to put a stationary object into motion
or to stop a moving object. Generally we experience this as a muscular effort and say that we must
push or hit or pull an object to change its state of motion. If we stretch or compress the spring its
shape changes. If we push a wall it does not change it’s position. Iron nails are placed near the
magnet, nails are attracted by it. From all these activities we conclude that something is playing an
important role, that something is called force. Force is that which change or tries to change the position
or shape of the object.
Force : Force is one which changes or tries to change the state or shape of an object.
Units : CGS units dyne; SI system Newton;
If a Pen placed on the table how long it will be in that position. Its position does not change
until someone picks it up. Rolling ball doesn’t stop until we apply force. Freely falling ball doesn’t
change its direction until to hit somebody. From all these, we conclude that the object doesn’t change
its state by itself. The property of body which does not change its state of position by itself is called
Inertia.
Inertia : The inherent property of body which doesn’t change its state of position by itself is called
inertia.
Types of inertia:
1. Inertia of rest
2. Inertia of motion
3. Inertia of direction
Inertia of rest: The property of body doesn’t change its state of rest by itself is called inertia of rest.
Tennis ball and cricket ball placed on table. To change its state we have to apply a force, but
we observe that cricket ball requires more force than tennis ball because mass of the cricket ball is
more than tennis ball. It means that inertia of rest depends on the mass of body. Mass is the measurement
of inertia.
Units : CGS System: gram SI System : Kg;

Mechanics 13
Take a glass. Place a card board

over it. Put a coin on it as shown in the
figure. Pull the card suddenly. What you
observe? The coin falls in glass. If we
pull the card slowly what you observe?
Both coin and card move together, coin
doesn’t falls in glass Fig. 1.9
Some of the examples for Inertia at rest are given below
Fruits fall down due to inertia of rest when the branches of a tree are shaken. Fruits and branches
are both at rest, but when branches of trees are shaken, branches starts moving where as fruits
remain its state of rest and so separated from the branches and falls down.
Dust particles on a carpet falls down if we beat the carpet with a stick. It is another example
for the inertia of rest. When we beat the carpet with a stick carpet starts moving, but the dust
particles remains in its state of rest and separated from the carpet.
Inertia of motion :
The inherent property of a body which does not change its state of motion by itself is called
intertia of motion.
Two balls having same mass are moving with different velocities. If we want to stop these moving
balls, more force is required for the body having a higher velocity.
Two balls having different masses are moving with same velocity. If we want to stop these
moving balls, more force is required for the body having heavy mass.
From these we conclude that the force required to stop the moving bodies depends not only
on the mass but also on the velocity of the body. The product of these two quantities can only change
the state of the moving body.This product is called as Momentum.
Momentum : The product of mass and velocity is called the momentum. It is vector quantity. It is
represented with letter ‘P’.
Momentum (P) = Mass (m) u Velocity (V)
Velocity is vector quantity, mass is scalar quantity so the momentum (P) is a vector quantity.
Units CGS system: gm-cm/s SI System: Kg-m/s
Examples of inertia of motion
1. The passenger in a running bus tends to lean forward, when the bus stops suddenly
2. If a person throws a ball vertically upwards in a moving train. It comes back to his hand.
3. In a sports field an athlete often runs before taking a long jump.
4. A person jumping out of a moving train falls down
Inertia of direction : The property of the moving body doesn’t change its direction by itself is called
interia of direction.
Fig. 1.10(a) Fig. 1.10(b)

Fig. 1.10 Tone is tied with a string and whirled in circular path
A stone tied with a string and whirled in a circular path as shown in the figure 1.10(a). If he
released the stone at any instant, it doesn’t move in circular path, it goes in direction is shown in the
figure 1.10(b), because the stone doesn’t change his direction by itself.
Examples of inertia of direction
1. When a car moves in a curved path the person sitting in the car thrown outwards in order to
maintain his direction of motion due to inertia of direction.
2. Mud through rotating wheels : We have seen that the mud on rotating wheels of a vehicle
thrown out in a tangential direction. This is due to inertia of direction. That is why the mud
guards are provided in vehicles over the wheels to stop this mud to fly off tangentially outwards.
3. Our protection through umbrella : The rain drops falling vertically downwards, cannot change
their direction of motion hence they cannot wet us when the umbrella is up.
What is a Balanced Force?

When two forces of equal magnitude are acting on a body, in opposite directions is known as
a Balanced Force. In Balanced Force, a body continues to be in its position i.e. it may be continuously
moving with the same speed and in the same direction or it may be still in its position.
Mechanics 15
Example of Balanced Forces

Suppose you are pushing a wall and as expected, the wall does not move and neither do you.
It means that you and the wall are exerting a balanced force on each other.
In playing a game of tug-of-war between two equally matched teams. Neither of the teams is
able to pull the opposing team towards itself.
Fig. 1.11 Playing a game of tug-of-war
What is an unbalanced force?
When two forces acting in opposing directions on a body not equal in magnitude are known as
an unbalanced force. In an unbalanced force, a body changes its position i.e. we can observe a
moving object changing its direction, either increasing the speed or decreasing the speed and a body
at rest starts to move and vice versa.

1. Wha is balanced force ?
2. Write the units of momentum ?
3. Write the 3 types of inertia ?
1.6 Newton’s laws of Motion

An object is at rest it continues in the state of rest and when an object is in motion it continues
in the state of motion with the same speed and direction unless acted upon by an unbalanced force
Newton’s First law : A body continues to be in its state of rest or uniform motion unless it is compelled
by an external force.
Examples:
Fig. 1.12
Wearing a seat belt in a car:
If an accident occurs, or if brakes are applied to the car suddenly, the tendency of the body
will be to continue its inertia of motion and move forward, probably proving fatal. To prevent
such accidents, seat belts are used which stops your body moving forward.
A book lying on the table remains at rest as long as no net force acts on it.
A moving object does not stop by itself.
Newton’s second law : The rate of change of momentum is directly proportional to the external force
acting on it .The direction of the change in the momentum is along the direction of the net force.
m(v u)
F ma
t
Examples:
A truck which carries less mass will have a bigger acceleration than a truck which carries more
mass
When we push a small and a big table, with same force the small table will have a bigger
acceleration so that it reaches the destination faster.
Newton’s Third Law of Motion : For every action there is always an equal and opposite reaction.
The action and reaction are acting on different bodies.
Explanation : Whenever a force is applied over a body, that body also applies same force of equal
magnitude and in opposite direction.
Action = Reaction
F1 = F 2
Examples :
Walking of a person - A person is able to walk because of the Newton’s Third Law of Motion.
During walking, a person pushes the ground in backward direction and in the reaction the ground also
pushes the person with equal magnitude of force but in opposite direction. This enables him to move
in forward direction against the push.
Recoil of gun - When bullet is fired from a gun, the bullet also pushes the gun in opposite direction,
with equal magnitude of force. This results in gunman feeling a backward push from the gun.
Mechanics 17
Propulsion of a boat in forward direction – Sailor pushes water with oar in backward direction;
resulting water pushing, the boat in forward direction. Force applied by oar and water are of equal
magnitude but in opposite directions.
Our hand feels pain when we hit the table because the table exerts force as reaction on our
hand.
When a person is swimming, the force exerts from his hand to the water resulting in to a reacting
force from the water equal to his hand’s force, but in the opposite direction. So he moves forward
even though he swung his hands backward.
1. Write the newton’s third law of moion.
2. Any two examples of Newton’s third Law of motion.
1.7 Frictional force

If we throw a ball on a rough surface, it stops after some time, why? If there is no force acted
on the ball according to Newton’s first law it has to be in a moving condition continuously but it will
stops due to some force acted against the motion. Where that force was acting against? No doubt
it acted at the ball’s contact with the surface of the road. When we observe the surface of the road
with the naked eye it appears to be smooth. If we observe with a microscope it appears to be irregular.
These irregularities oppose the motion. The force which opposes the relative motion between two
surfaces which are in contact is called frictional force.
Frictional force results from the interactions of surfaces. The frictional force is always opposite
to the direction of motion and tends to decrease the net force. All materials have their own coefficient
of friction, in other words frictional force depends on the nature of material. Another factor affecting
frictional force is the normal force. When you apply a force on an object, then the frictional force
present and resists with a force in opposite direction.
Examples of Frictional force
We cannot fix nail in the wood or wall if there is no friction, due to friction only nail holds on
the wall.
A horse cannot pull a cart without friction.
You cannot to sit on a chair without friction.
You can’t wear your dress without Friction.
Friction will helps you in writing with pen or pencil.
1. What is frictional force ?
2. Give any two examples of frictional force ?
Key words :
Rest, motion, distance, displacement, speed, velocity, acceleration, force, inertia, momentum,
action, reaction.
Summary
A body is said to be in rest when its position does not change with time.
Straight line motion of body is known as its linear motion.
The motion of an object about a fixed point or axis which is outside the body is known as
circular motion.
The to and fro motion of a body about its mean position is known as vibratory motion.
The length of the path travelled by the body is called distance. Distance is scalar, it is always
positive, it represents with letter ‘d’ units cm or m.
The change in the position of a body in specified direction is called displacement. It is vector
quantity, it may be positive, negative and zero, units : cm, m.
If distance / displacement = 1, Straight line motion or linear motion.
The rate of distance is called speed. It is scalar quantity, units cm/s or m/s
The rate of displacement is called velocity. It is vector quantity. It may be positive, negative
or zero. Units cm/s or m/s
The equations of uniform accelerated motion are given by
V = u + at
1
S = ut + at2
2
v u = 2as
2 2
Force changes or tries to change the state or shape of an object

Units in CGS - dyne,
SI - Newton.
The product of mass and velocity is called momentum. Momentum is represented with letter
‘P’. It is a vector quantity. Its direction is along the direction of velocity.
Units in CGS - Gram - centimeter / second
SI - kilogram - meter /second
First Law of motion : A body continues to be in its state of rest for uniform motion unless
a net force acts on it.
Second Law of motion : The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional
to the net force acting on it and it take place in the direction of net force.
Third Law of motion : If an object exerts a force on the other object, the second object
exerts a force on the first with equal magnitude but in opposite direction.
Terminal Questions
1. Define the following
a) rest b) motion c) velocity d) speed
2. Write the differences between uniform velocity and non uniform velocity?
3. Define force?
4. What is average velocity?
Mechanics 19
5. What is frictional force?

6. What is momentum?
7. Define Newton’s laws of motion?
8. Explain different types of motions with examples?
9. What is inertia? What gives the measure of inertia ?
10. Write any three daily life examples of friction?
11. Write any three examples of Newton’s third law?
12. Write the differences between distance and displacement ?
Multiple Choice Questions :
1. Speed X time is equal to
A) Displacement B) distance C) velocity D) None
2. A moving car approaches to traffic signal
A) Uniform velocity B) Non-uniform velocity
C) Instantaneous velocity D) None
3. A body doesn’t change its position with respect to the surroundings, it is said to be
A) Motion B) Rest C) Both A & B D) None
4. Units of momentum in SI system
A) Kg-m/s B) g-cm/s C) Newton D) cm/s
5. If line of motion is curved then body exhibit
A) linear motion B) rotatory motion
C) translational motion D) vibratory motion
Fill in the Blanks
1. The rate of displacement is called ——
2. If we place some coins over paper strip and pull it with a jerk, then coins don’t falloff because
of——
3. Property due to which a body resists change in its state is called ———
4. Quantity of motion a body possesses due to its mass and velocity is called ———
5. When a net force act on a body, it produces acceleration in body in direction of net force which
is directly proportional to net force acting on body and inversely proportional to its mass. This
statement is called _________
Answers to Intext Questions

1.1
1. If its position does not changes in accordance with its surroundings
2. If its position changes
1.2
1. The motion of train, the motion of molecules in a gas
2. The disordered or irregular motion of a body is called random motion
3. In CGS sysem-cm, In MKS system-m.
1.3
1. Speed can be defined as the distance travelled by a body in unit time.
2. Meter per second (m/sec)
1.4
1. Rate of chage of displacement is called velocity
2. A body is said to be in uniform acceleraion if it has equal changes in velocity in equal intervals
of time however small these intervals may be.
3. The rate of change of velocity is called acceleration.
1.5
1. When two forces of equal magnitude are acting on a body in opposite direction is known as
a balanced force.
2. gm-cm/sec (or) kg-m/sec.
3. intertia of rest, intertia of motion, intertia of direction.
1.6
1. For every action there is always an equal and opposite reaction.
2. Walking a person, recoil of gun.
1.7
1. The force which opposes the relative motion between two surfaces which are in contact is called
frictional force.
2. you can’t wear dress without friction.
MCQ Answers
1. B 2. B 3. B 4. A 5. C
Fill in the Blanks Answers
1. Velocity 2. inertia or rest 3. Force 4. Momentum
5. Newton’s second law.
Key Words
Rest, motion, inertia, speed, velocity, uniform velocity, non-uniform velocity, average speed, average
velocity, force, momentum, Newton Laws of Motion, frictional force.
Hints to Terminal Questions
1. Refer 1.2 2. Refer 1.4 3. Refer 1.5 4. Refer 1.4
Project Work / Tutor Mark Assignment (TMA)
1. Prepare a chart about inertia of motion in daily life situation.
2. Collect the information about working of Rocket.
2
F
2
Work and Energy
Generally we use many words such as work, energy and power etc., in our day to day life in
similar sense, but scientifically they have different meaning.
People carry out various tasks in daily life. For example lifting of weights and watering of plants
ete are some of the day to day activities. Similarly different tasks are carried out by machines, like
blowing of air by fan, pumping of water by electric motor, heating of water by electric heater, washing
machine, mixies etc.
Both human beings and machines need energy to do work. Generally this energy is supplied to
human beings through food they intake, and for machines it is supplied through the eletricity given to
them. While doing the work the energy is transfered from one form to another form. Thus the energy
is conserved.
In day to day activities we use various words like work, energy and power, which are closely
related to each other. Hence it is most important to know about these words. In this chapter we pay
attention to study about the concepts like work, energy, power, transformation of energy and law of
conservation of energy etc..
Objectives
define the terms work and energy and their SI units (International System of Units).
compute work done by a constant force.

list various forms of energy like mechanical, thermal, light, sound, electrical, chemical and
nuclear energy with examples.
define and explain potential and kinetic energy with suitable examples.
real life examples of transformation of energy.
state and explain the law of conservation of energy with the help of suitable examples.
explain power and define its SI units.
2.1 Work
Daily we are doing many works by mind or by physical activity. But all these are not considered
as works according to physics or in view of science. Scientifically the work is said to be done, “when
force is applied on a body and that body moves through some distance in the direction of force”.
For ex : A child pulls a bag or pushes a bag, kicks a ball, a machine moves a bus, a horse pulling
a cart etc.
The following two conditions shall determine the concept of work :
1. A force should act on an object.
2. The object must be displaced or there must be a change in position.
We define work as the product of the force (F) and the distance (S) moved along the directions
of the force.
Work = Force u Displacement in the direction of force.
W = F u S
In SI unit, we measure force in Newton (N) and distance(s) in meter (m)
W = Newton u Meter
=N m
N m is equal to Joule so that SI unit of work is “Joule”.
Do you Know :
SI unit definition : A unit of measurement that is a part of system used for scientific and
technical work all over the world.
Work and Energy 23
Let us observe some examples of work:
1. When you try to push a wall, it doesn’t move, so the displacement/distance is zero. Here even
though the force is applied on the wall, does not moved. So we can say that the work done
is zero.
2. A man is standing on the railway platform with heavy suitcase on his head.
Though there is a force applied on the suitcase, displacement of suitcase is zero. It shows that
there is no change in the position of the suitcase. Hence the work done is zero.
3. Let us observe a person is carrying a heavy load on his head and moving on the road. The force
on the road is in the direction of gravity at lower side in downwords. But the displacement of
load is in horizontal direction which is perpendicular to the force, thus the work done is zero.
A man pushing a wall A man standing in Rly. station A man walking on the
having heavy suitcase on his road with a suitcase on
head. his head.
Fig. 2.1
Let us observe the work done situations
1. A student pushed / pulled a table to some distance. Here the force was applied on the table. It
was moved to certain distance in the direction of applied force. Hence work is said to be done.
S
Fig 2.2
W = F u S
2. A boy is pulling a toy car on the ground and the car moves on in the same direction horizontally.
The direction of force is making an angle to horizontal plane i.e., level of ground. In this situation
work is done.
F
T F cos T
S
Fig. 2.3
W = Force u Displacement = F cos T u S
W = FS cos T
3. Lifting of books from floor to the shelf of almirah. Here the work is done aganist gravitation.
The lifting force and displacement are in the same direction.
Fig. 2.4
W = F u S F = mg
W = mg u h S=h
W = mgh
where ‘g’ is the acceleration due to gravity and is constant.
(Note: 1 joule = 1kgm2/S2 u 1m (or) 1 Kgm2.S2)
4. A football moving on the ground slows down gradually and ultimately comes to rest. This is
because a force due to friction (of the ground) acts on the ball. The force of friction acts in a
direction opposite to the direction of motion of foot ball. So, in this case the work done on the
football is negtive.
The work done by frictional force, W = FS cos T
= FS cos 180 (T = 180o)
? W = FS (' cos 180o = 1)
W = F u S
[Where displacement of ball is angle T which is equal to 180o]
Work and Energy 25
f
S
Fig. 2.5
When we throw a ball vertically upwards into the air aganist to the gravitational force does
negative work is another example.

1. A force of 100 N is pushed a body to a distance along the force direction of 10 m. Find the
workdone by the body.
2. A boy pushes a box applying a force of 10 N, along the direction of push, it displaced to 30cm.
Calculate the work done?
3. Calculate the work done by a student in lifting 3 kg of books from the ground and keeping them
on a shelf of 2.5 m height. (g = 9.8 m/s 2)
4. A force of 1500 N at an angle of 60 o acts on a body and moves it through a distance of 5 m
1
on horizontal surface, calculate the work done? [cos T = cos 600 = 0.5 or ]
2
5. A box is pushed through a distance of 3 m in a force offering 120 N resistance. How much work
is done by the resisting force.
2.2 Energy
According to Science, different types of energies are like mechanical energy, heat energy, light
energy, sound energy and magnetic energy etc., The wood, biogas, coal, petrol and natural gas are
stored energy in the form of chemical energy. In our daily life these energies are trasformed from one
form to another form of energy according to our needs.
We use muscular energy to do many works which is gained through chemical enegry of the food
that we eat.
What is meant by ‘energy? The capacity of doing work that a body possesses by virtue of its
position or motion. The capacity of doing work is called “energy”.
The amount of energy possessed by a body is equal to the amount of work it can do when its
energy is released.
Energy possessed by a body = Total work done by the body.
Energy has the same unit as work i.e., Joules (J).
Energy required to do 1joule of work is callled 1 joule energy.
We can study about heat energy, light energy, etc. in later units. Now we study about mechanical
energy in this unit.
Mechanical energy : The capacity of doing work by a body is virtue of its position (potential energy)
or by virtue of its motion (kinetic energy) is known as “mechanical energy”.
Kinetic energy: The energy possessed by body due to its motion is called kinetic energy.
Hence, a moving body is capable to do work.
Examples :
(a) A moving cricket ball can do work in pushing back the stumps.
(b) A moving water can do work in turning turbine for generation of electricity.
(c) A moving hammer drives a nail into wood.
(d) a running motocycle.
(e) ......................
(f) ......................
(Try to write some more examples)
Hence the moving body possesses energy to do work. When the velocity of the body increases
the kinetic energy is also increases and at the same time the mass of body increases the kinetic energy.
Let us perform an activity:

Make a stack of two thick hard bound books as shown in the figure. Let a hard bound cardboard
be placed on it to form a sloping plane. Place a match box near foot of the plane on horizontal edge
of the incline. Let a pencil cell, roll down the incline and hit the match box, the match box move
through a distance. Thus the moving object, with kinetic energy has ability to do work.
Now place the match box at the same position. Let a torch cell roll from the same height and
strike the match box.
This time, the torch cell has more mass than pencil cell so it has more kinetic energy and does
more work.
If we repeat the experiment by
making the cell, roll from a greater height
it increases the velocity / speed of the object
i.e., kinetic energy of the object
increases.
Fig. 2.6
The kinetic energy (KE) of a moving body depends on :
1. Its mass (m) - more the mass (for same velocity) more is its kinetic energy.
Work and Energy 27
2. Its velocity(v) - more the velocity (for same mass) more is its kinetic energy.
1
Kinetic energy (KE) = mv2
2
where m = mass of the body, v = velocity / speed of the body.

1. Calculate the kinetic energy of a body of mass 200 gram moving with speed of 12 m/sec.
2. The kinetic energy of a body is 100J. and its mass is 2 kgs. Find the speed of the body?
3. A bullet of mass 50grams has a speed of 500 m/s. What is its kinetic energy?
2.3 Potential Energy

The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its position or change in shape is called its “potential
energy”.
Understand potential energy through change in shape.
Let us observe this example:
As shown in the figure when you release the arrow it gets seperated form the bow and falls
down on the ground in first instance. Where as in second instance as shown in the figure the string
of the bow is stretched by applying more force, it change its shape and get energy to fly with great
speed into the air.
The energy acquired by the

bow due to change in its shape is
known as its potential energy.
Fig. 2.7
Some more examples
(a) Stretched rubber bands.
(b) The stretched rubber strings of catapult.
(c) The pressed spring.
(d) ..............................
(e) ..............................
(give some more examples)
Understand potential energy through its position (or at height) or Gravitational potential energy.
Let us observe this example:
The gravitational potential energy of an object at a point

above the ground is defined as the work done in raising it from
the ground to that point aganist gravity.
Consider an object of mass ‘m’ raised to height ‘h’ from the

ground. The minimum force required to do this, is equal to the
weight of the object (mg). The object gains energy equal to the
work done on it.
Fig. 2.8
Work done on the object W = Force u Displacement
= mg u h [F = mg]
PE = mgh
The potential and kinetic energies are parts of mechanical energy. Hence the SI units of energy
is joules. So the potential and kinetic energies measurd in, SI units, “joules (J)”.
Some more examples on potential energy (position of height)
(a) Object on Almirah
(b) Ceilling fan
(c) Hanging frames / wall clock
(d) Monkey on a branch
(e) ..................................
(f) ..................................

1. A block of 2 kgs is lifted up through 3 meters from the ground. calculate the potential energy
of the block at that point (g = 10 m/sec 2)
2. A body of mass 100kg is lifted up by 2 m find
(a) The amount of work done.
(b) Potential energy of the body at that height (g = 10 m/sec 2)
3. A block lifted up through 5 m height, the work done is 1250 J thus find the mass of the block
? (g = 10 m/sec2)
Work and Energy 29
2.4 Transformation of Energy

The change of one form of energy into another form of energy is known as “transformation
of energy”.
Let us observe the following
Examples: energy convention.
(a) Electric bulb = Electric energy Heat energy Light energy.
(b) cell (or) battery = Chemical energy Electrical energy
(c) Gas stove = Chemical energy Heat energy light energy.
(d) Solar cell = solar energy electrical energy light energy
(e) ..................................
(f) ..................................
(g) ..................................
Law of conservation of energy :

“Whenever energy changes from one form to another the total amount of energy remains constant.
Energy can neither be created nor destroyed”.
According to law of conservation of energy, the energy transforms one form to another that
means, potential energy transformed to kinetic energy or kinetic energy to potential energy but the
total energy of the system remains constant.
I. Let us understand law of conservation of energy through this example.
An object of mass of 25kg is dropped from a height of 4 meter compute the potential and
kenitic energy in each case given in the following table. It shows the mechanical energy is
conserved.
Place Height of Velocity of Potential Kinetic Total
of the which the object at energy energy energy
object object located different P.E = mgh K.E = mv2/2 (P.E + K.E)
(in meter) height (in jouls (J)) (in jouls(J)) (in jouls(J))
(in m/s) (constant)
A 4 0 1000 0 1000
B 3.55 2 887 113 1000
C 3.0 3.5 750 250 1000
D 2.35 5.5 587 413 1000
E 0.8 8 200 800 1000
(i) At position A, When the body is at rest, it has maximum potential energy 1000J but zero
kinetic energy. The total energy = PE + KE = 1000 J + 0 J = 1000 J.
(ii) At position B, When the body is falling. potential energy reduces, a little increase in kinetic
energy. The total energy = PE + KE = 887 J + 113 J = 1000 J.
(iii) At position C, Kinetic energy increases and potential energy decreases slowly in B.
Total energy : PE + KE = 750 J + 250 J = 1000 J
(iv) At position D, When the body falls more than half a distance, It has nearly equal energy.
The total energy : P.E + K.E = 587 J + 413 J = 1000 J
(v) At position E, when the body is about to hit the ground, it has more kinetic energy and less
potential energy.
Total energy = PE + KE = 200 J + 800 J = 1000 J.
It is clear from the above observations that when the body falls downwards its potential energy
goes on decreasing but its kinetic energy goes on increasing. The decreasing in potential energy
of the freely falling body at any point in its path appears equal increases in its kinetic energy.
So the total energy of the body remains the same at every point during its free fall. Thus the
energy of free falling body is conserved.
II. Example : Conservation of energy in a simple pendulum.
A swinging simple pendulum is an example of

conservation of energy as shown in the figure 2.9.
1. The potential energy of the bob is mininum

at A and reaches maximum at A 1 because
the height of bob is maximum at this A
position.
Fig. 2.9
2. When the bob is released from this point (A 1) its potential energy decreases and kinetic
energy starts increasing slowly.
3. When the bob reaches the position ‘A’ its kinetic energy reaches maximum and potential
energy becomes minimum.
4. As the bob proceeds from A2 to A1 its potential energy increases slowly and becomes maximum
at A2.
The sum of potential energy and kinitic energy is the total mechanical energy in the system of
pendulum and remains constant. This is called law of conservation of energy.
Work and Energy 31

1. Write the energy transformation of the following
(a) Electrical motor (b) Cell phone (mobile)
2. Potential energy + kinetic energy = ________
2.5 Power
“Power is rate of doing work”. It defines as the rate of doing work or rate of transfer of
energy.
If a mechine does a work ‘W’ in time ‘t’.
work energy
Then power of machine is P = =
time time
W E
P = =
t t
Joule Joule
P(watt) = =
Sec Sec
The SI unit of power is ‘watt’ (W)
1 kilo watt = 1000 W
1 mega watt = 10 6 W
Another unit for power is ‘horse power’
1 horse power = 746 W
1 H.P = 0.75 kW
In a 100 m running race. A, B and C are participated A is completed in 22 sec. B is in 15 sec,
and C is in 18 sec. The power of A,B and C are as
100 (W) 100 (W) 100 (W)
A= = 4.5 J B= = 6.6 J C= = 5.5 J
22 t 15 t 18 t
B has more power ; like this same machine of different types has different power.
Examples : bulbs, refrigerators, water pumping machines etc.

1. A machine completes a work of 20 J in 4 second. Find its power.
2. An electric bulb consumes 4800J of electrical energy in 2 minute. What is the power of the
electric bulb?
3. Convert 1.5 horse power into ‘watt’?
Key words :
Work, force, displacement, joule, energy, potential energy, kinetic energy, transformation of energy,
law of conservation of energy, power, mechanical energy, gravitational force.
Summary
Work is the product of force applied on a body and the body displacement in the direction
of force.
Ability to do work is called energy.
Energy is in different forms. They are mechanical, light, electrical, sound, magnetic and
nuclear.
Mechanical energy is of two types. Kinetic and potential energies.
Energy can be transformed from one form to another This process is called energy
transformation.
Energy is transformed from one form to another and the energy neither created nor destroyed’
is called law of conservation of energy.
The rate of doing work is called power. SI unit of power is watt.
Terminal Exercise:
1. Define the following terms and write their SI units.
(a) Work (b) Energy c) Power
2. Write different forms of energy
3. State law of conservation of energy? Explain with the help of an example.
4. A ball has a mass of 500 gram, it has 100J kinetic energy. Find the velocity of the ball.
5. Speed is more dangerous. What this statement says?
6. A man is carrying a bag with total mass of 25kg and climbs up to a height of 10 m in 50 sec.
Calculate the power delivered by him on the bag. (g = 9.8 m/s 2).
7. A 10 kg ball is dropped from a height of 10m find.
(a) The initial potential energy of the ball
(b) The kinetic energy just before it reaches the ground.
(c) Time taken by the body to reach the ground ?
8. Calculate the work done by a person in lifting a load of 20kg from the ground and placing it
1m high on a table. (g = 9.8 m/s2).
9. Define mechanical energy.
Work and Energy 33
10. What work you like to prefer : a ramp or a staircase to reach at the third floor of your hospital?
Justify.
Fill in the blanks
1. The ability to do work is called ....................
2. .................... energy is in stretched rubber band
3. The energy in flying Bird is .................... ....................
4. Give examples for the following energy Transformations
(a) Light energy converts into chemical energy .................... ....................
(b) Mechanical energy converts into electrical energy .................... ....................
(c) Chemical energy into heat .................... ....................
5. 1 Horse power = -------------- watts.

2.1
1. Force (F) = 100N .
Distance (S) = 10 m.
Then work done (W) = F u S
= 100 u 10 = 1000 J
2. Force(F) = 10N
70
Distance = 70 cm = mtrs or 0.7 m
100
70
then work done (W) = F u S = 10 u = 7J
100
3. Mass (m) = 3 kgs
Height = 2.5 m
g = 9.8 m/sec2
Then work done (W) = m u g u h.
= 3 u 9.8 u 2.5 = 73.5 J
4. Force (F) = 1500N
Distance (S) = 5 m
The angle is cos 60 o = 0.5
Work done(W) = F cos T u 5

= 1500 u 0.5 u 5
= 3750 J
5. Force = 120 N (Frictional force)
F = 120 N
Distance = 3 m
Work done W = F u S
= 120 u 3 = 360 J
2.2
1. Mass(m) = 200 gram
M = 200/1000 kg or 0.2 kg
Speed (V) = 12 m/sec
Kinetic energy K.E = 1/2 mv 2
= 1/2 u 200/1000 u 12 u 12 = 144/100 = 14.4J
2. Mass (m) = 2 kg
K.E = 100J
Speed v = ?
2 K.E 100
v2 = =2 u
m 2
v= 100 = 10m/sec
3. Mass m = 50 gram
50
= kg = 0.05kg
1000
V = 500 m/s
1
K.E = mv2
2
1 50
= u u 500 u 500 = 6250 J
2 100
2.3
1. Mass of body (m) = 2kg
Height (h) = 3m
g = 10 m/sec2
Work and Energy 35
The potential energy of the body PE = mgh

= 2 u 10 u 3 = 60J
2. Mass (m) = 100 kg
Height (h) = 2 m
g = 10 m/s2
(a) Work done (W) = mgh = 100 u 10 u 2 = 2000 J
(b) Potential energy of the body (P.E) = mgh = 100 u 10 u 2 = 2000 J
3. Height(h) = 5m
Work done (W) = 1250 J
Mass of the body (m) = ?
P.E = mgh
1250 = m u 10 u 5
1250
m= = 25kg
10 u 5
2.4
1. Electric motor : In which, electrical energy converts into mechanical energy.
In cell phone Electro magnetic energy o Electric current o Light energy o Sound energy.
gy.
2. Potential energy + kinetic energy = constant.
2.5
1. Work done (W) = 20 J
Time period (t) = 4sec
W 20
Power P = = = 5 watt.
t 4
2. Work done by a bulb (W) = 4800 J
Time period (t) = 2 minutes
= 2 u 60 = 120sec
W 4800
Power (P) = = = 40 watt
t 120
3. 1 hour power = 746 W (or) 0.75 kW
1.5 horse power is equal to = 1.5 u 746 or 1.5 u 0.75
= 1119 W 1.125 kW

1. Refer 2.1, 2.2 and 2.5
2. Refer 2.2
3. Refer 2.4
4. Refer 2.2
5. Refer 2.2
6. Refer 2.3
7. Refer 2.2 and 2.3
8. Refer 2.1 and 2.3
9. Refer 2.2
10. Refer 2.1 and 2.2
Fill in the Blanks
1. Energy
2. potential
3. Kinetic and potential
4. (a) Solar energy
(b) Generator
(c) Biogas
5. 746 watt
1. Analyse any 4 tasks real life situations in view of work, energy and power.
2. Select any two daily activitives, which you have done and prepare a project by dividing them
as work, energy and power.
3
Heat
Often we think that heat and temperature are the same. In physics Heat and temperature
are related to each other but they are different in concept wise. Heat is the total energy of molecular
motion of substance while temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of molecular motion
of substance.
Objectives
explain in your own words the concepts of heat and temperature
understand the total energy, kinetic energy related to heat and temperature.
give the reason why thermal equilibrium is explained through temperature.
understand the different scales of temperature and relation between them.
understand the concept of change of state.
explain boiling, melting, freezing and sublimation.
understand the method of mixture principle
understand the difference between evaporation and condensation.
explain the specific heat, thermal capacity
define and distinguish between latent heat of fusion and latent heat of vaporization.
define and describe the thermal expansion.
understand the expansion of solids, liquids and gases
3.1 Heat
Heat is a form of energy. It is the total molecular motion of the substance. It depends on the
speed of the particles, the number of particles (the size or mass) and the type of particles in a body.
It can transfer between two bodies. It flows from body at a higher temperature to a body at lower
temperature.
For example : Take a small cup of water and large tub of water at same temperature. The average
kinetic energy of the water molecules in large tub and small cup are the same, but the total energy
of the large tub is more than the small cup, because large tub consists of more number of water
molecules.
Heat is measured with the help of calorimeter. It is represented with ‘Q’ or ‘H’.
Units : CGS system calorie MKS system or SI system joule (J)
1 calorie = 4.186 joule
Temperature : The average kinetic energy of the molecules is directly proportional to absolute temperature.
It determines the direction of the flow of heat.
Temperature is not energy, but it is a measure of Heat energy.
The degree of hotness or coldness of a body is called temperature.
It is measured with a thermometer.
Units: CGS system: 0 oC (degree centigrade), MKS system or SI system K (Kelvin)
Thermal equilibrium : If we take two
bodies with different temperatures and
bring them into contact, there will be
a transfer of heat energy from the body
at a higher temperature to a body at
a lower temperature until both of them
attain the same temperature. If they
reach to the same temperature no
transfer of heat energy takes place,
between them, then the two bodies are
said to be in thermal equilibrium.
If we take two bodies with the
same temperature and bring them into
contact, no transfer of heat will takes
place between them. Hence, the state
a body neither receives nor gives out
heat energy then that state of body is (oC) (oF)
called thermal equilibrium. Fig. 3.1
Heat 39
Scales of temperature : To measure temperature quantitatively, we have to design a scale to establish

with two well-defined fixed points. They are lower fixed point and higher fixed point.
Lower fixed point: The melting point of ice at normal pressure.
Higher fixed point: The boiling point of water at normal pressure.
Fahrenheit scale: In this scale. The lower fixed point is 32 oF and higher fixed point is 212 oF. The
interval between them is divided into 180 equal parts. Each part is called degree Fahrenheit.
Celsius scale: In this scale, the lower fixed point is 0 oC and a higher fixed point is 100 oC. The
interval between them is divided into 100 equal parts. Each part is one degree centigrade or one
degree Celsius.
Kelvin scale: In this scale, A lower fixed point is +273 K and the higher fixed point is 373 K. The
interval between them is divided into 100 equal parts. Each part is called Kelvin. For Celsius and
Kelvin scales the interval of degree is same. But they differ at a lower fixed value. This scale doesn’t
have negative scales of degree. Hence, it is called an absolute scale.
But out of these three scales, the Fahrenheit scale is the most sensitive scale because its degree
value is too small. This scale is used for clinical purpose.
Kelvin scale is used for scientific purpose.
Conversion between these scales

(C O) (F 32) (K 273)
= =
(100 0) (212 32) (373 273)
C F 32 K 273
100 180 100
5
Conversion between Fahrenheit to Celsius scale C = (F 32)
9
9
Conversion between Celsius to Fahrenheit scale F = C + 32
5
Conversion between Celsius to Kelvins scale K = C + 273
Example:
Healthy human body temperature is 98.4 F what is its value in Celsius and Kelvin scale.
Solution: F = 98.4 F
Calculating into Celsius scale,

5
Formula, C = (F32)
9
Substituting the F value in the above equation
5
C = (98.4-32)
9
5
= (66.4) = 36.88 oC or 37 oC (approximately)
9
Converting Celsius scale into Kelvin scale,
Formula, K = C + 273
Substituting C value in the above equation K = 36.88 + 273
= 309.888 or 310K (approximately)
1. Why mercury rises in thermometer when we put it in hot water?
2. How do you differentiate heat and temperature?
3. When will heat transfer from one body to other?
4. Why we feel cold when spirit falls on our hand?
5. Why we feel hot in summer?
3.2 Specific Heat

Definition : Calculating quantitatively the property of specific heat is the amount of heat required
while keeping mass and rise in temperature to 1 unit. If we give heat to a substance generally the
temperature rises. But, if we give heat to two different substances with same mass, the raise in
temparature will be different for the both.
For example, when vegetables are cooked in oil, we feel very hot when touched whereas we
feel less hot when they are cooked in water.
The specific heat of a substance is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a
unit mass of the substance by one degree centigrade.
It is represented with letter ‘s’
Units : CGS system: Cal/g-oC;
MKS system or SI system : J/Kg -K
Q
Q = ms 't: S = 't = Change in temperature
m't
Heat energy supplied
Specific Heat = .
(mass of the substance u change in temperature)
Heat 41
Table 3.1 : Specific heat of some of the substances

Substance Specific Heat
In cal/g oC In J/kg-k
Lead 0.031 130
Mercury 0.33 139
Brass 0.092 380
Zinc 0.093 391
Copper 0.095 399
Iron 0.115 483
Glass (flint) 0.12 504
Aluminium 0.21 882
Kerosene oil 0.50 2100
Ice 0.50 2100
Water 1 4180
Sea water 0.95 3900
As we have read about the concept of specific heat, we will discuss briefly the application of
specific heat in daily life situations.
Applications of specific heat :
Substances having a low specific heat are very useful to make cooking instruments such as frying
pans, pots, kettles etc... This is the reason, they can be quickly heated up even when a small
amount of heat is supplied.
Sensitive thermometers must be made with materials having small specific heat. So that it can
detect and show a change of temperature rapidly and accurately.
Substances that have high specific heat are suitable as a material for constructing kettle handlers,
heat insulators and oven covers etc.
Heat storage instruments are very useful and they are usually made of substances having high
specific heat.
Heat capacity: Heat capacity is an intrinsic physical property of a substance that measures the amount
of heat required to change temperature of the substance by a unit amount.
It is nothing but the ratio of heat supplied to rise in temperature.
Heat received Q
C =
Rise in temperature 't
Units : CGS system: calorie / degree centigrade:

SI system joules per kelvin.

1. Why mercury is used in thermometer?
2. On what factor Heat capacity depends ?
3. Why specific heat is different for different materials?
4. What is the advantage of high specific heat of water ?
3.3 Change of state

Changes of state are physical changes in matter or substance. They are reversible changes that
do not involve changes in matters of chemical properties. Common changes of state include melting,
freezing, sublimation, deposition, condensation, and vaporization. These changes are shown in Figure
3.2 below. Each is described in detail below :
Fig. 3.2
Heat energy, Temperature, and changes of state:

Heat energy is always involved in change of state. Matter either loses or absorbs heat energy
when it undergoses change from one state to another. For example, when matter changes from a liquid
state to a solid state, it loses energy. The loss or gain of energy happens at a state of constant temperature
i.e., during change of state of matter temperature remains constant.
Changes between Liquid and solid states

Think about how you would make ice cubes in a tray. First, you would fill the tray with water.
Then you would place the tray in the freezer compartment of refrigerator. The freezer is very cold.
What happens next?
Heat 43
Freezing
The water in the tray loses heat due to the cold air in the freezer. The particles of water at
sufficient cold remain in fixed positions and locked in place by the forces of attraction between them.
In this way liquid water has changed to solid ice. The process in which a liquid changes into a solid
is called Freezing. The temperature at which a liquid changes to a solid is its freezing point. Different
substances have different Freezing Points. It depends on the molecular structure of the substance. For
example, the freezing point of iron is 1535 oC. The freezing point of oxygen is 219oC.
The melting and freezing points of the same substances are not exactly equal.
Melting:
If you take ice cubes out of a freezer and left them in a warm room, ice would absorb energy
from the warm air around it. This energy causes for all the particles of frozen water to overcome some
of the forces of attraction holding them together and able to slip out the fixed positions of particles
in the ice. In this way, the solid ice would turn to liquid water.
The process in which a solid changes to a liquid is called melting. The melting point is the
temperature at which a solid changes to a liquid. It depends on the pressure. The melting point of
some substances increases with pressure. While changing the state of a substance its temperature and
mass does not change. Volume of the substance may increase or decrease.
Table 3.2 : Melting points of the different substances
ICE 0 oC Iron 1538 oC
Aluminium 660 oC Copper 1981 oC
Changes between liquid and gaseous states

If you fill a beaker with cool water and place the beaker on a hot stove top, the water heats
up. Heat energy travels from the stove top to the beaker, and the water absorbs the heat energy from
the beaker. What happens to the water next ?
Vaporization (Boiling):
If water gets hot enough, it starts to boil. Bubbles of water vapor form in boiling water. This
happens as particles of water have enough energy to overcome the force of attraction between them
and change to the gaseous state. The bubbles rise through the water and escape from the beaker as
steam.
The process in which a liquid boils and changes to a gas is called vaporization. The temperature
at which a liquid boils is its boiling point. The boiling point of water is 100 oC (212 oF). Other
types of materials may have higher or lower boiling points.
Table 3.3 : Boiling points of the different substances under normal pressure
Water 100 oC Mustard oil 250 oC
Coconut oil 171 oC Mercury 356.7 oC
Table salt 1413 oC Nitrogen 196 oC
Evaporation
A liquid can also change directly to a gas without boiling. This process is called evaporation.
It occurs when particles on the exposed surface of liquid absorb just enough energy to pull away from
the liquid and escape into the air. This happens faster at warm temperatures.
Evaporation of water occurs even at relatively low temperatures.
‘The escaping of molecules from the surface of liquid at desired temperature is called
evaporation’
It can also be defined as ‘Evaporation is the change of phase/state from liquid to gas that occurs
at the surface of the liquid’. It is a surface phenomenon.
Application of evaporation:
Wet clothes become dry when exposed to sun due to evaporation of water in wet cloths. This
happens due to absorption of heat energy from the sun.
Hot tea gets cool over a time due to evaporation. Hot molecules on the surface get evaporated
by taking away heat with them.
The salty water of the sea is stored in a large pit, from which the water gets evaporated leaving
salt behind.
Evaporation of nail polish remover when applied on nails - acetone in nail polish remover takes
heat from our body and gets evaporated.
The sweat of our body evaporates taking the heat from our body, and then we feel cool.
Condensation
If you use a hot shower in a closed bathroom, the mirror is likely to ‘fog’ up. The ‘fog’ consists
of tiny droplets of water that form on the cool surface of the mirror. why does this happen ? Some
of the hot water from the shower evaporates, so the air in the bathroom contains a lot of water vapor.
When the water vapor contacts cooler surfaces, such as the mirror, it cools and loses energy. The cool
water particles no longer have enough energy to overcome the forces of attraction between them.
Then they come together and form droplets of water.
The process in which a gas changes to a liquid is called condensation.
Heat 45
Sublimation:
The process in which a solid changes directly to a gas is called sublimation. It occurs when the
particles of a solid absorb enough energy to overcome the force of attraction between them. Dry ice
(solid carbon dioxide, CO2) is an example of a solid that undergoes sublimation. Figure below shows
a chunk of dry ice (solid carbon dioxide, CO2) changing directly to carbon dioxide gas. Sometimes
snow undergoes sublimation as well. This is most likely to occur on sunny winter days when the air
is very dry. The solid carbon dioxide changes directly to the gaseous state.
Fig. 3.3 Sublimation of Dry ice
Latent heat of fusion

When heat is supplied to the solid, its temperature raises continuously at one stage melting starts
and the temperature of the solid does not change during melting because the heat energy given to the
solid is totally utilized to break the bonds between the solid molecules. The total amount of heat is
utilized to convert the solid state to liquid at that particular temperature is called Latent heat of
fusion.
The heat energy required for unit mass of solid to change into liquid at constant temperature is
called latent heat of fusion.
Consider a solid of mass ‘m’ which requires heat energy ‘Q’ to change solid phase to liquid
phase. The heat energy required to change 1 gm of solid into liquid is Q/m. This energy is called the
latent heat of fusion. It is denoted by ‘L’.
Q
L= (or) Q = mL
m
L ice : The amount of heat required to change unit mass solid into liquid at constant temperature is
called Latent heat of fusion.
Units: CGS system - cal /gm,
MKS system or SI system -j/kg.
The melting point of ice at constant atmospheric pressure (1 atm) is 0 oC or 273K and Latent
heat of fusion of ice is Lice = 80 cal/g.
The heat energy required to change the unit mass of liquid to the vapor completely at constant
temperature is called Latent heat of vaporization
Latent heat of vaporization of water is L steam = 540 cal/g
Units: CGS system - cal/gm,
MKS system or SI system -j/kg.
Condensation : Condensation is the change of state of matter from the gaseous state to the liquid
state.
Examples:
Dew forming on the grass in the early morning on a cold winter day.
Observe water drops forming on a cool drink bottle, when drawn out from refrigerator.
Intext questions (3.3)

1. What is melting?
2. Why temperature is constant during the change of state?
3. Why boiling and melting points of substances depend on pressure?
4. Why does water on the floor disappear after some time?
5. Do you think both Boiling and evapration are same?
3.4 Method of mixture

Now take 100 ml of water at 90 oC in beaker A and 200 ml of water at 50 oC in beaker B and
mix the two samples.
What is the temperature of the mixture?
What difference do you notice in the change of temperature?
The temperature of the mixture is greater than 50 oC and less than 90oC. It depends on the
masses of these two samples. This means that the hot sample lost heat and the cold sample has gained
the heat. This is the method of mixture.
Principle of the method of mixture : When two or more bodies at different temperatures are brought
into thermal contact, then heat lost by hot bodies is equal to heat gained by the cold bodies until they
attain thermal equilibrium.
Net heat lost = Net heat gain
This is known as the principle of the method of mixtures.

Heat 47
Example: Now take 100ml of water at 90 oC and 200ml of water at 60 oC and mix the two.
Here 100ml of water at 90 oC is at higher temperature, 200 ml of water at 60 oC is at lower
temperature. On mixing these two, heat transfers from higher temperature to lower temperature until
they attain equal temperature (say t oC). According to principle of method of mixture heat lost must
be equal to heat gain.
Temperature of hotter body falls from 90 oC to t oC
Temperature of the colder body rise from 60 oC to t oC
Heat lost by the hotter body = heat gain by the colder body
Q = ms't
100 u 1 u (90 oC t oC) =200 u 1 u (t oC 60oC)
90oC t oC = 2 u (t oC 60oC)
90oC t oC = 2t oC 120oC
90oC + 120oC = 2t oC + t oC
210oC = 3t oC
3t oC = 210oC
210
t = = 700C
3
resultant temperature = 70 oC
Thermal Expansion
One day you are trying to open a pickle jar. But the lid is very tight and you just can’t open
it. You try to open it using a rubber grip, but that too doesn’t work. Finally, your grand mother
advised to keep it some time in warm water to easily open it. The jar opens easily. Why ? The answer
is thermal expansion.
Thermal expansion occurs when a body expands by heating and becomes larger due to increase
in the body’s temperature. To understand how this happens, we need to think about what temperature
actually is. If you heat a material, the molecules in that move faster and occupies more space and
causes expansion. This causes the size of the body to increase. So when you heat up the jar lid, the
same thing happens and the jar lid expands. The gaps between the metal jar lid and the glass threads
increase, so it becomes easier to open.
Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to change in length, area, and volume due
to increase in temperature.
All the three states of matter (solid, liquid and gas) expands on heating. When a solid is heated,
atoms in it vibrate with higher amplitude about their fixed positions. The relative change in the size of
atoms is small. [For example a small gap is left between two successive rails (Fig. 3.5) to allow
expansion in summer and avoid bending. Railway tracks and bridges (Fig. 3.6) have gaps at joints
to allow them to expand and contract freely with temperature changes. The increase in shape/size of
a body due to the increase in temperature is called thermal expansion]. Solids have definite shape and
size. The expansion in length is called linear expansion. Similarly the expansion in area is termed
as area expansion and the expansion in volume is termed as volume expansion.
lL
Fig. 3.4 Expansion of solids
Linear expansion: The expansion of a solid in its length (in one dimension) is called linear expansion,
it depends on its original length, increase in temperature and nature of the material.
Coefficient of Linear Expansion (D) : The ratio of change in length to the original length by 1oC
raise of temperature is called coefficient of linear expansion.
It is the ratio of change in length per unit length by rise of 1 oC temperature
Different materials expand by different amounts.
Coefficient of linear expansion depends on the nature of material.
Areal or surface expansion : The expansion of a solid in its area (in two dimensions) is called
surface expansion, it depends on its initial area increase in temperature and nature of the material.
Coefficient of Areal expansion (E) : The ratio of change in area to the initial area per 1 oC
rise of temperature is called coefficient of areal expansion.
Volume or cubical expansion : The expansion of a solid in its volume (in three dimensions)
is called volume expansion, it depends on its initial volume, increase in temperature and nature of the
material. The size of the metal ball increases when it is heated up.
Coefficient of Volume expansion (J): The ratio of change in volume to the initial volume per 1 o
C rise of temperature is called coefficient of volume expansion.
Heat 49
Relation between D, E, J
Relation between D and E E = 2D
Relation between J and D J = 3D
Relation between DEJ D : E : J = 1 : 2 : 3
Different substances expand differently, it depends on the nature of the substance.
Table 3.4 : Coefficient of linear expansions of different materials
Sl.No Material Fractional expansion per oC

(D) = u 106 per oC
1 Glass ordinary 9
2. Glass Pyrex 4
3. Quartz fused 0.59
4 Aluminum 24
5 Iron 12
6 Brass 19
7 Copper 17
8 Steel 13
9 Platinum 9
10 Lead 0.29
Application of expansion of solids

The cavity in Teeth: Dentists use filling material for the cavities of teeth which has the same rate
of expansion as teeth.
Concrete Roadways and foot paths are left with gaps, and the gaps are filled with tar or some
material so that concrete can expand freely in summer and contract in winter.
Fig. 3.5 Gap left between the rails Fig. 3.6 Expansion joints of the bridge
Fig. 3.7 Bucking of railway track Fig. 3.8 Gap left between the concrete road
Expansions of Liquids :
Liquids have less intermolecular forces than solids and hence they expand more than solids.
This is the principle behind the mercury thermometers Liquid has only the size but has no shape on
heating liquid, we can study only its volume expansion, and it does not have linear and areal expansions.
We cant heat liquid directly, they have to be taken in container, so the expansion of liquid is usually
measured along with container. When liquid in a container is heated it expands along with the container.
Hence the observed expansion of liquid relative to the container and it is called apparent expansion.
If we consider the expansion of the container, then it is called the real expansion of the liquid or
absolute expansion. So liquids have two types of expansions.
They are : 1. Real expansion 2. Apparent expansion.
Take a liquid in container up to the markL1.

Note the temperature t1o C. When a container is L3
L1
heated t2o C liquid in the container is also get heated. L2
The level of liquid in the container raises to L3. If
we consider the container expansion the level of
the liquid falls to level L2. When the liquid is at t2o
C, we can only observe the initial and the final levels.
This observed expansion of the liquid is known as
the apparent expansion of the liquid (L3 L1). But
the real expansion of the liquid is from L 2 to L3.
Apparent expansion = L3 L1
Real expansion = L3 L2
Fig. 3.9
Heat 51
Real expansion depends on the nature of the liquid, but apparent expansion depends
on the nature of the container and nature of the liquid.
Expansion of the different liquids
Fig. 3.10 Expansion of liquid Fig 3.11 Different liquids expand differently
Different liquids expand differently. Ether Benzene and Alcohol expand more than water because
their intermolecular forces of attraction are very week.
Expansion of gases : Gas doesn’t have shape and size. If occupies the shape of the container itself.
A certain mass of the gas is taken in a container; it occupies the entire volume of the container. If we
have taken the same mass of the gas in another small container it occupies its volume with increase
in pressure.
In gases the molecules are loosely bounded. So the force of attraction between gas molecules
is very less. When gas heated in a container its pressure and volume changes simulteneously. The
expansion of gas is very high compared to container, so the expansion of container is not taken into
account. The variation of volume of gas can be studied keeping pressure constant and the variation
of pressure of gas is studied keeping volume constant. Hence gases have two expansions. Volume
expansion of gas under constant pressure and pressure expansion of gas under constant volume.
Applications of Expansion of gases:
1. Soda bottles explode in summer. In summer soda bottle receives more heat from the surroundings
then expansion of gas takes place, resulting increase in pressure. Since the volume is fixed and
due to the high pressure of gas created inside the bottle the explosion takes place.

1. Why liquid doesn’t have area and linear expansion?
2. Why liquid have real and apparent expansion?
3. Why gas expands more than solid and liquid?
4. Does all the gases expand equally?

5. Why the bottle filled completely with liquid breaks when put in deep freezer?
Key words :
Temperature, kinetic energy, specific heat, freezing, melting, vaparization, sublimation, evaporation,
condensation, latent heat, thermal expansion.
Summary
Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of molecular motion of a substance units
oC, oF, K.
Heat is total energy of the system (or) substance. It denotes with Q.

Units : CGS - calorie, SI - Joule, 1 cal = 4.186 J.
If two different systems A and B (thermal contact) are in thermal equilibrium individually with
other system C, then the system A and B are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
Kelvin scale does not have negative scale of temperature.
The specific heat of substance is the amount of heat required to rise the temperature of unit mass
of the substance by one unit
Q
S = Units : CGS - Cal/g- oC SI - J/kgK
m' t
The process in which solid phase changes to liquid phase at constant temperature is called
melting. This constant temperature is called melting point.
The process of escaping of molecules from the surface of liquid at any temperature is called
evapration.
Condensation is the reverse process of evaporation.
Heat energy required to convert 1 g of solid completely into liquid at a constant temperature
is called latent heat of fusion.
Latent heat of ice is 80 cal/ oC.
Heat energy required to convert 1 g liquid completely into gas at constant temperature is
called latent heat of vapourization. Latent heat water is 540 cal/ oC.
The co-efficient of linear (D), a real (E), volume (J) expansion depends on nature of substance
Relation between D : E : J = 1 : 2 : 3.
Terminal Questions
1. Define Heat and temperature?
2. Write the differences between heat and temperature?
3. Write the difference between evaporation and boiling?
Heat 53
3
F 4. The temperature of the body is 40 oC. Convert its value in Kelvin and Fahrenheit scales
5. Why steam at 100 oC gives more burns than water at 100 oC?
6. Why do we feel warm after a shower bath?
7. Why the gap is left between the rails?
8. Why the overflowing of oil from car’s tank happens on a hot day?
9. What happens to the water when wet clothes dry?
10. Why the bottom of the cooking vessel is coated with copper?
11. Define condensation?
12. Why is the specific heat different for different substances?
13. Why do we get sweat while working?
14. Why soda bottles are burst in summer?
Multiple choice questions
1. Heat is measured in
(a) Joule (b) Calorie (c) Both A and B (d) none
2. 4.186 Joule = ?
(a) cal (b) 1.3 cal (c) 1.2 cal (d) None
3. Specific Heat depends on
(a) Nature of material (b) Initial temperature
(c) Temperature of the body (d) None
4. SI unit of specific heat
(a) Kg/k (b) j/kg.k (c) j/g/k (d) None
5. The temperature at which liquid changes into vapor is called
(a) Melting point (b) Boiling point
(c) Freezing point d) Condensed point
Fill in the blanks
1. The total energy contained within a substance is termed as ...................
2. Heat is the energy transferred between objects because ...................
3. The Latent heat of fusion of ice ...................
4. ................... used as a coolant.
5. The temperature of a body is directly proportional to ...................

3.1
1. Mercury absorbs heat from hot water and expansion takes place.
2. Heat is total energy of the system (or) substance temperature is the average kinetic energy of
the molecules of the system (or) substance.
3. If temperature difference is there then heat transfers from higher temperature to lower temperature.
4. Evaporation spirit takes place while absorbing the heat from our body.
5. Our body temperature is less than the temperature of the surrounding. We absorb heat from
surrounding then we feel hot.
3.2
1. Specific heat of the mecury is less. So morning expands even at lesser temperature.
2. Heat capacity depends on 1. Mass of the substance, 2. Nature of the substance.
3. Specific heat depends on the molecular arrangement of substance.
4. Land Breezes, sea Breeze and Seasons are formed due to water having highest specific heat.
3.3
1. The process of converting solid into liquid is called melting.
2. While changing the state the absorbed heat is used for breaking bonds between the molecules.
3. Inter molecules force varies with pressure. Boiling and melting points depends on inter molecules
force. So boiling point and melting point varies with pressure.
4. Evaporation.
5. Not the same. Boiling is the entire substance phenomenon. Evaporation is the surface phenomenon.
3.4
1. Liquids do not have the fixed shape. So they do not have linear and areal expansions.
2. Liquid does not have a definite shape.
3. In gases the force of attaraction between the molecules is very less.
4. Yes or Nearly equal
5. Due to the freezing of water into ice, the volume of ice increases more than the volume of water.
Multiple choice Questions

1. C 2. A 3. A 4. B 5. B
Fill in the blanks

1. Heat 2. Temperature difference 3. 80 cal/g
4. Water 5. Kinetic Energy

1. Reffer to 3.1 2. Reffer to 3.1 3. Reffer to 3.3
13. Reffer to 3.2 14. Reffer to 3.4

1. Collect information about working of natural geyser and prepare report.
4
Chemical Reactions and Equations
The universe is nothing but matter and radiation. The rays of the sun and the light emitted by
the stars are a part of radiation. The air we breathe, the food we eat, stones, the stars, planets,
animals, even a small drop of water and a particle of sand - everything is “matter”.
Everyday we observe different types of changes in our surroundings i.e. in matter. Some of these
changes are very simple and are of temporary in nature. Some other are permanent. When water in
a tumbler kept in a freezer converts into ice. The same ice when kept outside for sometime changes
to water. This is a temporary change and the substance comes to its original form after reversing the
condition. Such changes are “physical changes”. Milk, once converted into curd, cannot be converted
into milk again. Such changes are “chemical changes” which are permanent.
In this lesson we shall discuss what matter consists of, how many types of chemical changes
occur, how can we write these chemical changes into equations and their balancing.
Objectives
After completing this lesson, you will be able to:
understand what is atom, element, molecule and compound.

understand symbols, formula, etc.
understand what is a chemical reaction.
significance of balanced chemical equation.
classify chemical reactions as combination, decomposition, displacement and double displacement

reaction.
know about oxidation and reduction processes and correlate these with corrosion and rancidity
and other aspects of daily life.
4.1 Atoms, Elements, Molecules, Compounds

Many scientists tried to give appropriate explanations and theories about matter. The English
school teacher ‘John Dalton’ proposed the basic theory about the nature of matter. According
to him
1. Matter consists of indivisible particles called ‘atoms’.
2. Atoms can neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction. Chemical reactions involve
reorganization of atoms.
3. Atoms of same element have identical mass and chemical properties. Atoms of different
elements have different masses and chemical properties.
4. Compounds are formed when atoms of different elements combine in simple whole number
ratios.
Let us discuss what is an atom? What is an element?
Atom
Atoms are the most fundamental of all particles that may or may not have independent existence.
An atom is defined as the smallest particle of an element which takes part in chemical reaction.
Examples : H, He, Li, Be, B, C, N, .... etc.
Element
An element is a pure substance consisting of atoms and cannot be decomposed into simple
substances by ordinary chemical processes. It is also considered as basic form of a substance involving
in a chemical reaction.
When particles of a substance contain only same type of atoms, that substance is called an
element. Iron, copper, zinc, aluminium, silver, gold etc. are examples of substances in which the
smallest particle is an atom.
Chemical Reactions and Equations 57
A symbol is the shorthand notation of an element. Using symbols in place of name saves the
time. In writing chemical reactions using the names is always a lengthy process. So in place of names
we write symbols and formulae. Formulae is the shorthand notation of molecule or compound.
Table 4.1 : Names of some elements and their symbols.
Name of the element Symbol
Hydrogen H
Oxygen O
Nitrogen N
Sulphur S
Carbon C
Calcium Ca
Chlorine Cl
Boran B
Aluminium Al
Iron Fe
Gold Au
Sodium Na
Potassium K
Copper Cu
* Elements are monoatomic, diatomic, triatomic, polyatomic etc.
Examples : Monoatomic elements - He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn and metals
diatomic elements - H 2, O2, N2, F2, Cl2, Br2, I2 etc.
Tetra atomic elements P 4, As4, Sb4
Polyatomic element - S 8, I7
Molecule
A molecule can be defined “as the smallest particle of matter that is capable of an independent
existence and retained all the properties of that substance”.
Atoms of same element (or) different elements can join together to form molecules.
Examples H2, Cl2, H2O, NH3, CO2 .... etc.
Compounds
If atoms of different elements join together to form a new substance known as compound.
So we can have molecules of elements and molecules of compounds.
Examples : H2O, CO2, NH3, BF3 .... etc.

1. What is an atom? Give examples.
2. Give an example for diatomic elements?
3. Write the difference between a molecule and compound?
4.2 Chemical reactions

Beaker
You might have observed many chemical changes in
nature in your surroundings and in your daily life. Let us see
some more changes.
Water
Take about 5 gm. of quicklime (Calcium oxide) in a
beaker. Add 10 mL of water to this. If you touch the beaker
with your fingers, you notice that the beaker is hot. This is CaO
because calcium oxide reacts with water and in that process Fig. 4.1 Formation of slaked lime
heat energy is released. This type of change is called chemical by the reaction of CaO with water
change.
Take about 100 mL of water in a beaker and dissolve a small
quantity of sodium sulphate (Na 2SO4). Take about 100 mL of
water in another beaker and dissolve a small quantity of Barium
chloride (BaCl 2). Now add sodium sulphate solution to Barium
chloride solution. You can see the colour change in solution and Na2SO4
also formation of precipitate at bottom of beaker. This type of change
is also called as chemical change.
BaCl2
From the above two activities, we can conclude that during
chemical changes ... Fig. 4.2 Formation of
1. The original substances lose their characteristic properties. barium sulphate precipitate
Hence there may be products with different physical states and colours.
2. Chemical changes may involve liberation of heat energy or absorption of heat energy.
3. They may form an insoluble substance known as precipitate.
4. There may be liberation of gas also in a chemical change.
Chemical equations
The reactions mentioned above can be written in words as follows
The word equations of the above reactions are
Calcium oxide + Water o Calcium hydroxide
CaO + H2O o Ca(OH)2
Sodium sulphate + Barium chloride o Barium sulphate + Sodium chloride
Na2SO4 + BaCl2 o BaSO4 + 2NaCl
In the above reactions, the substances which undergo chemical change are called ‘reactants’ and
the substances which are formed as a result of chemcial change are called “products”.
In the first reaction, calcium oxide and water are reactants and calcium hydroxide is
product. In the second reaction sodium sulphate and barium chloride are reactants and barium sulphate
and sodium chloride are products.
In a chemical reaction, the reactants are written on the left hand side and the products are
written on the right hand side. The change of reactant into the product is shown through an arrow(o ).
Use of ‘+’ sign is made, when there are more than one reactant or there are more than one product.
Can you write chemical reaction in any other shorter way? Yes this can be done through a
chemical equation. A chemical reaction can be made more concise and useful if we use chemical
formulae instead of words. Generally a compound is written by giving its chemical formula which lists
the symbols of constituent elements and uses the subscript to indicate the number of atoms of each
element present in the compound.
We can write calcium oxide as CaO and water as H 2O and the compound formed by the
reaction of these two compounds is calcium hydroxide Ca(OH) 2.
Now the reaction of calcium oxide with water can be written as
CaO + H2O o Ca(OH)2
In the above chemical equation, count the number of atoms of each element on left side and
right side of arrow. Chemical equations in which number of atoms of each element on both sides are
equal are called balanced chemical equation. If the number of atoms of each element on both are not
equal, such equations are said to be skeletal chemical equations. Skeletal chemical equations can be
balanced by using suitable coefficients in the equation. We shall study balancing the chemical equation
in the following section.
Balancing chemical equations

According to the law of conservation of mass, matter can neither be created nor destroyed. The
mass of each element present on product side of a chemical equation must be equal to its mass present
on the reactant side. In otherwords, the number of atoms of each element remains the same before
and after a chemical reaction. In a balanced chemical equation number of atoms of a particular element
present in the reactants and products must be equal. If not such equation is said to be ‘Skeletel
equation’.
Let us consider the following two equations
Mg + O2 o MgO .... (1)
and Zn + H2SO4 o ZnSO4 + H2 .... (2)
Which one of the above two is balanced. It is easy to identify that equation (2) is balanced, as
the number of Zn, H and S atoms are equal on both sides of equation. Therefore equation (2) is said
to be balanced chemical equation.
Now what about equation (1)? By simple observation we can say that the number of magnesium
atoms are equal on both sides. The number of oxygen atoms on the reactants side is two (in O2) but
only one atom of oxygen is on product side in (MgO). To make the same number of atoms of oxygen
on the product side, we shall have to write 2MgO.
Now the equation becomes

Mg + O2 o 2MgO
In the above equation there is a shortage of one atom of magnesium on the left hand side. For
balancing the number of magnesium atoms, we need to put 2 before Mg and the equation becomes
2Mg + O2 o 2MgO
Now the number of magnesium and oxygen atoms are equal on both sides of arrow and the
chemical equation is said to be balanced. This method of balancing a chemical equation is called the
Hit and Trial method.
Let us consider another reaction for writing and balancing a chemical equation. When steam is
passed over red hot iron, hydrogen gas (H 2) is evolved and oxide of iron (Fe 3O4) is obtained. This
can be expressed as
Fe + H2O o Fe3O4 + H2
If we examine the above equation we find that the equation is not balanced. Let us try to balance
it by using the following steps.
Step I : Study the equation carefully and write the number of atoms of different elements in the
unbalanced equation
Fe + H2O o Fe3O4 + H2
Table 4.2 : Comparing the number of atoms of different elements in reactants

and products
Element Number of atoms on Number of atoms on
reactants side (LHS) products side (RHS)
Fe 1 3
H 2 2
O 1 4
Step II : We should start balancing with the compound that contains the maximum number of atoms.
The compound may be reactant or a product. In the compound select the element which
has maximum number of atoms. Based on this select Fe3O4 in the above equation. In Fe3O4
the element oxygen has the maximum number of atoms. There are four oxygen atoms on the
right hand side (RHS) and only one oxygen atom on the left hand side (LHS) of the arrow.
For balancing oxygen atoms, we put the coefficient ‘4’ as ‘4H 2O’.
Now equation becomes

Fe + 4H2O o Fe3O4 + H2 (partially balanced)
StepIII : Here Fe and H atoms are still not balanced. Let us balance the hydrogen atoms. For this,
make the number of molecules of hydrogen as four on the RHS of the arrow.
The equation now becomes,

Fe + 4H2O o Fe3O4 + 4H2 (partially balanced)
Step IV : Now, out of the three elements, only Fe remains unbalanced. For balancing iron (Fe), we
write 3 atoms of iron on left hand side and equation becomes
3Fe + 4H2O o Fe3O4 + 4H2
Step V : Finally count the number of atoms of all the three elements on both sides of the arrow. You
will find that the number of atoms of oxygen, hydrogen and iron on both sides of the arrow
are equal and thus the balanced equation is obtained as
3Fe + 4H2O o Fe3O4 + 4H2 (balanced equation)
How can we make a chemical equation more informative?

Chemical equations can be made more informative by expressing following characterestics of the
reactants and products.
1. Physical state
2. Heat changes (exothermic or endothermic change)
3. Gas evolved (If any)

4. Precipitate formed (If any)
(i) Expressing the physical state : To make chemical equation more informative, the physical
state of the substances may be mentioned along with their chemical formulae. The different states
i.e. gaseous, liquid and solid states are represented by the notations (g), (l) and (s) respectively.
If the substance is present as a solution in water, the word ‘aqueous’ is written. In short form
it is written as (aq).
In the balanced equation
‘Fe’ in solid state, H2O in gaseous state, Fe3O4 also in solid state and H2 in gaseous state. So
it is represented as
3Fe(s) + 4H 2O(g) o Fe3O4(s) + 4H2(g)
In the reaction of quick lime with water, the equation becomes

CaO(s) + H2O(l) o Ca(OH)2 (aq)
(ii) Expressing heat changes : Reactions in which heat is liberated are called exothermic reactions.
Reactions in which heat is absorbed are called endothermic reactions.
C(s) + O2(g) o CO2(g) + Q (Exothermic reaction)
N2(g) + O2(g) o 2NO(g) Q (Endothermic reaction)
‘Q’ is heat energy ‘+’ sign on product side indicates exothermic and ‘’ sign on product side
indicates endothermic reaction.
(iii) Expressing the gas evolved:If gas evolved in a reaction it is denoted by an upward arrow
(n )
Eg. Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) o ZnSO4 (aq) + H2(g) n
(iv) Expressing precipitate formed : If a precipitate is formed in the reactions it is denoted by

downward arrow ( p ).
Eg. Na2SO4(aq) + BaCl 2(aq) o BaSO4 (s) p + 2NaCl(aq)
Some times the reaction conditions such as temperature, pressure, catalyst etc., are indicated
above or below the arrow in the equation.
Sun light
For example 2AgCl(s) o 2Ag(s) + Cl 2(g)
Sun light
6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l)
o C6H12O6(s) + 6O2(g)
Chlorophyll

1. What is a balanced chemical equation?
2. Write the balanced chemical equation for the following
(i) Calcium hydroxide (aq) + Nitric acid (aq) o Water (l) + Calcium nitrate (aq)
(ii) Zinc (s) + Calcium chloride (aq) o Zinc chloride (aq) + Calcium(s)
3. What is an exothermic reaction? Given an example.
4.3 Types of Chemical reactions

In chemical reactions atoms are neither created nor destroyed. A chemical reaction is a process
that is usually characterised by a chemical change. In those reactions starting materials (reactants) are
different from the products. Chemical reactions occur with the making and breaking of chemical bonds.
(You will learn about chemical bonds in later chapter). Some chemical reactions are discussed below.
1. Chemical combination
2. Chemical decomposition
3. Chemical displacement
4. Chemical double displacement
1. Chemical combination
In combination reactions, two or more substances combine to form only one new substance.
Let us consider an activity to understand this.
Activity 4.1
1. Take a small piece of magnesium ribbon.
2. Rub the magnesium ribbon with sand paper.
3. Hold it with a pair of tongs.
4. Burn it with a spirit lamp or burner.
5. You will notice that magnesium burns in oxygen.
6. During burning you can see a dazzling white flame and
changes into white powder.
Fig. 4.3 Burning of magnesium
7. This white powder is magnesium oxide. ribbon
The reaction is as follows

2Mg(s) + O2(g) o 2MgO(s)
In this activity magnesium and oxygen combine to form magnesium oxide. A reaction in which
single product is formed from two or more reactants is known as chemical combination reaction.
Some more examples of chemical combination reactions
C(s) + O2(g) o CO2(g) + Q (heat energy)
CaO(s) + H2O(l) o Ca(OH)2(aq) + Q (heat energy)
2. Chemical Decomposition
Decomposition reaction is the one in which a compound decomposes into two or more than
two substances. Let us consider an activity to understand this
Activity 4.2
1. Take 2 grams of calcium carbonate (lime stone) in a boiling tube.
2. Arrange a single holed rubber cork to the mouth of the boiling tube and a delivery tube
through single holed rubber cork.
3. Fix the boiling tube to a retort stand and heat it with a bunsen burner.
4. Now bring a burning matchstick near the second end of delivery tube.
5. You will notice that match stick would be put off.
6. You can say that the gas that put off the match stick would be carbon dioxide.
Delivery tube
One holed rubber stopper
Clamp
Boiling tube
Calcium carbonate
Putoff match stick
Stand
Bunsen Burning match stick
burner
Fig. 4.4 Heating of calcium carbonate and testing the gas evolved with burning match stick
In the above activity, on heating calcium carbonate, it decomposes to calcium oxide and
carbondioxide.
'
CaCO3(s) o CaO(s) + CO 2(g)
Limestone quicklime carbondioxide
Reactions in which only one compound is divided into two or more substances, such type of
reactions are called chemical decomposition reactions.
Some more examples of chemical decomposition reactions.

Electrolysis
(i) 2H2O (l) o 2H2(g) + O2(g)
'
(ii) 2Pb(NO3)2(s) o 2PbO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
3. Chemical displacement reaction

In displacement reaction one element displaces another element from its compound and takes
its place there in. Generally metals which are more active than hydrogen displace it from an acid.
Let us observe the reaction in the following activity.
Activity 4.3
Balloon
with H2
gas
Dil. HCl
Conical flask
Conical flask
Dil. HCl
Zinc dust Zinc dust
Fig. 4.5(a) Fig. 4.5(b)
1. Take a small quantity of zinc dust in a conical flask.

2. Add dilute hydrochloric acid slowly.
3. Now take a balloon and tie it to the mouth of the conical flask.
4. Closely observe the changes in the conical flask and balloon.
5. You can see the gas bubbles coming out from the solution in conical flask and balloon bulges
out.
6. This is because zinc pieces react with dilute hydrochloric acid and liberate hydrogen gas as
shown below
Zn(s) + 2HCl (aq) o ZnCl2 (aq) + H 2(g)
In the above reaction, the element zinc displaces hydrogen from hydrochloric acid. This type of
reactions are called as displacement reactions.
Let us see some more reactions of this type
(i) Fe(s) + CuSO4 (aq) o FeSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
(ii) Pb(s) + CuCl 2(aq) o PbCl2(aq) + Cu(s)
4. Clinical Double displacement reaction

In double displacement reaction two reactants exchange their constituents chemically and form
two products.
Let us explain this type of reactions with the following activity.
Activity 4.4
1. Take a pinch of lead nitrate and
dissolve in 5 mL of distilled water
in a test tube. Lead nitrate solution Pb(NO3)2
is formed.
KNO3
2. Take a pinch of potassium Iodide
and dissolve in 5 mL of distilled
water in the second test tube.
Potassium iodide solution is formed.
3. Mix the two solutions. KI
4. A yellow coloured substance which
Lead Iodide
is insoluble in water is formed as
precipitate.
Fig. 4.6 Formation of lead iodide and potassium
5. When lead nitrate solution is mixed
with potassium iodide solution lead iodide is formed as precipitate and potassium nitrate
solution is also formed
Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2KI(aq) o PbI2(s) p + 2KNO3(aq)
In the above reaction, Lead nitrate and potassium iodide solutions exchange their constituents
and form two new products lead iodide and potassium nitrate solution. This type of reactions are
called chemical double displacement reactions.
Some more reactions of this type are
(i) Sodium hydroxide reacts with hydrochloric acid to form sodium chloride and water.
NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq) o NaCl (aq) + H 2O(l)
(ii) Sodium chloride spontaneously combines with silver nitrate in solution giving silver chloride
precipitate and sodium nitrate.
NaCl (aq) + AgNO 3(aq) o AgCl(s) p + NaNO3(aq)

1. Write an equation for decomposition reaction where energy is supplied in the form of Heat/light/
electricity?
2. (i) The reaction 2N 2O o 2N2 + O2 is an example for _____________ reaction

(ii) The reaction Fe 2O3 + 3CO o 2Fe + 3CO2 is an example for _______ reaction.
3. Give two examples for chemical double displacement reactions?
4.4 Oxidation and reduction

‘Oxidation’ is a reaction that involves the addition of oxygen or removal of hydrogen.
Let us try to understand more clearly doing this activity.
Activity 4.5
1. Take about 1 gm of copper powder in a china dish.
2. Keep the china dish on a Chind dish
tripod stand containing wire containing Wire gauze
gauge. Copper
powder
3. Heat it with a bunsen burner
or with a spirit lamp.
Tripod Bunsen
4. You will notice that the stand burner
surface layer of copper
becomes black.
5. This is because on heating
copper it reacts with
Fig 4.7(a) Copper Oxide
oxygen present in the change into black colour
atmosphere to form copper
oxide. Fig 4.7(b): Oxidation of copper to copper oxide
The reaction is shown below
'
Cu(s) + O2(g) o 2CuO(s)
Here copper combines with oxygen to form copper oxide. Copper gained oxygen and the process
is called oxidation.
Now pass the hydrogen gas over hot copper oxide formed in the above activity. You will notice
that the black coating on copper turns brown because copper oxide loses oxygen to form copper.
In this process oxygen is lost and the process is called reduction.
In the above reaction oxidation and reduction occurs in the same reaction. If one reactant gets
oxidized, the other gets reduced. Such reactions are called oxidation - reduction reactions or redox
reactions.
In CuO, H2 reaction, CuO is reduced and H 2 is oxidised.
Some other examples of redox reactions are

(i) 2Fe2O3(s) + 3C(s) o 4Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)
(ii) 2PbO(s) + C(s) o 2Pb(s) + CO2(g)
Effects of oxidation in daily life

Corrosion : You might have observed that a freshly cut apple turns brown after sometime. The shining
iron articles gradually becomes reddish brown when left for some time. Burning of crackers produce
dazzling light with white fumes. These are all examples of the process called oxidation.
Apples, pears, bananas, potatoes etc., contain enzyme called polyphenol oxidase or tyrosinase
which reacts with oxygen and changes the colour on the cut surface of the fruit.
The browning of iron, when left for sometime in moist air is a process commonly known as
rusting of iron. This process is basically oxidation reaction which requires both oxygen and water.
Rusting does not occur in oxygen free water or dry air. Burning of crackers is also oxidation process
of variety of chemicals.
When some metals are exposed to moisture, acids etc., they tarnish due to the formation of
respective metal oxide on their surface. This process is called corrosion. Corrosion is the oxidative
deterioration of a metal.
2Cu + O2 o 2CuO
Fig. 4.8 Corrosion of copper

Corrosion causes damage to car bodies, bridges, iron railings, ships etc., and to all other objects
that are made of metals. Especially corrosion of iron is a serious problem.
Prevention of corrosion
Corrosion can be prevented or atleast minimized by shielding the metal surface from oxygen and
moisture. It can be prevented by painting, oiling, greasing, galvonizing, chrome plating or making
alloys.
Galvanizing is a method of protecting iron from rusting by coating them a thin layer of zinc.
Alloying is also a very good method of improving properties of metal. When iron is mixed with carbon,
nickel and chromium to get an alloy stainless steel. The stainless steel is hard and does not get rusted.
A metallic substance made by mixing and fusing two or more metals or a metal and a non-metal,
to obtain desirable qualities such as hardness, strength is known as alloy. For example brass and steel.
Fig 4.9 Alloys

Gold (Au) is one of the valuable elements and is resistant to corrosion.
Some more effects of oxidation in everyday life
Combustion is the most common example for oxidation reactions. Burning of wood involves
release of carbondioxide.
Rising of dough with yeast depends on oxidation of sugar to carbon dioxide and water.
Some times during rainy season the power supply to our home from the electric pole will be
interrupted due to the formation of the metal oxide layer on the electric wire. This metal oxide
is an insulator. On removing metal oxide layer formed on the wire with a sand paper, supply of
electricity can be restored.
Rancidity
When fats and oils are oxidised they become rancid. Their smell and taste change. Thus we
can say that oxidation reactions in food material that were left for a long period are responsible for
spoiling of food. Rancidity is an oxidation reaction.
How can we prevent the spoiling of food? The
spoiling of food can be prevented by adding preserva-
tives like vitamin C and vitamin E. Usually substances
which prevent oxidation (antioxidants) are added to
food containing fats and oils. Keeping food in air tight
containers helps to slow down oxidation process. The
manufacturers of potato chips flush bags filled with
nitrogen gas to prevent the chips from getting oxidized.
Fig 4.10 Chips
1. Why do we apply paint on iron articles?
2. Give two examples of oxidation - reduction reaction?
3. Name the vitamins used to prevent spoiling of food materials.
Summary
Atom is the smallest particle of an element which takes part in chemical reaction.
Element is the basic form of matter that cannot be broken down into simple substances by
chemical reactions.
Atoms of same element or different elements join together to form molecule.
Atoms of different elements join together to form compound.
A chemical change is a permanent change.
Complete chemical equation represents, the reactants, products and their physical state.
A chemical equation is said to be balanced, when the number of atoms of each element is
same on both reactants side and products side.
A chemical equation must always be balanced.
In a combination reaction two or more substances combine to form a new single substance.
In a decomposition reaction, a single substance decomposes to give two or more substances.
Reactions in which heat energy is absorbed by the reactants are endothermic reactions.
In exothermic reactions heat energy is released by the reactants.
A displacement reaction occurs, when an element displaces another element from its compound.
Two different ions are exchanged in double displacement reactions.
Oxidation is the gain of oxygen or loss of hydrogen.
Loss of oxygen or gain of hydrogen is reduction.
Corrosion causes demage to iron articles.
Precipitate is an insoluble substance.
When fats and oils are oxidized, they become rancid.
Terminal Questions
1. Write the chemical equations of the following and balance them.
(i) Carbon + oxygen o Carbon dioxide
(ii) Zinc + silver nitrate o Zinc nitrate + silver
(iii) Ammonium nitrate o Ammonium nitrite + Nitrogen dioxide + oxygen
(iv) Sodium nitrate + potassium iodide o Sodium iodide + potassium nitrate.
2. What do you mean by precipitation reaction?
3. How chemical displacement reaction differ from chemical decomposition reaction? Explain.
4. MnO2 + 4HCl o MnCl2 + 2H2O + Cl2
In the above equation, name the compound which is oxidised and which is reduced?
5. What do you mean by corrosion? How can you prevent it.
6. What is the use of keeping food in air tight containers?
7. What is the difference between displacement and double displacement reactions? Write the equations
of these reactions?
8. Explain chemical combination reaction with an activity?

9. How can you prove that oxidation and reduction are done in the same reaction?
10. What is galvonizing?
11. Explain precipitation reaction with an activity?
12. Define redox reaction? Explain with equation?
13. How many types of chemical reactions are there? What are they?
14. How can you make chemical equations more informative?
15. What is a skeletel equation?
16. Balance the following chemical equations?
(a) NaOH + H 2SO4 o Na2SO4 + H2O (b) KClO3 o KCl + O2
(c) C3H8 + O2 o CO2 + H2O (d) Hg(NO 3)2 + KI o HgI2 + KNO3
17. In the following reaction name the substances which are oxidized and reduced.
(a) Ca(s) + Cl 2(g) o CaCl2(s) (b) Fe2O3(g) + 3CO(g) o 2Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)
18. Write balanced chemical equations with physical states, symbols and necessary if any
(a) Nitrogen reacts with hydrogen in the presence of iron as a catalyst at 200 atmospheric
o
pressure and 600 C temperature and the product obtained is ammonia.
(b) Phosphorous burns in chlorine gas to form phosphorous pentachloride.
19. Explain chemical displacement reaction with an activity?
20. How can we express formation of precipitate and gas involved in chemical reactions.
Choose the correct answer and put in the bracket.
1. Symbol of Copper is ......... ( )
(a) C (b) Co (c) Cu (d) Cp
2. N2 + 3H2 o 2NH3 is a ....... reaction ( )
(a) Combination (b) Decomposition
(c) Displacement (d) Double decomposition
3. Corrosion of Iron is ....... ( )
(a) Oxidation reaction (b) Reduction reaction
(c) Redox reaction (d) None of the above
4. Galvonizing is the process of applying a coating of ......... ( )
(a) Chromium (b) Gold (c) Platinum (d) Zinc
5. Spoiling of food can be prevented by adding ......... vitamins ( )
(a) A and B (b) B and C (c) C and E (d) A and E
Fill in the blanks
1. Reaction of metals with acids releases ............. gas.
2. NaOH + HCl o ................ + H2O
3. In Fe2O3 + 3CO o 2Fe + 3CO2 reaction, Fe2O3 is ........... (Oxidised or reduced).
A
4. 2H2O o 2H2 + O2, in this reaction ‘A’ is ..............
5. Addition of hydrogen to a compound is called .........................

4.1
1. Atoms are the most fundamental of all particles that may or may not have independent existence.
An atom is the smallest particle of an element which takes part in chemical reactions.
E.g. Hydrogen (H), Helium (He), Carbon (C), Nitrogen (N)
2. Examples of diatomic elements : H 2, N2, O2, F2 etc.,
3. Molecule : Atoms of same element or different elements join together to form molecule.
Compound : Atoms of different elements join together to form compound.
4.2
1. In a chemical equation if the number of atoms of each element on reactant side and product side
are equal, such type of chemical equations are called balanced chemical equations.
2. (i) Ca(OH)2 (aq) + 2HNO3(aq) o 2H2O(l) + Ca(NO 3)2 (aq)
(ii) Zn(s) + CaCl2 (aq) o ZnCl2 (aq) + Ca(s)
3. Chemical reactions in which heat energy is released are called exothermic reactions.
Eg. C(s) + O 2(g) o CO2(g) + heat energy
4.3
'
1. (i) CaCO3 (s) o CaO(s) + CO2(g)
Electrolysis
(ii) 2H2O (l) o 2H2(g) + O2(g)
Sunlight
(iii) 2AgBr(s) o 2Ag(s) + Br2(g)
2. (i) Chemical decomposition reaction (ii) Chemical displacement reaction
3. (i) Na2SO4 (aq) + BaCl 2(aq) o BaSO2(s) + 2NaCl (aq)
(ii) NaOH(aq) + HCl (aq) o NaCl (aq) + H 2O(l)
4.4
1. Paint on iron articles prevent iron from oxidation because oxidation causes rusting.
'
2. (i) CuO (s) + H 2(s) o Cu(s) + H2O (g) (ii) 2PbO(s) + C(s) o 2Pb(s) + CO2(g)
CuO is reduced and H 2 is oxidised. PbO is reduced and C is oxidised.
3. The spoiling of food can be prevented by adding preservatives like vitamin C and vitamin E.
Answers :
1) c 2) a 3) a 4) d 5) c
6) Hydrogen 7) NaCl 8) Oxidised 9) Electrolysis 10) Reduction
1. Refer to 4.2 2. Refer to 4.2 3. Refer to 4.3 4. Refer to 4.4
1. Collect washing soda, baking soda, venigar and lemon juice which is available to you. Test the
gas released by the reactions between them and prepare a report.
2. Collect the samples of lime stone, glucose, urea, sodium hydroxide and add water to them.
Prepare a report on the changes you observed.
5
Acids, Bases and Salts
From generations, our parents have been using tamarind or lemon juice to give bright look to
the copper vessels. Our mothers never store pickles in metal containers. Common salt and sugar
have often been used as an effective preservative. How did our ancestors know that tamarind, lemon,
vinegar, sugar etc., works effectively ? This was common collective wisdom which was passed from
generation to generation. These days bleaching powder, baking soda etc., are commonly used in our
homes. You must have used various cleaners in open drains, pipes and to clean glass window panes
for the sparkling of glass. How do these chemicals work? In this lesson we will try to find answers
to these questions. Most of these examples can be classified as acids, bases and salts. In this unit we
shall categorize those substances and study about their characteristic properties. We will also learn
about pH - a measure of acidity and its importance in our life.
Objectives
define the terms acid, base, salt and indicator
give examples of some common household acids, bases salts and suggest suitable indicators.
describe the properties of acids and bases.
differentiate between strong and weak acids and bases.
explain the role of water in dissociation of acids and bases.
explain the term ionic product of water.
define pH.
application of pH in daily life.
define salts and describe their methods of preparation.
describe the manufacture and use of baking soda, washing soda, plaster of paris and bleaching
powder.
5.1 Acids
Definition of acids : Acids are the substances which taste sour, change blue litmus to red and corrosive
to metals and furnish H+ ions in their aqueous solutions.
Acids are mainly two types
1. Organic Acids: Obtained from animals and plants.
Ex Acetic acid, citric acid, lactic acid, tartaric acid.
2. Inorganic acids: Obtained from mineral salts
Ex: HCl, H2SO4, HNO3, H2CO3.
The following table show some common acids used in laboratory
Table 5.1
S.No Acid Formula
1 Hydrochloric acid HCl
2 Sulphuric acid H2SO4
3 Nitric acid HNO 3
4 Acetic acid CH3COOH
5. Phosphoric acid H3PO4
Naturally available acids : acetic acid, citric acid, oleic acid, formic acid, malic acid, butyric
acid, stearic acid, tartaric acid and uric acid.
Preparation of Acids:
Elements such as carbon, sulphur, phosphorous etc., are non metals. They burn in oxygen and
forms their oxides. These oxides when dissolved in water form the respective acids as given below.
Acids, Bases and Salts 75
1. Carbon + oxygen Carbon dioxide

C + O2 CO 2
Carbon dioxide + water Carbonic acid
CO2 + H2O H2CO3
2. Sulphur + oxygen Sulphur dioxide
S + O2 SO2
Sulphur dioxide + water Sulphurous acid
SO2 + H2O H2SO3
3. Phosphorous + oxygen Phosphorous pentoxide
P4 + 5O2 2P2O5
Phosphorous pentoxide + water Phosphoric acid
P2O5 + 3H2O 2H3PO4
Properties of acids
Hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid and nitric acid are used in the Laboratory. Let us observe
some of the properties of these acids.
1. Acids exists in the liquid state.
2. Acids have no colour
3. HCl, HNO3 have pungent smell, H2SO4 has no odour.
4. Acids are sour to taste
5. Acids reacts with metals and liberate H 2 gas
Activity 5.1 Delivery tube

Stand One holed rubber stopper
Testing of hydrogen gas
HCl H2
Test tube
Zinc granules
Soap water
Fig 5.1 Experiment for liberation H 2 gas reaction of dil HCl with Zn granules and
burning candle.
Material required : Test tube, delivery tube, glass trough candle, soap water, dil HCl and Zinc
granules.
Procedure:
Set the apparatus as shown in Fig. 5.1
Take about 10 mL of dilute HCl in a test tube and add a few zinc granules to it.
What do you observe on the surface of the zinc granules.
Pass the liberated gas being evolved through the soap water.
Why are bubbles formed in the soap solution?
Bring a burning candle nearer to the gas filled bubbles.
What do you observe.
You will notice the gas evolved burst with a pop sound indicating H 2 gas.
The chemical reaction of the above activity is
Acid + Metal Salt + Hydrogen
2HCl(aq) + Zn(s) ZnCl2(aq) + H2 n (g)
Repeat the above experiment with some other acids like H 2SO4 and HNO3.
What do you observe in all these cases?
6. From the above activities you can conclude that H 2 gas is evolved when acids reacts with
metals.
The reaction of metal carbonates and hydrogen carbonates with acids give a corresponding
salt, carbon dioxide and water.
Ex: Na2CO3 (s) + 2HCl(aq) 2NaCl (aq) + H 2O(l) + CO2(g)
NaHCO3 (s) + HCl (aq) NaCl (aq) + H 2O(l) + CO2 (g)
Preparing dilute acids
In preparation of dilute acids, we should take more quantity of water and to it add little
quantity of concentrated acid drop by drop.
Concentrated acid should not be added to water. If it is done more amount of heat is
produced which leads to breakage of glass vessel and of spillage of acid.
Uses of Acids
1. HCl, H2SO4, HNO3 etc. acids are used as laboratory reagents.
2. Acids are used in metallurgy.
3. Used as cleaning agents (Chromic acid H 2Cr2O4).
Table - 5.2 Application of acids in daily life.

S.No Acid Uses
1 Acetic acid Preparation of pickles.
2. Citric acid Preparation of lemon rice.
3 Carbonic acid Preparation of cool drinks.
4 Oxalic acid Removal of ink stains.
5 Sulphuric acid Preparation of fertilizers and used as battery acid
6 Hydrochloric acid Preparation of medicine and paints.
7 Nitric acid Preparation of explosives.
Table - 5.3 Acids present in some common substances

S.No Acid Substance
1 Acetic acid Vinegar
2 Oleic acid Olive oil
3 Citric acid Lemon, orange
4 Stearic acid Fatty substance
5 Butyric acid Butter
6. Tartaric acid Tamarind
7 Lactic acid Milk, curd, butter milk
8. Palmitic acid Palm oil
9. Oxalic acid Spinach, tamato
10 Ascorbic acid Gooseberry
11 Malic acid Apple
12. Uric acid Urine

1. What are non-metallic oxides? Give examples.
2. Write the uses of sulphuric acid.
3. Which gas released when acids react with metals.
4. Which acids present in citrus and orange.
5.2 Bases
Touch soap solutions, ash, washing soda solution and salted lime. They are sticky when we
touch them. Substances which are bitter in taste and sticky nature are called bases.
The following table show some common bases used in the laboratory.
Table 5.4
S.No Bases Formula
1 Sodium hydroxide NaOH
2 Potassium hydroxide KOH
3 Ammonium hydroxide NH4OH
4 Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2
5 Magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2
Formation of Bases
Elements like sodium, potassium, magnesium etc. are metals. They burn in oxygen and form their
oxides. These oxides, when dissolved in water, form their respective bases.
1. Sodium oxide + water Sodium hydroxide

Na2O + H2O 2NaOH
2. Potassium oxide + water Potassium hydroxide

K2O + H 2O 2KOH
3. Magnesium oxide + water Magnesium hydroxide

MgO + H2O Mg(OH)2
Properties of Bases:
1. They are bitter to taste
2. They are soap like solutions and slippery to touch
Uses of Bases:
1. Calcium hydroxide is used for white washing of walls.
2. Magnesium hydroxide is used to reduce and nullify the acidity in stomach.
3. Sodium hydroxide is used in preparation of soaps.

Table 5.5 Applications of Bases in daily life.

S.No Base Uses
1 Ammonium hydroxide Removing grease stains.
2 Potassium hydroxide Preparation of bath soaps.
3 Sodium hydroxide Preparation of washing soap.
4 Aluminium hydroxide Preparation of fire Intrusive material.
5 Calcium hydroxide Preparation of bleaching powder.
Table 5.6 Bases present in some common substances
S.No Base Substance
1 Calcium hydroxide Lime water
2 NaOH, KOH Soaps
3 Ammonium hydroxide Glass cleaning liquid
4 Magnesium hydroxide Milk of magnesia

1. What are metallic oxides. Give examples?
2. Which base is used to removal of greese stains.
3. Write the chemical name of milk of magnesia.
5.3 Strength of Acid (or) Base

AC plug AC plug
230 volt Bulb Bulb
230 volt
Beaker A Beaker B
dil. CH3COOH
solution dil. HCl solution
Graphite rods Graphite rods
Fig. 5.2 Acid solution in water conducts electricity

A test to know whether the acid is strong or weak.
Activity 5.2
Take two beakers A and B
Fill the beaker A with dil CH3COOH (acetic acid) and beaker B with dil HCl (hydrochloric
acid)
Arrange the apparatus as used in above figure and pass electric current through the solution
in separate beakers.
What do you observe:
Can you guess the reason for the changes you observed.
You notice that, the bulb glow brightly in HCl solution, while the intensity of the bulb is low in
acetic acid solution. This indicates that there are more ions in HCl solution and fewer ions are present
in acetic acid solution. More ions in HCl solution mean more H3O+ ions, therefore it is a strong acid.
Where as acetic acid has fewer H3O+ ions and hence it is weak acid. Carry out the above experiment
by taking bases like dil NaOH and dil NH4OH instead of acids. What do you observe? Explain your
observation. The universal indicator can also be used to know the strength of acid or base. Universal
indicator is a mixture of several indicators. The universal indicator shows different colours at different
concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution.
Table 5.7 : Differences between Srong acids - Weak Acids
Table 5.8 : Differences between Strong Bases - Weak Bases
(iv) Cr(OH) 3 (v) Zn(OH)2 etc.

1. Give examples of weak acids?
2. Write the formula of Hydronium ion.
5.4 Identification of Acids, Bases

Generally litmus papers, pH papers and acid, base indicators are used to identify acids, bases.
Litmus papers
Acids converts blue litmus to red litmus.
Bases converts red litmus to blue litmus.
pH paper : Generally pH values are needed in physical science laboratories, biological science laboratories
and in some industries also. Hence in order to determine the pH values pH meter or pH papers can
be availed. pH papers are demarked with values from 1 to 14 with suitable colours. pH values can
be determined by dipping it in solution and by seeing the colour attained by it. By seeing the colour
of it we can determine whether the solution is acid, base or neutral.
Acid base Indicator : Indicators show different colours in presence of acids and bases. Methyl
orange and phenolphthalein are mainly used as acid, base indicator.
Methyl orange indicator : Generally methyl orange indicator is orange. In acidic medium methyl
orange, indicator shows red. In basic medium methyl orange indicator shows yellow.
Phenolphthalein as Indicator : Generally phenolphthalein indicator is colour less. In acidic medium

Phenolphthalein indicator does not show in any colour. In basic medium phenolphthalein indicator
shows pink in colour.
Litmus paper Methyl orange Phenolphthalein

Fig. 5.3 Acid, Base indicators

1. What is the colour of methyl orange indicator in acidic medium.
2. What is the colour of phenolphthalein indicator in basic medium.
5.5 pH Scale
A scale for measuring hydrogen ion concentration [H+] in a solution is called pH scale (The pH
stands for potenz. In German potenz is power). pH value of a solution is simply a number which
indicates the acidic or basic nature of solution.
By convention, we use the pH scale for denoting the concentration of hydrogen ions. pH notation
was devised by the Danish biochemist Sorensen in 1909. The term pH means power of hydrogen.
The pH is the logarithm of the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion concentration. It is written as pH =
1
log .
[H ]
Alternatively, the pH is the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration. It is written as
pH = log[H+].
Fig. 5.4 pH scale
The pH of neutral solution is 7. Values less than 7 on the PH scale represents an acidic solution.
pH value of a solution above ‘7’ represent a basic solution.
Table 5.9 pH values of some common acids and bases

Common acid pH Common Base pH
HCl (4%) 0 Blood plasma 7.32-7.45
Stomach acid 1 Egg white 8
Lemon juice 2 Sea water 8
Vinegar 3 Backing soda 9
Oranges 3.5 Antacids 10
Soda, grape 4 Ammonia water 11
Fresh milk 5 Lime water 12
Human saliva 6-8 Caustic soda (14% 14
Pure water 7 NaOH)
Importance of pH value in everyday life
(a) Are plants and animals pH sensitive?
Our body works within the pH value range of 7.0 to 7.8. Living organisms can survive only
in a narrow range of pH value change.
(b) Acid rains:
When pH value of rain water is less than 5.6, it is called acid rain. When acid rain flows into
the rivers, it lowers the pH value of the river water. The survival of aquatic life in such rivers
become difficult.
(c) pH value of the soil :
Plants require a specific pH value range for their healthy growth. Finely ground agricultural lime
is often applied to acid soils to increase soil pH. The pH of an alkaline soil can be reduced
by adding acidifying agents.
(d) pH value in our digestive system:
It is very interesting to note that our stomach produces hydrochloric acid. It helps in the digestion
of food with out harming the stomach. During indigestion the stomach produces too much acid
and this causes pain and irritation. To get rid of this pain people use bases called antacids.This
antacid neutralises the excess acid in the stomach. Magnesium hydroxide (milk of magnesia) a
mild base, is used for this purpose.
(e) pH value changes as the cause of tooth decay :
Tooth decay starts when the pH value of the mouth is lower than 5.5. Tooth enamel made up
of calcium phosphate is the hardest substance in the body. It does not dissolve in water, but is
corroded when the pH in the mouth is below 5.5. Bacteria present in the mouth produce acids
by degradation of sugar and food particles remaining in the mouth after eating. The best way
to prevent this is to clean the mouth after eating food. Use of tooth paste, which is generally
4 basic for cleaning the teeth can neutralise the excess acid and prevent tooth decay.
F
(f) Self defence of animals and plants in pH value
Bee sting causes severe pain and burning sensation. It is due to the presence of methanoic acid
in it. Use of a mild base like baking soda provides relief from pain.
Some plants like ‘nettle plant’ have fine stinging hair which inject methanoic acid into the body
of any animal or human being that comes in its contact. This causes severe pain and buring
sensation. The leaves of dock plant that grows near the nettle plant when rubeed on the affected
area provides relief.
1. What is pH value of acid rain?
2. Which acid produced in stomach?
3. pH value of tooth decay starts at?
4. What is potentz in German language?
5. What is pH value of the blood?
5.6 Water and Dissociation of Acids and Bases

If a dry strip of blue litmus paper is brought near the mouth of the test tube converting
dry HCl gas its colour does not change. When it is moistened with a drop of water and again
brought near the mouth of the test tube its turns red. It shows that there are no H + ion in dry HCl
gas. Only when it is dissolve in water H+ ions are formed and shows its acidic nature by turning the
colour of the blue litmus paper to red.
A similar behaviour is exhibited by bases. If we take a pellet of dry NaOH in dry atmosphere
and quickly bring a dry strip of red litmus paper in its contact no colour change is observed.
NaOH is hygroscopic compound and soon absorbs moisture from air and becomes wet. When
this happens, the colour of the red litmus paper immediately changes to blue. Thus in dry solid
NaOH although OH ions are present they are not free and do not show basic nature. On coming
in contact with water, OH ions become free and show the basic nature by changing red litmus to blue.
From the above discussion it is clear that acidic and basic character of different substances can be
observed only when they are dissolved in water.
Self dissociation of water and Ionic Product of water
Water plays an important role in acid base chemistry. We have seen that it helps in the dissociation
of acids and bases resulting in the formula of H + (aq) and OH (aq) ions respectively. Water itself
undergoes dissociation process which is called self disassociation of water
Water dissociates into H + (aq) and OH (aq) ions as

H2O (l) H+ (aq) + OH (aq)
The dissociation of water is extremely small and only about two out of every billion (109) water
molecules are dissociated at 25o C. As a result the concentration of H+ (aq) and OH(aq) ions formed
are also extremely low at 25 o C (298k)
[H+] = [OH] = 1.0 u 107 mol L1
Here square brackets [ ] denote the molar concentration of the species enclosed within.
Thus [H+] denotes the concentration of H+ (aq) ions in moles per litre and [OH], the concentration
of OH(aq) ions in moles per litre. It must be noted here that in pure water and in all aqueous
neutral solution.
[H+] = [OH]
Also in pure water as well as in all aqueous solution at a given temperature product of
concentration of H + (aq) and OH (aq) always remains constant. This product is called ionic
product of water and is given the symbol of Kw. It is also called ionic product constant of water.
Thus :
Kw = [H+] [OH]
At 25oC (298 K) in pure water K w can be calculated as
Kw = (1.0 u 107) u (1.0 u 107) = 1.0 u 1014
Intext questions (5.6)

1. What is ionic product of water?
2. What is the value of ionic product of water at 25 oC?
5.7 Neutralization
The reaction of an acid with a base to give a salt and water is known as a neutralization reaction.
In general a neutralized reaction can be written as
Acid + Base Salt + water
Example of neutralization reaction
HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O
(acid) (base) (salt) (water)
H2SO4 + 2KOH K2SO4 + H2O
(Acid) (base) (salt) (water)
5.8 Salts

Salts are ionic compounds made of a cation other than H + ion and anion other than OH ion
Formation of salts:
Salts are formed in many reactions involving acids and bases. These are
1. By neutralization of acids and bases
For example: Acid + Base Salt + water

HX + MOH MX + H2O (M = Metal)
HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O
HNO3 + KOH KNO3 + H2O
2. By reaction of acids on metals
In a reaction between acid and metal salt is produced along with hydrogen.
Metal + Acid Salt + Hydrogen
Zn + H2SO4 ZnSO4 + H2
Zn + 2HCl ZnCl2 + H2
3. By action of acids on metal carbonates and hydrogen carbonates:
Salts are produced in reactions between acids and metal carbonates and hydrogen carbonates
(bicarbonates) along with water and carbon dioxide.
Metal carbonate + Acid Salt + water + carbon dioxide

CaCO3 + 2 HCl CaCl2 + H2O + CO2
NaHCO3 + HCl NaCl + H2O + CO2
Salts - uses:
A large number of salts are used in our home and industry for various purposes. In this section
we learn about some such salts.
1. Baking soda (or) cooking soda : (Sodium bicarbonate)
This soda is commonly used in the kitchen for making tasty and crispy pakodas. It is added for
faster cooking. The chemical name of the compound is sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO3).
It is one of the raw materials, used in the production of sodium carbonate.
NaCl + H2O + CO2 + NH3 NH4Cl + NaHCO3
sodium hydrogen carbonate has got various uses in the household.

Uses of sodium hydrogen carbonate:

1. For making baking powder
2. Sodium Hydrogen carbonate is also an ingredient in antacids.
3. It is also used in soda acid fire extinguisher.
4. Used as weak Antiseptic.
2. Washing soda (Na2CO3 10H2O) (or) sodium carbonate :
Another chemical that can be obtained from sodium chloride is Na 2CO3 .10H2O (washing
soda). Sodium carbonate (washing soda) is also a basic salt.
Uses of washing soda :
1. Sodium carbonate (washing soda) is used in glass, soap and paper industries.
2. It is used in the manufacture of sodium compounds such as borax.
3. Sodium carbonate can be used as a cleaning agent for domestic purpose.
4. It is used for removing permanent hardness of water.
3. Plaster of paris (POP) : You must have seen some beautiful designs made on the ceiling and
walls of rooms in many houses. These are made of plaster of paris also called as POP.
1
Chemically it is 2CaSO4 . H2O (or) CaSO 4 H2O (Calcium sulphate hemihydrate)
2
When gypsum is heated at about 100oC (373 K), it loses a part of its water of crystallisation
to form plaster of paris.
Heat 1 3
CaSO4 . 2H2O CaSO4 . H2O + H2O
100oC (373 K) 2 2
Gypsum Plaster of paris
Uses of plaster of paris :
1. In making casts for manufacture of toys and statues
2. In medicine for making plaster casts to set fractured bones in place. It is also used for
making casts in dentistry.
3. For making the surface of walls and ceiling smooth.
4. For making decorative designs on ceiling walls and pillars.
5. For making chalk for writing on black board.
6. For making fire proof materials.
4. Bleaching powder : Bleaching powder is formed by the action of chlorine on dry slaked
lime (Ca(OH)2). Bleaching powder is represented as CaOCl2 though the actual composition is
quite complex.
Ca(OH)2 + Cl2 CaOCl2 + H2O
Calcium hydroxide Calcium hypochlorite
Uses of bleaching powder:

(i) For bleaching cotton and linen in the textile industry, for bleaching wood pulp in paper factories
and for bleaching washed cloths in laundry.
(ii) As an oxidising agent in many chemical industries.
(iii) For disinfecting drinking water to make it free of germs.
(iv) For the manufacture of chloroform.

1. Which gas released when acid react with metallic carbonates?
2. Write the formula of washing soda?
3. Expand POP.
Keywords
Acids, Bases, Salts, Litmus, Acid Base indicator, pH scale, neutralisation, Hydronium ion, Potenz,
Antacids, Tooth decay, Plaster of paris, Bleaching powder.
Summary
+
Acids are the substances which taste sour, change blue litmus to red and furnish H ions in
their aqueous solution.
Bases are the substances which taste bitter and changes to red litmus into blue, feel slippery

and furnish OH ions in their aqueous solutions.
Indicators are the substances that show one colour in an acidic medium and another colour
in a basic medium. Litmus, phenolpthalein and methyl orange are commonly used indicators.
Acids react with metals to produce salt and hydrogen gas.
Acids react with metal carbonates and metal hydrogen carbonates to produce salt, water
and CO2.
HCl, H2SO4, HNO3 are strong acids. CH 3COOH is weak acid. NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH) 2
are strong base. NH 4OH is weak base.
Universal indicator is prepared by mixing a number of indicators. It shows a different characteristic
colour at each pH.
Maintenance of correct pH is very important for biochemical process occuring in humans
and animals.
If pH of rain water falls below 5.6 it is called acid rain and is quite harmful.
pH plays an important role in proper growth of plants and also proper digestion in our bodies.
Salts are ionic compounds made of a cation other than H+ ion and an anion other than OH
ion. They are formed in neutralisation reaction.
Water itself undergoes dissociation and furnishes H+ and OH ions in equal numbers. This
is called self dissociation of water.
o
When gypsum is heated at about 100 C it losses a part of its water of crystallization to
form plaster of paris (POP).
Terminal Questions
1. Give two examples of acids found in food articles?
2. What are indicators?
3. Why do solutions of acid and bases conduct electricity?
4. Write down the reaction between zinc and hydrochloric acid?
5. How does water helping dissociation of acids and bases? Explain.
6. Write the differences between strong acids and weak acids.
7. What is acid rain and give the pH value of acid rain?
8. Give four uses of washing soda and baking soda?
9. Explain the acids react with metal experimentally?
10. What is importance of pH in daily life?
Multiple Choice Questions

1. Tamarind contains ..... acid ( )
(a) Tartaric acid (b) Ascorbic acid (c) Acetic acid (d) Lactic acid
2. Which of the following is weak acid ( )
(a) HCl (b) HNO 3 (c) H2SO4 (d) CH3COOH
3. Colour of methyl orange in basic medium ( )
(a) Red (b) Yellow (c) Blue (d) Pink
4. Which salt is used in glass, soaps and paper industry ( )
(a) NaHCO3 (b) Na2CO3 (c) CaSO4 (d) CaOCl2
5. pH value of pure water ( )
(a) 8 (b) 7 (c) 2 (d) 5
Fill in the blanks

1. Acids taste ............. while bases taste .............
2. ........ gas is produced when acids react with metal hydrogen carbonate.
3. The reaction between an acid and a base is known as ..................
4. Bee sting injects ............. acid which causes severe pain and burning sensation.
5. Chemically baking soda ...........
Match the following
1. Acetic acid ( ) (a) CaOCl2
2. Suphuric acid ( ) (b) NH4OH
3. Ammonium Hydroxide ( ) (c). Na2CO3
4. Sodium Carbonate ( ) (d). CH3COOH
5. Bleaching powder ( ) (e) H2SO4

5.1
1. Elements such as carbon, suphur, phosphrous etc. are non metals. They burn in oxygen and form
their oxides. These oxides are called non metallic oxides.
Examples : CO2, SO2, P2O5.
2. Used in preparation of fertilizers and as battery acid.
3. Hydrogen gas
4. Citric acid is present in citrus and orange.
5.2
1. Elements such as sodium, potassium, magnesium etc., are metals. When burnt in oxygen form
their oxides. These oxides are called metallic oxides. Ex : CaO, Mgo, Na 2O.
2. Ammonium hydroxide is used to remove greese stains.
3. Magnesium hydroxide [Mg(OH) 2].
5.3
1. Acitic acid (CH 3COOH), Hydrofluoric acid (HF)
2. H3O+
5.4
1. Red 2. Pink
5.5
1. 5.6 2. Hydrochloric acid (HCl) 3. Less than 5.5
4. Potenz means power 5. 7.32 - 7.45
5.6
1. At a given temperature product of concentration of H+ (aq) and OH (aq) always remains constant.
This product is called Ionic product of water.
2. 1.0 u 1014
5.7
1. Carbon dioxide 2. Na2CO3 . 10H2O 3. Plaster of paris.

1. Refer to 5.1 2. Refer to 5.4 3. Refer to 5.3
10. Refer to 5.5
Multiple choic Questions

1. a 2. d 3. b 4. b 5. b
Fill in blanks
1. Sour, bitter 2. CO2 3. Neutralization
4. Methanoic acid 5. Sodium hydrogen carbonate
Match the following
1. d 2. e 3. b 4. c 5. a

1. Prepare a chart showing different families of salts.
2. Collect information about milk of magnesia.
3. Importance of pH value in daily life to human beings as well as plants.
4. Collect inforamtion about plaster of paris.
6
Atomic Structure
The idea of smallest unit of matter was proposed by several great people during vedic
period. Maharshi Kanada proposed that matter is composed of smallest particles such as Anu
and Paramanu. Later on Democritus, a well known Greek philosopher proposed that matter
consists of smallest particles called as “Atoms” meaning indivisible.
You know that according to Dalton’s atomic theory, the atoms of different elements are different
and in chemical reactions the atoms are rearranged between different reacting substances. However
today we know that the atom is divisible which is contrary to Dalton’s thought. The atom has structure
and contains smaller constituents in it. In this unit, we would attempt to find out the answers to some
of the questions like what is the structure of an atom? What are the constituents of atoms? Why the
atoms of different elements are different? And so on.
Objectives
After compeleting this lesson, you will be able to :
recall the evidences showing the presence of charged particles in matter.
describe the discovery of electron, proton and neutron.
explain Dalton’s atomic theory and its failure.
compare the characteristic properties of electron, proton and neutron.
discuss Thomson’s and Rutherford models of atom and explain their limitations.
explain the Bohr’s model of atom (in brief)

define atomic number and mass number of an atom.
describe Isotopes and Isobars and Isotones.
explain quantum numbers and shapes of orbitals.
electronic configuration.
6.1 Charged Particles in Atom

The theory proposed by Dalton’ in the year 1808 considered the atom to be the smallest indivisible
constituent of all matter. The Dalton’s theory could not explain the law of conservation of mass, law
of constant composition and law of multiple proportions, known at that time. However, towards the
end of 19th century, certain experiments showed that atoms are neither the smallest nor indivisible
particles. These particles were called electrons, protons and neutrons. The electrons are negatively
charged, where as the protons are positively charged. The neutrons on the other hand are uncharged.
You will now learn about the discovery of the charged subatomic particles.
Discovery of Electron :
The study of atomic structure and the subatomic particles begins from the discharge tube experiments
invented by William Crook an English physicist in the year 1878.
Fig. 6.1 William Crook discharge tube experiment

The apparatus used in discharge tube experiment consists of a long cylindrical tube. The tube
contains two metal electrodes namely anode (+ve) and cathode (ve) in both the ends. A high voltage
of electricity about 10,000 volts is passed through the tube. In order to observe the changes in the
tube a zinc sulphide screen is placed nearer to the anode. Soon after the electricity is passed invisible
rays bombared travelling from cathode to anode. This was realised by the sound produced when the
rays struck zinc sulphide screen.The pressure of air inside the tube is reduced to one mm of Hg.
A greenish glow light appears around cathode, which starts moving towards the anode.
Atomic Structure 95
For the first time in 1897 J.J. Thomson observed such rays travelling from cathode to anode
and named them as “cathode rays”.
Properties of Cathode Rays :
Cathode rays travel in straight lines.
Cathode rays are deflected towards anode when an electric field is applied in the path of cathode
ray beam.
Cathode ray beam deviated its path in the presence of a magnetic field.
Cathode ray create shadows when an object is placed in their path.
Cathode rays create mechanical motion.
J.J. Thomson also suggested that cathode rays are negatively charged particles. He performed
several discharge tube experiments by using different metals as electrodes and also by charging
different gases. In all the experiments the charge to mass (e/m) ratio (of cathode rays) was
always found to be same. Later on G.J. Stoney named the cathode ray particle as “electron”. The
charge of electron (e) was 1.602 u 1019 coulombs and the mass (m) was 9.10 u 1028 gms.
Discovery of proton
Positive rays (or) anode rays.
Fig. 6.2 Production of anode rays (canal rays) in a discharge tube.

1. Anode 2. Porous cathode 3. Discharge tube, 4. High voltage source, 5. Switch,
6. Anode rays
Goldstein also carried out similar type of discharge tube experiments as was done by
J.J. Thomson. He used a porous cathode and observed that certain rays were travelling from anode
to cathode in the opposite direction to cathode rays.
These rays were named as anode rays or canal rays. The smallest unit of the anode ray
beam was named as proton, when hydrogen gas is used in the discharge tube.
Properties of Anode Rays :

Properties of anode rays (or canal rays) are by and large similar to those of cathode rays.
Anode rays travel in straight lines.
Anode rays deviated their path towards a negatively charged electrode, when an electric field
was applied.
When magnetic field was applied anode rays were deflected towards south pole.
The e/m ratio of anode ray particles were found to different when different gases were used in
discharge tube.
The charge on proton is positive and the value is 1.602 u 1019 coulumbs and the mass (m) is
equal to 1.67 u 1024 gm. The mass of proton is about 1837 times that of an electron.
Discovery of Neutron :
From the discharge tube experiments of J.J. Thomson and Goldstein we have learnt that atom
can be subdivided into electron and proton. We have also read that the mass of electron is almost
negligible while the mass of a proton is 1837 times heavier than that of electron. Hence we can get
an idea that the atomic mass is entirely due to protons present in the atom. For hydrogen atom this
prediction is proved to be correct. We assure that, the mass of each proton is equal to one unit mass
of hydrogen. Similarly for carbon atom containing six protons, the atomic mass should be equal to six
units but the average atomic mass of carbon was found to be greater than six units. This difference
in the mass suggested the existence of another subatomic particle which is as heavy as proton but
without any charge. This prediction became true when James Chadwick discovered neutron in 1932.
Characteristics of fundamental subatomic particles :
Table 6.1
Particle Symbol Mass (in gm) Actual charge Relative
Electron e 9.109389 u 1028 1.602177 u 1019 1
Proton p 1.672623 u 1024 1.602177 u 1019 +1
Neutron n 1.674928 u 1024 0 0

1. Name two charged particles which constitute all matter?
2. Write mass of the proton?
3. Who made research on neutrons?
Atomic Structure 97
6.2 Earlier Models of Atom

Arrangement of electrons, protons and neutrons in an atom were discussed from time to time
by several scientists (J.J. Thomson, Rutherford, Neils Bohr’s) in terms of atomic model.
J.J. Thomson’s Atomic Model :
J.J. Thomson was the first to propose an atomic model. He proposed his atomic model in 1903,
after the discovery of electron and proton. He proposed that in a neutral atom, the number of electrons
are equal to the number of protons. J.J. Thomson believed that electrons are embedded in the positively
charged atomic mass like the seeds embedded in the fibrous mass of a watermelon fruit.
Fig. 6.3 J.J. Thomson’s Atomic model

If we cut the watermelon fruit, we can notice that black seeds are embedded randomly in
spherical shape fibrous mass. However this model was not accepted by the then scientific community
because it was unable to explain how the positively charged particles are shielded from negatively
charged particles without getting neutralised.
Rutherford’s model of atom :

In 1911, Rutherford, based on his D-ray scattering experiment, proposed an alternate model
and named it as planetary model or nuclear model.
The salient features of Rutherford model :
The salient features of this model are as follows.
Atoms are spherical in shape and mostly hallow.
The nucleus is made up of protons and neutrons and the mass of the atom is almost due to its
nucleus.
Electrons revolve round the nucleus, like planets around the sun.
Two types of forces are present in the atom.
(i) The force of attraction between the electrons and the nucleus. This force pulls the electron
towards the nucleus.
(ii) The revolving electrons experience a centrifugal force directed away from the moving path
of electrons. This force pulls electrons away from the nucleus. The two forces are equal and
opposite. Thus the atom is stable.
Rutherford’s model could not explain certain features. The defects of this model are
given below
(i) According to classical laws of physics, a moving particle should lose energy and come
closer to the nucleus. If it loses energy it eventually should fall into the nucleus and the
atom should collapse. But atoms are stable.
(ii) If the electron lose energy continuously the atomic spectra should consist of continuous bands.
Experimentally atomic spectra are made up of discrete spectral lines.
Fig. 6.4 (a) Rutherford’s model of atom, (b) Explanations of the results of scattering
experiment by Rurtherford’s model.
Bohr’s model of atom and its limitations :

In 1913 the Denmark scientist Neils Bohr put forward a theory to overcome the defects
in Rutherford’s atomic model. Bohr’s theory is based on plank’s quantum theory of radiation
Bohr retained the atomic model of Rutherford and proposed the following postulates.
1. Electrons are moving with high velocity around the nucleus in specified paths called orbits
(or) shells. As long as the electron is in a particular orbit its energy is constant. Therefore
these orbits are called stationery orbits or stationary shells.
Fig. 6.5 Bohr’s model of atom

Atomic Structure 99
2. Each stationary orbit corresponds to a definite energy. These stationary orbits are denoted by
K, L, M, N, O... The orbit close to the nucleus has less energy compared to the orbit away
from the nucleus which has more energy.
3. When an electron jumps from a higher energy orbit to a lower energy orbit, the difference in
energy is emitted as radiation E 2 E1 = hv, where h is Plank’s constant. v is frequency.
The value of h = 6.624 u 1027 erg.sec
4. The angular momentum (mvr) of the electron revolving in a stationary orbit is equal to
h nh
integral multiples of ie., mvr = .
2S 2S
The important objections of Bohr’s theory are given below.
1. Bohr’s theory could not explain the atomic spectra of higher elements such as He, Li, Be,
B, C .... which have more than one electron.
2. The atomic spectral lines in the presence of applied magnetic field split into several lines.
This phenomenon is called the Zeeman effect. Bohr’s model could not account for the Zeeman
effect.
3. Bohr’s model could not justify the quantizations of angular momentum.
4. Bohr’s theory could not account for the formation of chemical bond.
1. Write the two main concepts in Thomson atomic model?
2. Write the diffects in Rutherford atomic model?
3. What are stationary orbits?
6.3 Atomic number (Z) and mass number (A)

The number of protons in an atom is equal to atomic number (Z). Atomic number (Z) differs
from one atom to the other. Since an atom is a neutral entity, it was proposed that an atom contains
equal number of electrons and protons.
* Atomic number (Z) = No of protons (or) No of electrons in neutral atom
Atomic mass or Atomic weight (A) represents the entire mass associated with an atom belonging
to an element. Atomic mass is some times called as mass number which is equal to the number of
protons and neutrons.
Where A : Mass number (or) Atomic mass [no of protons + no of neutrons]
Z : Atomic number (no of protons)
Number of neutrons = A Z
Isotopes, Isobars and Isotones :

Isotopes : Atoms of the same element having same atomic number but different mass number are
called isotopes of that element.
Ex : 1H1, 1H2, 1H3 and 10Ne20, 10Ne21, 10Ne22
Isobars : Atoms of the different elements having same mass number but different atomic number
are called isobars.
Ex : 19K40, 20Ca40 and 6C13, 7N13
Isotones : Isotones are the atoms with their nuclear having same number of neutrons but different
number of protons.
Ex : 31, 32
14Si 15P

1. What is atomic number?
2. What is mass number?
3. What are Isobars? Give examples.
6.4 Quantum Numbers

Each electron in an atom is described by a set of four numbers n, l , ml and s. These numbers
are called quantum numbers. These numbers indicate the probability of finding the electron in the
space around the nucleus.
(i) Principal quantum number (n) : Neils Bohr proposed this quantum number based on this
stationary states. It is designated as ‘n’ and can take only integer values as 1, 2, 3 etc. The
designations of various stationary states are shown below.
Table 6.2
Principal Quantum number Name of the stationary state
1 K shell
2 L shell
3 M shell
4 N shell
Principal quantum number give the size and energy of the stationary orbit. As the ‘n’ value
increases the size and energy of the orbit also increases. The number of sub energy levels
of stationary states on a given shell is equal to n 2.
Atomic Structure 101
(ii) Azimuthal quantum number (l) : Sommerfeld proposed Azimuthal quantum number as a result
of elliptical orbits. It is also known as angular momentum quantum number or subsidiary quantum
number. The electrons in atom are grouped not into main energy levels given by n’ ‘ but also into
energy sublevels due to orbital motion given by l. As mentioned earlier Sommerfeld model underwent
certain changes. In the field form the azimuthal quantum number is designated as l. l can take
values 0, 1, 2, 3 (n 1). The maximum value of l for a given principal quantum number n is
n 1. l gives information regarding the shape of sub-stationary state or sub shell for various
l values the sub shells are named as follows.
Table 6.3
Values of l Name of the sub shell
0 s
l p
2 d
3 f
4 g
(iii) Magnetic quantum number (m or ml) : Magnetic quantum number is proposed by Lande and
designated as m. When an atom is placed in an external magnetic field, the electrons present
in different sub stationary states or sub shells orient in different ways depending on their energies.
The value of m depends on the values of l. For a given ‘l’ value m can have (2l + l) value from
l, (l + 1) ... 0 .... (l 2), (l 1), l. For example for l = 3 m can take up 7 values. viz
3, 2, 1, 0, +1, +2, +3. These sub shells have same energy in the absence of magnetic field.
For instance the 3 sub shells present in p have same energy in the absence of magnetic field.
Sub shells having same energy are called degenerate sub shells (or) degenerate orbitals.
(iv) Spin quantum number (s) : In 1925 Uhlenbeck and Goudsmith suggested that a moving electron
in an orbit revolves or spins on its own axis. This is similar to the earth revolving on its own
axis and also revolving around the Sun. Such a spin would contribute to the angular momentum
of the electron. The electron can spin clock wise or anticlock wise and this is represented as
n and p respectively. The spin energy of electron also is quantised in units of half integrals and
can take only +1/2 or 1/2. A sub level can accommodate two electrons with opposite spins.
(i) (ii)
Fig. 6.6 Spin of the electron

1. What information did the principal quantum number give?
2. Which scientist proposed Azimuthal quantum number?
3. Write the spin value of electrons?
6.5 Shapes of Atomic orbitals

The atomic orbital is defined as the region in space around the nucleous where there is a
finite probability of finding the electron. In the previous section we discussed atomic orbitals
such as s, p, d, f etc. present in each such K, L, M, N.... We now discuss the shapes atomic
orbital is plotted by drawing the boundaries of the region whose electron is likely to move
around the nucleus.
1. s-orbital
s-orbital is spherical in nature
Fig. 6.7 Shape of s orbital

2. p-orbital : The p-orbitals correspond to l = 1 there are no p orbitals in K shell i.e., 1 p
does not exist. The p orbitals are present from L - shell (i.e. n = 2) onwards. All the
p - orbitals designated as p x, py, and pz depending upon their orientations. The p x, py and
pz orbital are shown in
p-orbitals have dumbell shapes
Fig. 6.8 Shape of p orbital

3. d-orbitals : The d-orbitals correspond to l = 2. Those are present from M (n = 3) shell onwards.
A total of five d orbitals are present in each of the shell from n = 3 on wards. These five d
orbitals are designated as dxy, dyz, dzx, dx2 y2 and dz2. The first three orbits is dxy, dyz, and dzx
lie in the xy, yz, and zx plane respectively. The orbital dx2y2 lies along x and y axis. The dz2
orbitals lies along z-axis. The orientation of these orbitals are shown in Figure 6.9.
d-orbitals have double dumbell shape.
Fig. 6.9 Shape of d orbital

4. f - orbital : f-orbitals have very diffused shape. So, that it has no definete shape.
f-orbitals have complex shapes.
Fig. 6.10 f-orbital

1. What is atomic orbital?
2. Draw the shape of s-orbital?
3. Write the shape of p-orbital?
6.6 Relative energies of the atomic orbitals and

Electronic configuration
In the previous sections we have learnt about stationary states, quantum numbers and atomic
orbitals. We may ask in which order the electrons will fill up the orbitals as we build the periodic table
relative energies of the atomic orbitals. The atomic spectra provide information regarding the energies
of the atomic orbitals. The order of the energy may be written as.
1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p< 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s < 5p < 6s < 4f < 5d < 6p < 7s.
The electrons occupy orbitals with lower energy. Moeller has given a simple procedure representing
the orbitals of increasing energies in the above order.
Fig. 6.11 Moeller diagram
Electronic configuration of atom

Electronic configuration is a representation of the occupation of electrons in the orbitals. The
electrons no doubt occupy the orbitals in the order mentioned earlier. The filling up of these electrons
into these orbitals are however governed by (i) Aufbau (building up) principle, (ii) Pauli’s exclusion
principle, (iii) Hund’s rule:
(i) Aufbau (building up) principle : According to this principle the electron occupies the orbital
having the lowest energy principle quantum number. The incoming electron go to an orbital who
(n + l) is minimum. If this orbitals have the same (n + l) value the orbital having lower n value
will be occupied first.
(ii) Pauli’s exclusion principle : Pauli’s exclusion principle states that no two electrons will have
all the same four quantum numbers.
In other words no two electrons will have identical n, l, m and s values.
(iii) Hund’s rule: Hunds rule states that pairing of electrons takes place when all the available degenerate
orbitals are occupied by one electron each.
Table 6.4 Electronic configuration of 1 to 20 elements

1. What is electronic configuration?
2. Define Pauli’s exclusion principle?
3. Explain Hund’s rule?
Key words
Spectrum, discharge tube, cathode rays, line spectrum, orbitals, quantum numbers, shell, shapes
of orbitals, electronic configuration, aufbau principle, the Paul’s exclusion principle, Hunds rule.
Summary
According to Dalton’s atomic theory, the atom is considered to be the smallest indivisible
constitutent of all matter. It was shown to be made up of even smaller particles called
electrons, protrons and neutrons.
Sir J.J. Thomson discovered when very high voltage was passed across the electrodes in
the cathod produced rays that travel from cathod to anode were called cathode rays.
Eugen Goldstein discovered anode rays by using a perforated cathode in the discharge tube
filled with air at a very low pressure.
According to Thomson plum - pudding model atoms can be considered as a large sphere
of uniform positive charge with a number of small negatively charged electrons scatted through
it.
The results of D-ray scattering experiment were explained in term of Rutherford’s model
according to which the atom contains a dense and positively charged region called nucleus.
Bohr’s model can be understood in terms of two postulates, the first being, the electrons
move in definite circular part of fixed energy around a central neucleus and the second the
electron can change its orbit or energy level by absorbing or releasing energy.
1932 James Chadwick discovered electrically neutral particle in atom and named it as
neutron. The number of protons in an atomic number and is denoted as Z. On the other
hand the number of nucleons in the nucleus of an atom is called its mass number and is
denoted as ‘A’.
Atoms of the same element having same atomic number but different mass number are called
isotopes of that element.
Atoms of the different elements having same mass number but different atomic numbers are
called isobars.
Isotones are the atom with their nuclei having same number of neutrons but different number
of protons.
QUANTUM numbers are four
(1) Principal quantum number (ii) Azimuthal quantum number (iii) Magnetic quantum number
(iv) Spin quantum number
s orbital is spherically symmetric
p orbital dumbell shaped.

d orbital has double dumbell in shape
f orbital is complex in nature.
Electronic configuration is a representation of the occupation of electrons in the orbitals.
According to the aufbau principle electrons occupy the orbital having lowest energy.
According to the Paul’s exclusion principle no two electrons will have all the four quantum
numbers same.
Hunds rule states that pairing of electrons takes place when all the available degenerate
orbitals are occupied by one electron each.
Terminal Questions
1. Write down the important properties of cathode rays?
2. Write down the important properties of antode rays?
3. Explain Thomson atomic model.
4. Write the important features of Rutherfords planetary model?
. 5. State the postulates of Bohr’s model?
6. What are the defects in Bohr’s model?
7. Draw the shapes of five d-orbitals?
8. Draw the diagram showing the sequence of filling of various atomic orbitals?
9. Draw the shapes of s and p orbitals?
10. Define aufbau, Pauli’s exclusion principle and Hund’s rule?
1. Which of the following shell has the least energy ( )

(a) L (b) M (c) K (d) N
2. Which of the following quantum numbers give size and energy of stationary
orbit. ( )
(a) n (b) l (c) m (d) s
3. The maximum value of l for n = 5 is ( )
(a) 5 (b) 3 (c) 5 (d) 4
4. Among 3p, 4s, 3d and 4p the orbital having least energy is ( )
(a) 4s (b) 3p (c) 3d (d) 4p
5. Shape of d-orbital is ( )
(a) Spherical (b) Dumbell (c) Double dumbell (d) Crown
Fill in the blanks
1. Rutherford proposed planetary model based on his ............. scattering experiment.
2. E2 E1 = hQ where Qis ...............
3. After filling the 3d orbital the electron enters into ...........
4. The valence electronic configuration of Cr (Z = 24) is ..............
5. Mass of proton is .........................
I. Match the following
1. Electron ( ) (a) James Chadwick
2. Proton ( ) (b) Neils Bohr
3. Neutron ( ) (c). Lande
4. Principle quantum number ( ) (d). J.J. Thomson
5. Magnetic quantum number ( ) (e) Gold stein.

1. Proton, electron
2. 1.672623 u 1024 gm (or) 1.672623 u 1027 kg

3. James Chadwick

1. (i) Thomson proposed that atom is neutral.
(ii) In an atom the number of electrons are equal to the number of protons.
2. (i) According to classical law of physics, a moving particle should lose energy and closer to
the neucleus. If it loses energy it eventually should fall into the neucleus and the atom should
collapse. But atom is stable.
(ii) If the electron loses energy continuously the atomic spectra should consist of continuous
bonds. Experimentally atomic spectra are made up of discrete spectral lines.
3. Electrons are moving with high velocity around the nucleus in the specified paths called orbits.
As long as the electron is in a particlar orbit its energy is constant. Therefore these orbits are
called stationary orbits.

1. Atomic number Z = Number of protons (or) Number of electrons.
2. Mass number is equal to the sum of the number of protons and neutrons.
3. Atoms of the different elements having same mass number but different atomic number are called
isobars.
Ex : 40, 40 and 6C13, 7N13
19K 20Ca

1. Principal quantum number give the size and energy of the stationary orbit.
2. Sommerfeld
1
3. and 1
2 2

1. The atomic orbital is defined as the region in space where these is a finite probability of finding
electron.
Z
2.
3. Dumbell

1. Electronic configuration is a representation of the occupation of electrons in the orbitals.
2. Pauli’s exclusion principle state that no two electrons will have all the four quantum numbers
same.
3. Hund’s rule states that pairing of electrons takes place when all the available degenerate orbitals
are occupied by one electron each.

1. Refer 6.1 2. Refer 6.1 3. Refer 6.2
10. Refer 6.6
Answers to Multiple choice Questions

1. c 2. a 3. d 4. b 5. c
Answers to Fill in the blanks

1. D ray
2. Frequency
3. 4p
4. 4s1 3d5
5. 1.672623 u 1024 grm
Answer to Match the following Questions

I.
1. d 2. e 3. a 4. b 5. c

1. Collect the information about Thomson, Rutherford, Neils Bohr, Dalton life history.
2. Collect information about discharge tube.
7
Reflection of Light
We are unable to see anything in a dark room. On lighting up the room, things become
visible, what makes things visible? We are very much familiar with the terms darkness and light.
The absence of light creates darkness.
When light falls on an object, is it scattered or reflected in all directions? This scattered
light enters our eyes and falls on the retina. Then we have the sensation of vision. Thus light
gives us the sensation of sight. Light is the very important part of our daily life.
You might have seen in automobile, head lights and torches there is curved sheet of metal
around the bulb. Can you think why it is so? Why does our images appear thin or bulged out
in some mirrors? Have you ever tried to find out the reason for such natural phenomenon? In
this lesson you will find the answers to all such questions.
Objectives
After completing this lesson, you will be able to
know the important part of light in our daily life.
define reflection of light and state the laws of reflection
describe the image formation by plane and spherical mirror with suitable ray diagrams
in different cases.
write mirror formula and define magnification;
know the uses of mirrors.
7.1 Light - Properties

When we see an object we do so because light from the object enters in our eyes. Objects
appear in different colours, when white light falls on them. Because of selective absorption of
some colours of composite white light. Light is a form of energy which is emitted by luminous
body and when incident on the eye causes the sensation of sight. Let us know the light sources
and propagation.
1. Luminous bodies : The bodies which emit light and act as sources of light are called
luminous bodies.
Example : Sun, burning candle, stars etc.
2. Non luminous bodies : The bodies which do not emit light but are made visible when light
falls on them are called non luminous bodies.
Examples : Earth, Moon, Table, Chair etc..
3. Medium : A substance through which light passes is called a medium.
Example : Air, glass, water, vacuum (vacuum is empty space)
4. Transparent substances : Those substances through which light can travel freely are called
transparent substances or transparent media.
Example : Air, glass, water etc.
5. Translucent substances : Substances which partially allow light rays to pass through them
are called translucent substances.
Example : Ground glass, layer of paraffin wax, oiled paper etc.
6. Opaque substances : Those substances which do not allow any light to pass through them
are called opaque substances.
Example : Stone, wood, metals etc.
7.2 Reflection of Light

One of the important properties of light is that it travels in straight lines from one place
to other. This property is called the rectilinear propagation of light.
The light rays falling on a surface and returned into the same medium, this phenomenon is called
reflection and the surface is called reflecting surface.
Reflection is of two kinds.

Reflection of Light 113
Regular reflection
When reflecting surface is very smooth and the rays of light falling on it are reflected straight
off it, then it is called regular reflection, as shown in Fig. 7.1
Fig. 7.1 Regular reflection on smooth surface
Diffused reflection
When the reflection of light takes place from rough surface the light is reflected off in all
directions as shown in Fig. 7.2 is called diffused reflection.
Fig. 7.2 Diffused reflection on rough surface

In diffused reflection due to roughness of the surface normals drawn at the point of incidence
are not parallel, hence the reflected rays reflect in all directions but obey the laws of reflection.
Ex : 1. Crushed ice appears much brighter than a solid block of ice.
2. Disturbed water surface appears to be sparking at some points than still water surface.
7.3 Reflection in plane mirror

A smooth shining surface, which reflects most of the light incident on it, is called a mirror.
A B
O
Fig. 7.3 Reflection in plane mirror
The incident ray (IO) falling on the reflecting surface (AB) at O, after reflection it goes along
OR as shown in Fig. 7.3. The normal is the line (ON) drawn at 90o to the surface at the point where
the incident ray strikes the surface. The light coming back from the reflecting surface is called reflected
ray (OR). The angle of incidence ( i ) is the angle between incident ray and normal and angle of
reflection ( r ) is angle between reflected ray and normal.
7.4 Laws of reflection of light

(i) The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
i = r
(ii) Incident ray, reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence, all lie in the same plane.
During reflection, there is no change in speed, frequency and wave length of light.
Verification of laws of reflection:

Activity
Take a drawing board and fix a white paper on it with the help of clamps. Draw
a straight line AB at the centre of the paper and also a normal (ON) to AB at the
point ‘O’. Draw a straight line PQ making certain angle (i) with ON as shown in
figure.
Fix two pins at the points P and Q on the paper vertically. Observe the image Pc of the
pin P and Qc of the pin Q, in the mirror kept along the line AB. Fix two more pins ‘R’ and ‘S’
such that they are in the same line as that of Pc and Qc . Join R, S and O as shown in Fig. 7.4.
Measure the angle between RS and ON called angle of reflection (r). You will find that
angle of incidence = angle of reflection. Repeat the experiment for different angles of incidence
(i) and measure the corresponding angles of reflection (r).
We found that the angle of incidence is equal
to the angle of reflection in all cases. Incident ray
JJJJJG JJJJG P1
( PQO ). Reflected ray ( ORS ) the normal at the
point of incidence (ON), all are in the same plane. Q1
A O B
Q R
i r
P S
Fig. 7.4N
7.5 Formation of an image by a plane mirror

You see your face in a dressing mirror. It is the image formed by reflection of light. On the plane
smooth mirror, how it is formed? Let us understand.
M1
Consider a point object (O) placed before I O
a mirror M 1 M2, some rays from ‘O’ reach
the mirror and get reflected. When we look
into the mirror, the reflected rays seem to be
coming from the point ‘I’. So point ‘I’ is the
image of point object O.
Observe the distances of object ‘O’ and

image ‘I’ from the surface of the mirror and
try to compare these distances by approximate
estimation in Fig. 7.5. We find that these
distances are equal.
M2
Fig. 7.5
7.6 Characteristics of an image formed by a plane mirror

You might have observed the right left inversion of your image in a plane mirror. This is
called lateral inversion.
The light rays which are coming from

our right ear get reflected from the plane mirror
and reach our eye. Our brain feels that the
ray (reflected ray) is coming from the inside
of the mirror (shown dotted line in the Fig.
7.6.). That is why our right ear looks like
left ear in the image.
Fig. 7.6
Put letters like ‘Z’, ‘S’ and arrow mark ( n ) before the mirror and observe the images. It
can be seen from the Fig. 7.7. They are reversed laterally i.e. left to right. These images can not
be caught on a screen. Hence the images formed by plane mirror are called virtual images.
M
n
S
Z
Fig. 7.7
In a plane mirror the distance of the image is same as the distance of object from the mirror.
If object distance from the mirror changes, the distance of image from the mirror will also change in
the same way. It means if an object moves with velocity ‘v’ towards the mirror, image will also move
with same velocity ‘v’ towards the mirror and at every time the distances of the object and image from
the mirror remain equal. However, the velocity of image towards the object will be 2v. You can see
your full images in a plane mirror whose height is half of your height.
7.7 Periscope
It is an instrument used in submarines to see the object on the surface of water, like ships. It
is also used to see enemy movements from trenches without any danger of being seen by them. It
works on the principle of reflection of light rays on plane mirrors. It consists of a cylindrical tube bent
twice at right angles in the form of ‘Z’ as shown in figure..
Two plane mirror strips M 1, M2 are fixed at the corners, at an angle of 45 o with the side of
the tube. The light rays coming from the object ‘O’ are reflected twice by the mirrors. They travel
parallel to the axis of the tube and reach the eye of the observer who sees the image of the object
at ‘I’.
M1
M2
Fig. 7.8 Periscope

7.8 Kaleidoscope
This instrument works on the principle of multiple reflections on plane mirrors. Try to construct
5
F a kaleidoscope (see Fig. 7.9). Take a long cylindrical tube (T) of bamboo or of metal sheet. Fix three
plane mirror Strips (M1, M2 and M3) of same size inside the tube such that the reflecting surfaces face
each other. Close one end of the tube by another plane mirror and put some bright glass pieces of
different colours in it. Then you can observe a number of images with wonderful designs and colours
through the open end.
M1
M3
M2
Fig. 7.9 Kaleidoscope
7.9 Images formed by inclined mirrors

Take two plane mirrors and fix them at inclined to one another. You can observe multiple
images. Number of images formed by two plane mirrors at an angle T is given by the formula
360
n= 1 For ‘n’ even
T
360
and n= For ‘n’ is odd.
T
(Note that always odd number of images are formed)
If a fraction is obtained it can be omitted. Take the whole number as the number of images
formed by them. If two mirrors are placed parallel to one another and an object is placed in
between them. You can observe infinite number of images. To observe this you go to sweets
shop or fruits shop having such an arrangement of mirrors.
For example, there are 5 images formed by two mirrors at 60 o angle.
Two mirrors inclined to each other at different angles may provide same number of images.
Example : For any value of T between 90o and 120o the number of maximum images formed is n
= 3. This implies that if T is given, n is unique but if n is given, T is not unique.
The number of images seen may be different from number of images formed and depends on
the position of observer relative to object and mirrors.
Example : If T = 120o maximum number of images formed will be 3 but number of images seen
maybe 1, 2 or 3 depending on the position of observer.
Fig. 7.10 Images formed by inclined mirrors
Intext Questions (7.1 - 7.9)

1. State and explain the law of reflection ?
2. Differentiate the real and virtual images formed due to reflection ?
3. When you are standing infront of a plane mirror, a virtual and erect image of you is formed. If
some one is taking a protograph of it using camera, what will be the nature of image on
photograph?
4. A light ray is falling on a plane mirror at 300 as shown in the diagram. If plane mirror is rotated
by 300 without changing the direction of incident ray by what angle the reflected ray will
rotate ?
N
300
. 5. An object is moving with velocity 6 ms 1 towards a plane mirror, what will be the velocity
of image towards the (i) mirror (ii) object?
Fill in the blanks

1. The bodies which emit light and act as sources of light are called ....................
2. Light rays falling on a surface are returned into the original medium is called .........
3. The reflection takes place when light falls on a smooth surface is called ..................
4. Reflection occurs when light falls on rough surfaces ..................
5. Images which can not caught on a screen are called as ..................
6. Focal length of plane mirror is ..................
7. According to reflection of light .......... ( )
(a) i is greater than r (b) i is less than r
(c) i is highly greater than r (d) i is equal to r
8. Which of the following is not the characteristic of the image formed by plane
mirror ................ ( )
(a) Lateral inversion of image

(b) Object distance is equal to image distance
(c) Size of the object is equal to size of the image
(d) Real image
9. An optical instrument which is used in Kalideoscope ( )
(a) Plane mirror (b) Concave mirror (c) Convex lens (d) Concave lens
10. If a person wants to see his full image in mirror the height of the
mirror should be ( )
1
(a) Double (b) Equal (c) Half (d) th
4
7.10 Reflection at spherical mirrors

Try to observe your image in a stainless steel spoon. The curved shining surfaces on either
side of a spoon acts as a mirror.
How is the image on the outer portion of the spoon? How is the image on the inner portion of
the spoon?
When you look at the inner portion of
the spoon you find a reversed image. The
inner portion of spoon acts as concave mirror.
When you look at the outer portion of the
spoon you find small size image of you. Outer
portion of spoon acts as a convex mirror.
Fig. 7.11
The mirrors which contain curved reflecting surface are called “spherical mirrors”. They are two
types.
1. Concave mirror 2. Convex mirror
Take a rubber ball and cut a portion of it with knife. The inner surface of the cut piece of ball
is called concave surface and outer surface of it is called convex surface.
(a) (b)
Fig. 7.12
Fig. 7.13
To understand the reflection at spherical surface certain important terms are very usefull. They
are shown below in Fig. 7.14.
C F C F
P P
Fig. 7.14
Some important terms of spherical mirrors
1. Pole (P) : It is the mid point of the spherical mirror. Point ‘P’ is the pole in Fig. 7.14.
2. Centre of curvature (c): It is the centre of a hallow sphere of which the spherical mirror
is a part. It can be determined by finding the point of intersections of two normal drawn
at the spherical surface of the mirror. The point ‘C’ is the centre of curvature in Fig. 7.14.
3. Radius of curvature (R) : It is distance between the pole and centre of curvature of the
mirror PC is the radius of curvature in Fig. 7.14.
4. Principal axis : It is an imaginary line joining the pole to the centre of curvature extended
line PC is the principle axis in Fig. 7.14.
5. Principle focus (F) : The rays of light parallel and closed to the principle axis of the
mirror after reflection, either pass through a point (in concave mirror) or appear to be
coming from a point (in convex mirror) on the principal axis this point is called principal
focus of the mirror. Point F is the principal focus in Fig. 7.14
6. Focal length (f) : It is the distance between the pole and the principal focus of the mirror
PF is the focal length in Fig. 7.14
7.11 Relationship between Focal length and Radius of curvature

Hold a concave mirror such that sunlight falls on it. Take a small paper and slowly move it in
front of the mirror and find out the point where you get the smallest and brightest spot, which will be
the images of the sun.
The rays coming from the sun parallel to the principal axis of concave mirror converse to a point
(See Fig. 7.15.). This point is focus or focal point (F) of concave mirror. Measure the distance of
this spot from the pole of the mirror. This distance is the focal length (f) of the mirror. The radius of
curvature will be twice this distance (R = 2f).
F
P C
Fig. 7.15
7.12 Measure the distance of object and image

Mount a concave mirror of known focal length on a ‘V’ shaped wooden stand (W) placed
on a table. At a certain distance ‘M’ infront of the mirror put a burning candle. Adjust the
position of the screen (S) such that a bright clear image is formed (See Fig. 7.16). Measure
accurately the distance of this object ‘u’ and the distance of the image ‘Q’ from the mirror. It can be
1 1 1
proved that .
u v f
Now change the position of the candle and adjust the position of screen to get bright image of
the candle on it. Measure values of u and Q. Repeat the experiment and tabulate the readings as
follows in table-----
Fig. 7.16
1 1 1 1 1
S.No u cm v cm
u v u v f
1
2
3
4
5
From the last two columns it can be inferred that
1 1 1 uv
or f =
u v f uv
7.13 Rules of image formation by spherical mirrors

The ray diagram for image formation by mirrors can be drawn by taking any two of the
following rays. The point where these two rays meet or appear to be coming from the point will
be the image point which determines the position of image.
1. Parallel ray : For concave mirror the ray parallel to the principal axis is reflected in such
a way that after reflection it passes through the principal focus. But for a convex mirror
the parallel ray is so reflected that it appears to come from principal focus (Ray no 1 in
Fig. 7.17)
2. Ray through focus : A ray of light heading towards the focus or incident on the mirror
after passing through the focus returns parallel to the principal axis (Ray no 2 in Fig. 7.18).
3. Ray through centre of curvature : A ray passing through the centre of curvature hits the
mirror along the direction of the normal to the mirror at that point and retraces path after
reflection (Ray no 3 in Fig. 7.17)
4. Ray striking the pole : The ray of light striking the pole of the mirror at an angle is
reflected back at the same angle on the other side of the principal axis (Ray no 4 in Fig.
7.17) 2
2 4
1
4
3
1
1
2
2
1
4
3
4
Fig. 7.17
7.14 Formation of image by concave mirror

Using the above rules of image formation, the ray diagram of the image formed for different
positions of an object are given below.
1. When the object is situated at infinity, the image formed is real, inverted, highly diminished image
at focus.
Fig. 7.18
2. When the object is beyond ‘C’ the image formed is real, inverted, diminished between
C and F.
Fig. 7.19
3. When the object is at ‘C’ the image is formed is real, inverted and same size as object at C.
Fig. 7.20
4. When the object between C and F, the image is formed is Real, inverted, enlarged image
beyond C.
Fig. 7.21
5. When object is at F, the image formed is real, inverted and highly enlarged image at infinity.
Fig. 7.22
6. When object between F and P, the image formed is virtual, erect and enlarged image behind
the mirror.
image
Fig. 7.23
Formation of image by convex mirror

When the object any where infront of mirror, the image formed is virtual and always smaller
behind the mirror.
Fig. 7.24
Table 7.1 : The position, nature and size of the image formed in concave mirror and
convex mirror can be summarized as given in table below.
Position of Position of Nature of Size of image
the object image formed image
(A) For concave mirror
(i) At infinity At F real highly diminished
(ii) Beyond C between F and C real smaller in size
(iii) At C At C real same size
(iv) Between F and C beyond C real larger
(v) At F at infinity real highly enlarged
(vi) Between P and F behind the mirror virtual larger
(B) For convex mirror
any where infront of mirror between P and F virtual always smaller
7.15 Sign convention and mirror formula

To measure distance with respect to a curved mirror, following convention is followed.
1. All distances are measured from the pole of the mirror.
2. The distances are measured in the direction of incident light, are taken as positive.
3. The distances measured in opposite direction of incident light, are taken as negative.
4. The distances above the principal axis are taken positive, whereas those below it are taken
as negative.
You have seen the image formation in concave mirror. When an object is placed at ‘C’
(centre of curvature) the image is formed at ‘C’. If ‘f’ be the focal length of the concave mirror,
‘u’ distance of object and ‘v’ at the distance of image, then
u = 2f
v = 2f
and f can be given as
1 1 1

f 2 f 2 f
(or)
1 1 1

f Q u
This is called mirror formula and it can also be verified for convex mirror.
7.16 Magnification in spherical mirrors

Often we find that a spherical mirror can produce magnified image of an object.
The ratio of the size of the image to the size of the object is called as ‘linear magnification’.
size of the image (I) v

i.e., linear magnification (m) = .
size of the object (o) u
where Q = image distance from mirror,
u = object distance from mirror.
7.17 Uses of mirrors

(i) Plane mirror is used
in looking glasses,
in construction of kaleidoscope, telescope, sextant and periscope etc.
For seeing round the corners
as deflector of light etc.
(ii) Concave mirror is used
As a reflector in search light, head light of motor cars and projectors etc.
For conversing solar radiation in solar cookers.
In flood lights to obtain in a divergent beam of light to illuminate buildings.
In reflecting telescope etc.
(iii) Convex mirror is used
As a rear view mirror in motorcars, busses and scooters.
As safety viewers at dangerous corners.


1. Write the applications of a concave mirror.
2. Write the characteristic properties of an image formed by convex mirror.
3. Find the position of the object placed infront of a concave mirror of focal length 20 cm if image
is formed at the distance of 30 cm from the mirror.
4. Complete the following table with corresponding positions of object and image in case of concave
mirror.
Position of object Position of image
(i) at F (i)
(ii) between F and 2F (ii)
(iii) (iii) between F and 2F
(iv) (iv) beyond 2F
(v) beyond 2F (v)
. 5. Does concave mirror always converges the light rays?
Fill in the blanks
1. A mirror is which the reflection takes place from the outer or the bulging side is called as ...................
2. Mid point of the spherical mirror is known as ...................
3. Centre of the hallow sphere of which the spherical mirror is a part is know as .............
4. Distance between the pole and the centre of curvature of a spherical mirror is called .........
5. The mirrors which are used for converging solar rays in solar cookers are ...................
6. Which of the following is true in spherical mirrors ( )

f
(a) R = 2f (b) f = 2R (c) R = (d) R = 2 + f
2
7. Mirror fixed infront of the driver in a vehical to have rear view ( )
(a) Convex lens (b) Concave lens
(c) Convex mirror (d) Concave mirror
8. An instrument used by doctors to observe the inner parts of an ear ( )

(a) Plane mirror (b) Concave mirror
(c) Concave lens (d) Convex lens
9. If an object it placed at ‘C’ on the principal axis infront of a concave mirror,

the position of the image is ( )
(a) at infinity (b) between F and C (c) at C (d) beyond C
10. Magnification m = ..... ( )

v u h0 hi
(a) (b) (c) h (d) h
u v i 0
Key words
Angle of incidence, angle of reflection, normal, plane of reflection, medium, lateral inversion,
centre of curvature, radius of curvature, principal axis, pole, focus, focal point, focal length,
object distance, image distance, virtual image, real image, magnification.
Summary
Light is form of energy which always travels in straight lines with maximum velocity.
When light rays fall on smooth reflecting surfaces, angle of incidence is equal to angle of
reflection.
Virtual and erect image is formed due to reflection on plane mirror. Image distance is equal
to object distance.
Spherical mirrors are of two types 1. concave and 2. convex
In spherical mirrors radius of curvature is double of the focal length
Concave mirror forms the image of an object at infinity near its focus and is real, diminished
an d in v erted im ag e o f an o b ject p laced at a d istan ce g reater th an f.
Concave mirror forms real, magnified and inverted image. If an object is placed distance
less than 2f and greater than f.
Concave mirror forms virtual, magnified and erect image of the object placed distance
less than f.
Convex mirror always forms a small, virtual and erect image of an object.
1 1 1
The mirror formula
f v u
size of the image (I)
Magnification (m) =
size of the object (o)
image distance
m =
object distance
Terminal Questions
1. Write the characteristic properties of an image formed by plane mirror?
2. What are the technical points to be considered, while taking the measurements with reference
to a spherical mirror?
3. Write any three uses of a plane mirror?
4. Define the following terms with respect to a spherical mirror?

(a) Radius of curvature (b) Centre of curvature (c) Focal length
. 5. Determine the real and virtual images formed due to reflection?
6. Explain the rason, why the ice cubes appear sparkling when light falls on them?
7. Explain with a ray diagram, how a plane mirror forms an image?
8. Describe the experiment to determine the focal length of a concave mirror?
9. An object is placed at a distance of 15 cm, before concave mirror of radius of curvature

20 cm. Where does the image form and what are the characteristics?
10. How many images are formed when two mirrors are inclined to one another by 72 0?

1. Luminous object ( ) (a) Moon
2. Reflection of plane mirror ( ) (b) Sun
3. Kaleidoscope ( ) (c) Concave mirror
4. Mirror used by doctors ( ) (d) Plane mirror
5. Rear view mirror used ( ) (e) Regular reflection
in vehicles (f) Convex mirror
II. Match the following

1. Non-luminous ( ) (a) Sun
2. Reflection principle ( ) (b) Moon
3. Reflection on broken ice pieces( ) (c) Plane mirror
4. Periscope ( ) (d) Stone
5. Opaque substance ( ) (e) i = r
(f) Diffused reflection

1. The bouncing back of light after falling on any surface is called reflection of light.
Laws of reflection of light :
(i) the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. i.e. i = r
(ii) incident ray, reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence all lie in the same
plane.
2. (i) Real image can be taken on screen while virtual can not.
(ii) Real image is formed due to light rays meeting at the screen. While virtual image is
formed due to light rays appear to meet at the screen.
3. Real image
4. 60o
5. (i) 6 ms1 (ii) 12 ms1
Fill in the blanks
1. Luminous
2. Reflection
3. Regular reflection
4. Diffused reflection
5. virtual
6. Infinite
7. d 8. d 9. a 10. c

1. (i) Search lights (ii) head light of motor cars (iii) Solar cookers.
2. Virtual, small, erect
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
3. Mirror formula + ; + ;
f u v 20 u 30 u 20 30 60
? Object distance (u) = 60 cm
4. Position of object Position of image
(iii) beyond 2F (i) at infinity
(iv) between F and 2F (ii) beyond 2F
(v) between F and 2F
5. No, not always. Parallel rays are reflected in concave mirror its converges the light rays.
Fill in the blanks

1. Convex 2. Pole 3. Centre of curvature 4. Focal length
5. Concave
6. a 7. c 8. b 9. c 10. a

1. Refer 7.5
2. Refer 7.10
3. Refer 7.17
4. Refer 7.10
5. Refer 7.14
6. Refer 7.2
7. Refer 7.5
8. Refer 7.12
9. Refer 7.14
10. Refer 7.9

I.
1. b 2. e 3. d 4. c 5. f
II.
1. b 2. e 3. f 4. c 5. d

1. Construct a periscope with two mirror strips and cardboard sheet?
2. Construct a Kaleidoscope with card board sheet, mirror stips and coloured glass pieces?
3. Prepare chart showing how images are formed by concave and convex mirrors when objects
are placed at various distances.
4. Prepare a chart showing how multiple images are formed due to inclined mirrors at different
angles of inclinations.
8
Refraction of Light
We have learnt about the reflection of light in the previous chapter. Beauty of the nature
is made apparent with light. Light exhibits many interesting phenomena. Let us try to explore
a few of them.
You may have seen the stars twinkling in the sky in a clear night. On a clear day, the sky
appears blue and it appears in red colour during sunrise and at sunset.
You might have observed that a coin kept at the bottom of a vessel filled with water
appears to be raised. Similarly a lemon kept in a glass of water appears to be bigger than its
size. When a thick glass slab is placed over some printed letters, the letters appear to be raised
when viewed through the glass slab. What could be the reasons for the above observations?
Have you ever tried to find out the reason for such natural phenomenon? In this lesson
you will find the answers to all such questions. You will also study the defects of human eyes
image formations in mirrors and lenses.
Objectives
define refraction of light and state the laws of refraction.
define refractive index of a medium and its significance.
give some examples in nature showing the total internal reflection and the refraction
of light.
describe various types of lenses and explain images formation by convex and concave
lenses with the help of ray diagrams.
write the lens formula and define magnification
explain power of lens and define diopter.
explain how white light disperse through a prism
explain primary colours and secondary colours
describe the scattering of light and give its application in daily life.
8.1 Refraction
We know that velocity of light in vacuum is maximum and constant. But its value changes
when light travels in different media. Velocity of light in water is less than that of velocity in
air. So water is called denser medium and air N
A
is called rarer medium. If we consider glass
i incidence angle
and water, glass is denser compared to water.
B r refract angle
When a light ray travelling through a certain
i
medium (air), enters into another medium
(glass), its velocity changes at the boundary O
of the two media. Then the ray of light bends r
at the surface of separation and travels in
another direction as shown in Fig. 8.1.
Fig. 8.1 Refraction of light
Note that there is no such bending of the ray when it is incident throguh normal(NO).
When light rays travelling in a certain medium enter into another medium, they bend at the
surface of separation due to change in its velocity. This phenomenon is called refraction
Refraction of Light 135
8.1.1 Activity
Have you observed a coin placed at the bottom of a water tumbler? The coin placed
at the bottom of a water tumbler appears to be placed at a higher depth than its actual
depth. Why does it happen so? We see an image where the light rays meet or at the point
where light seems to be coming from.
When light comes out from water, it bends

due to which the coin appears vertically
displaced as shown in Fig. 8.2. Does it always
happen? No, it does happen only when light
passes from one medium to another obliquely.
The bending of light depends upon the density
of the medium.
During refraction the frequency of the light

remains un changed but its wave length changes
hence the speed of light also changes.
Fig. 8.2 Coin placed in water tumbler
Activity 8.1
Refraction of light through a glass slab.
To study the refraction of light, place a glass slab on dressing sheet fixed on wooden drawing
board, sketch a pencil boundary. Draw a line OC meeting the boundary line obliquely. Fix the pins
A and B on that line. Now look for these pins from the other side of the glass slab.
Take a pin and fix it on the sheet in such a way that A,B and E are in a straight line. Now fix
another pin F in such a way that it is in a straight line with pins A, B and E. Remove the slab and
the pins.
Draw a line joining the points F and E to meet the boundary at D. The line ABC gives the
direction of incident ray on the glass slab while the line DEF gives the direction of emergent ray. The
line CD gives the direction of refracted ray within the glass slab.
Draw normal N1CN 2 at C and

N3DN4 at D to the boundaries. Now you
can conclude that the ray of light, when
going from a rarer (air) to a denser (glass)
medium, it bends towards the normal. Also, r1
the ray of light when goes from denser to
rarer medium it bends away from the
r2 > r1
normal.
r2
Fig. 8.3 Refractions of light through a glass slab
8.2 Refractive index of the Medium

Light travels in vacuum with a speed nearly equal to 3 u 108 m/s (denoted by letter ‘C’).
The speed of light is smaller than ‘C’ in other transparent media.
Let ‘Q’ be the speed of light in a certain medium. Then the ratio of speed of light in vacuum
to the speed of light in that medium is defined as refractive index ‘n’. It is called absolute refractive
index.
Speed of light in vaccum

Absolute refractive index =
Speed of light in medium
c
P (or) n =
v
It is dimensionless quantity because it is a ratio of the same physical quantities. Refractive index
gives us an idea of how fast or how slow light travels in a medium. The speed of light in a medium
is low when refractive index of the medium is high and vice versa. The refractive index n’
‘ means that
the speed of light in that medium is nth part of speed of light in vacuum.
3
For example the refractive index of glass is . Then the speed of light in glass is
2
2
u 3 u 108 m/s = 2 u 108 m/s.
3
8.3 Laws of Refraction

The extent, to which a ray bends, depends not only on the refractive index of medium, but also
on the angle of incidence. The laws of refraction are:
8.3.1
(i) First law of refraction: The incident ray, refracted ray and the normal at the point of incidence,
all lie in the same plane (Fig. 8.4) then the angle of refraction depends on the nature of medium..
(ii) Second law of refraction : The ratio of the sine of i - incidence angle
the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction r - refractive angle
is constant and equal to the refractive index of that ON - Normal
medium. This law is also called snell-law.
Sine of angle of incidence
Refractive index (n) =
Sine of angle of refraction
sin i
P (or) n =
sin r
Fig. 8.4 Refraction of light
When light goes from one medium to another, only its speed and wave length changes but the
frequency remains constant.
The wave length and frequency of light are related to the velocity, as - = XOX, where v is
frequency and O is wave length.
8.4 Total internal Reflection

‘Critical angle’ is an angle of incidence for which the angle of refraction is 90o when light ray
travels from denser to rarer medium. When the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle,
the incident ray instead of refracting through the rarer medium, starts reflection into the same medium,
this is called total internal reflection. In Fig. 8.5 ‘S’ represents source of light. OA represents boundary
of two media of refractive indexes n1 and n2. c is the critical angle and STR is total internal reflected
ray.
Examples for total internal reflection.
1. Mirages form because of the total internal refraction
2. Brilliance of diamonds
3. Working of optical fibres.
N R
n1
i c
O A n1 > n 2
900 T
n2
Fig. 8.5 Total internal Reflection

c - critical angle, STR - Total internal reflection, n1, n2 - refractive indices of
different media
8.5 Splendid colours and white light

Dispersion of white light through prism
When a beam of white light passes through a prism, the white light is split up into its
component colours by the prism. This phenomenon is called dispersion of light. If sun light is
dispersed through prism, it exhibits seven colours. This is called spectrum. A study of spectra
of light (i.e., light emitted by sun, mercury bulb etc.) is called spectroscopy and the instruments
used for the study are called spectrometers.
A prism is a transparent medium separated from the surrounding medium at least two plane
surfaces. When sun rays are dispersed, one can observe the seven colours in an order given
below and remember as VIBGYOR from down to top. (See Fig. 8.6) (V - Violet, I - Indigo,
B = Blue, G = Green, Y = Yellow, O = orange, R = Red). This shows that the sun light is made
up of seven different colours (and so seven different wave lengths)
Fig. 8.6
If another prism is placed inverted (to each its emerging light) in contact with the first
prism then the seven colours will be merged and white beam of light is visible on the screen.
8.6 Scattering of Light

Let us consider that a certain frequency of light is incident on an atom. Then the atom comes
into vibrations due to this light. This in turn releases or emits light in all directions with different intensity.
The process of re-emission of absorbed light in all directions with different intensities by atoms
or molecules, is called scattering of light.
Examples
Scattered light
1. Sky appears as blue. Sun light
2. The red colour of sun during sunrise and

sunset. Atom
Fig. 8.7
8.7 Colours
Colours are classified into primary colours and secondary colours. RED, GREEN, BLUE are
called primary colours and YELLOW, MAGENTA, CYAN are called secondary colours. The secondary
colours are produced by a proper mix of the primary colours. This can be demonstrated in the following
activity.
Activity
To show that secondary colours are produced by the three primary colours. Take
red, green and blue cellophane paper and place them on a flashing torch light. Observe
the following changes as per the table.
Primary Colours
G = Green
B
B = Blue
C R = Red
W M Secondary Colours
G Y = Yellow
Y
M = Megenta
R
C = Cyan and
W = White
Fig. 8.8 Venn - diagram of primary colours and secondary colours
Table 8.1
S.No Paper colour (or) Observation
a combination
1 Red Red
2 Green Green primary
3 Blue Blue colours
4 R+G Yellow
5 R+B Magenta secondary
6 B+G Cyan colours
7 R+G+B White (almost)
Note : A secondary colour with its opposite primary colour when combined in a proper proportion
will give white colour
E.g Primary colour + Secondary colour opposite to primary
colour = white
GREEN + MAGENTA = WHITE

1. Why stars appear to be twinkling?
2. What is meant by total internal reflection? Give examples ?
3. What is scattering of light? Give examples ?
4. Distinguish between primary and secondary colours?
5. State and explain the laws of reflection ?
Fill in the blanks
1. When a ray of light passes from one medium to another, bends at the surface of separation is
known as ....................
2. The ratio between speed of light in vaccum and speed of light in medium is known as ....................
of that medium.
3. The process of separation of white light into seven colours is known as ....................
4. Colour with minium wavelength in VIBGYOR is ....................
5. The twinkling of starts is due to .................... of light.
6. Which of the following is false in refraction of light ( )
(a) Light rays bend while travelling

(b) No change in the speed of light
(c) Light travels from one medium to another medium
(d) When it travels through prism, splits into seven colours
7. When sun light allowed to pass through prism, which colour is not present
in the spectrum ( )
(a) Blue (b) Black (c) Violet (d) Red
8. Units of refractive index ( )
(a) degree (b) centimeters (c) grams (d) No units
9. Depth of coin in liquid is 80 cm, apparent depth 60 cm, then refractive

index of a liquid is ( )
(a) 1.3 (b) 0.7 (c) 0.2 (d) 2.3
10. The sky appears as blue due to ....... ( )
(a) Reflection (b) Refraction (c) Dispersion (d) Scattering
8.8 Lenses
A lens is formed when a transparent material is bounded by two surfaces of which one or
both surfaces are spherical. Lenses can be of various types. Some typical lenses along with their
names are shown in figure.
Biconvex Biconcave Plano- Plano- Concavo- Convex

convex concave convex Concave
Fig. 8.9
Let us learn the terminology used in the case of lenses.

Each curved surface of a lens is part of a sphere. The centre of sphere which contains the part
of the curved surface is called ‘centre of curvature’. It is denoted by a letter ‘C’. If a lens contains
two curved surfaces then their centres of curvature are denoted as C 1 and C2.
The distance between the centre of
curvature and curved surface is called radius R1
R2
of curvature (R) and Radii of curvature are
represented by R 1 and R2 respectively. Let C2 O C1
us consider a double convex lens as shown
in Fig. 8.10.
Fig. 8.10
The line joining the points C 1 and C2 is called principal axis. The mid point of a thin lens
is called optic centre of lens (O). Here we are concerned only with lenses i.e. the thickness of the
lens is neligible.
Focal length of the lens

Convex lens makes the parallel rays of light to
converge to a point. Hence, it is called converging
lens. Concave lens makes parallel rays of light to
spread from a point. Hence it called diverging lens.
Fig. 8.11 Converging lens

The point of convergence (or) the point from which rays seem diverge is called focal point
or focus (F). Every lens has two focal points. The distance between the focal point and optic
centre is called the focal length of lens
denoted by ‘f’. To draw ray diagram for
lenses, we need two more points in
addition to focal points F1 and F2. These
C1 F1 F2 C2
points are equi distance from centre of
the lens and also equal to double focal
length. So we call them as C 1 and C2.
Fig. 8.12 Diverging lens
For drawing ray diagrams related to lenses we represent convex lens with ‘ 7 ’ and concave
lens .
Image formation in lenses

In order to draw the image formed by any lens, only two rays are required. The two rays are:
(i) A ray parallel to the principal axis of the lens converges after refraction at the principal focus
of convex lens. It appears to diverge off in the case of concave lens.
(ii) a ray towards the optic centre falls on the lens symmetrically and after refraction passes through
it undeviated.
The image formations in convex and concave lenses.
1. Object at infinity
Rays coming from the object at infinity, they converge to the focal point. So a point sized image
is formed at the focal point. The image is real and inverted.
Fig. 8.13 Object placed between optic centre and F 1

2. Object placed beyond the centre of curvature on the principal axis
When object is placed beyond ‘2F 2’ a real, inverted and diminished image is formed on the
principal axis between the points F 1 and 2F1.
2F1
Fig. 8.14 Object is beyond 2F2

3. Object placed at the centre of curvature:

When an object is placed at 2F2 on principal axis, you will get an image at 2F1 which is real,
inverted and of the same size as that of object.
I 2F
Image formed at 2F1
Fig. 8.15 Object is at 2F2

4. Object placed between the centre of curvature and focal point:
When an object is placed between 2F2 and focus F2, you will get an image beyond 2F1 which
is real, inverted and magnified.
Fig. 8.16 Object is between 2F 2 and F2

5. Object located at the focal point
When an object is placed at focus F 2, the image will be at infinity, which is real, inverted
and highly enlarged.
Fig. 8.17 Object at the F2

6. Object placed between focal point (F 2) and optic centre
If we place an object between focal

point and optic centre, We will get
an image formed in a virtual, erect
and magnified manner. And this will F2
be formed on the same side of the

lens where the object is placed.
Fig. 8.18 Object is between F 2 and O

Image formation in concave lens:
We will notice that irrespective
of the position of object, on the
principal axis, you will get an erect,
virtual image, diminished in size in
between the focal point and optic
centre for concave lens.
Fig. 8.19 Image by concave lens

Table 8.2
All these images for different positions of object and nature of the images can be summarized
as given in the table below:
Position of the Position of Nature of Size of image

object image formed image
(a) For convex lens
(i) At infinity At F Real and inverted Highly diminished
(ii) Beyond 2F Between F and 2F Real and inverted Smaller in size
(iii) At 2F At 2F Real and inverted Same size
(iv) Between F and 2F Beyond 2F Real and inverted Enlarge
(v) At F At infinitely Real and inverted Highly enlarged
(vi) Between F and pole Infront of lens Virtual and erect Enlarge
(B) For concave lens On the same side Virtual and erect Always smaller
Any where infront of lens between F and pole
8.9 Sign convention and lens formula

In case of spherical lenses,
(i) All distances are to be measured from optic centre of the lens.
(ii) Distances measured in the direction of incident ray are taken to be positive.
(iii) Distance opposite to the direction of incident ray are taken to be negative.
(iv) The height of the object or image measured above the principal are taken positive where
as below it, are taken negative.
Using the above mentioned sign convention, the distance of object from the optic centre
of the lens to be ‘u’ distance of image from the optic centre to be ‘v’ and focal length of the
lens is ‘f ’, then the relationship between u, v and f for lens can be shown as:
1 1 1

f v u
This is called lens formula. Focal length for convex lens is positive, for concave lens it is
taken negative.
8.10 Magnification
The size of the image of an object is enlarged where as in some other cases it is diminished.
If we take the ratio of the size of the image to the size of the object for a particular lens it
remains constant for that lens. The ratio of the size of the image to that of the object is called
as the magnification of the lens.
Size of image (I) I
Magnification = (or) m =
Size of object (O) O
I v v
also = or m=
O u u
8.11 Eye and its defects
Least distance of distinct vision

We see the object comfortably and distinctly, when we hold it at a distance of about 25
cm from our eyes. This distance is called ‘least distance of distinct vision’.
This varies from person to person and with age. At a young age (say below 10 years) the
muscles around the eye are strong and flexible and can bear more strain. Therefore the least
distance of distinct vision at this age is as close as 7 to 8 cm. In old age the muscles cannot
sustain more strain hence the least distance of distinct vision shifts to a larger value, say about
1 to 2m or even more.
The angle of vision

The rays coming from the extreme ends of an object make an angle at the eye. If this angle is
below 60o, we can see the whole object. If this angle is above 60 o, then we can see only the part
of the object.
This maximum angle, at which we are able to see the whole object is called angle of vision. The
angle of vision for a healthy human being is about 60o. It varies from person to person and with age.
In eye, a convex lens forms real, inverted and diminished image at the retina. The size of an
object is perceived by eye depends on its visual angle. When an object is distant, its visual angle at
T1 and image I1, appears small at retina. If it is brought near the eye, the visual angle T2 is large and
hence size of image I2 will increase as shown in Fig. 8.20
I1
T2 I2
Fig. 8.20 Image formation in eye
Power of accommodation
The light enters the eye forms an image on the retina (It covers the rear part of eye ball).
The distance between the lens and retina is about 2.5 cm i.e. for any position of object in front
of the eye the image distance is fixed at about 2.5cm.
We need to change focal length of eye lens to get same image distance for various positions
of object in front of the eye. This is only possible when the eye lens is able to change into shape.
The ciliary muscle to which eye lens is attached helps the eye lens to change its focal
length by changing the radii of curvature of the eye lens.
When the eye is focussed on a distant object, the ciliary muscles are relaxed so that the
focal length of eye lens has its maximum value which is equal to its distance from the retina.
The parallel rays coming into the eye are then focussed on to the retina and we see the object clearly.
When the eye is focussed on a closer object the ciliary muscles are strained and focal length
of eye lens decreases. The ciliary muscles adjust the focal length in such a way that the image is
formed on retina and we see the object clearly. This process of adjusting focal length is called
“accommodation”.
However these muscles cannot strain beyond a limit and hence if the object is brought too close
to eyes, the focal length can not be adjusted to form an image on the retina.
Defects of vision
Some times the eye may gradually lose its ability for accommodation. In such conditions the
person cannot see an object clearly and comfortably. The vision becomes blurred due to accommodation
defects of the eye lens. Following are the common defects of vision.
(i) Myopia : In this vision defect the distant objects are not clearly visible i.e., the fore point is
at a distance nearer than infinity and hence image of distant object is formed before the retina
as shown in Fig. 8.21. This defect is removed by using diverging (concave) lens. Myopia is also
called short-sightedness or near-sightedness.
Fig. 8.21 (a) Myopia eye, (b) Corrected eye

(ii) Hypermetropia: It is also called long sightedness or far sightedness. In it the near objects are
not clearly visible i.e. near point is at a distance greater than 25 cm. So the image of near object
is formed behind the retina. This defect is removed by using converging lens as shown in Fig.
8.22.
Fig. 8.22 (a) Hypermetropia eye, (b) Corrected eye

(iii) Presbyopia : Presbyopia is vision defect when the ability of accommodation of the eye usually
decreases with ageing. For most people the near point gradually receds away. They find it difficult
to see nearby objects clearly and distinctly.
This happens due to gradual weakening of ciliary muscles and diminishing flexibility of the eye
lens. This effect can be seen in aged people. Sometimes a person may suffer from both myopia
and hypermetropia with ageing.
To correct this type of defect of vision we need bi focal lenses which are formed using both
6
concave and convex lenses. Its upper portion consists of the concave lens and lower position
F
consists of the convex lens.
(iv) Astigmatism : This defect is due to imperfect spherical nature of eye lens. In this defect, focal
length of eye lens is in two orthogonal directions. Hence, people with astigmatism cannot see
objects in two orthogonal directions simultaneously. This defect in direction can be removed by
using cylindrical lens in a particular direction.
8.12 Power of lens

The degree of convergence or divergence of light rays that can be achieved by a lens is expressed
in terms of its power.
The reciprocal of focal length is called power of lens. Let ‘ f ’ be the focal length of lens.
1 100
Power of lens P = (or) P =
f (in meters) f (in cm)
The unit of power is diopter. It is denoted by the letter ‘D’.

Example : Doctor advised to use 2D lens. what is its focal length ?
Solution : Given that power of lens P = 2D
100 100
using, P = ; 2=
f (in cm) f
100
Therefore, f = = 50 cm
2
The lens has focal length (f) = 50 cm

1. Calculate the power of convex lens when focal length of lens is 50 cm.
2. What is ‘presbypia’? How this defect can be removed?
3. How does the focal length of the eye changes when a lens is used to correct the defect
of vision in case of (i) short sightedness and (ii) long or far sightedness.
4. Identify the eye having defective vision from the following diagrams. Write the type of
defect in vision. How this defect can be removed?
Fill in the blanks

1. .................... lens is diverging lens.
2. A lens which is thick in the middle and thin at the rim is known as ....................
3. A lens which is thin in middle and thick at the rim is known as ....................
4. Least distance of distinct vision is ..................
5. Angle of vision in the human eye is ..................

6. When white light passes through a prism it ( )
(a) refracts (b) disperses
(c) refracts and disperses (d) diffracts
7. In any lens minium number of rays required to draw an image are ( )
(a) one (b) two (c) three (d) four
8. Which of the following shows snell’s law ( )
Sin i
(a) Sin i + sin r (b) Sin i sin r (c) Sin i . sin r (d)
Sin r
9. When an object is placed at the principal focus of the convex lens,
the image is formed at ....... ( )
(a) at F (b) nearer to the lens (c) at infinity (d) at 2F
10. Which of the following is not the characteristic of the image formed
when an object is placed at 2F of the convex lens ( )
(a) image formed at 2F 2
(b) Real image
(c) Size of the object is equal to size of the image
(d) erect image
Key words
Total internal reflection, light dispersion, light scattering, primary colours, secondary colours,
least distances of distinct vision, angle of vision, myopia, Hypermetropia, presbyopia, Astigmatism,
power of lens.
Summary
When light goes from one medium to another its speed changes and the light ray bends.
Speed of light in vacuum (c)
Refractive index of a medium (n) = .
Speed of light in medium (v)
The angle of incidence for which the angle of refraction is equal to 90o for a given pair of
media i.e. from denser to rarer is called ‘critical angle’.
The phenomena where the surface of a refracting medium behaves as a reflecting medium
(for certain angles for the incidence) is called ‘Total internal reflection’.
Light with a fixed wavelength is called colour. Different wave lengths of light causes different
colours.
A lens is formed when one medium is separated from another medium by two surfaces, one
of which is curved.
Converging lens is convex lens, diverging lens is concave lens.
In convex lens, when object is placed at F, between F and 2F, at 2F, beyond 2F infront
of convex lens the images is formed at infinity, beyond 2F, at 2F and between F and 2F
respectively.
When object is placed between F and optical centre of the convex lens, the image formed
is virtual and enlarge.
For the concave lens the image is always formed between F and optic centre, smaller in size
and virtual.
The focal length of a lens is given as

1 1 1

f v u
The reciprocal of the focal length is called power of the lens.
1
P= (in meters) . Its unit is diopter..
f
When light passes through a prism it splits into its constituent colours and this phenomenon
is called dispersion of light.
Rainbow is the best known example of dispersion of light in nature.

The process of re emission of absorbed light in all directions with different intensities by
atoms or molecules, is called scattering of light.
A person who can see the objects near to him properly but can not see the distant objects
has a near sight defect of vision. This defect can be removed by using a concave lens.
A person who can see far objects but can not see the near objects has a far sight defect
of vision. This defect can be removed by using convex lens.
Terminal Questions
1. What happens to the speed of light when it goes from (i) denser medium to rarer medium
(ii) rarer medium to denser medium?
2. Does a convex lens always converge light? Explain
3. Write the nature of the image formed by concave lens?
4. In which of the following media, the speed of light is maximum and in which it is minimum?
Medium Refractive index
A 1.6
B 1.2
C 1.5
D 1.4
. 5. The image of a candle formed by a convex lens is obtained on a screen. Will full size of
the image be obtained if the lower half of the lens is printed black and completely opaque?
Illustrate your answer with ray diagram.
6. A person looking at a net of crossed wires is able to see the vertical direction more distinctly
than the horizontal wires. Why this happens. How is such defect of vision corrected?
7. A person can see the objects placed at a distance of 30 cm clearly but cannot see the object
placed 30 cm away. What type of defect of vision he has? How is this defect of vision
corrected?
8. Draw a neat sketch of a convex lens and label all the points and length corresponding to it?

1. A lens which is thick at the rim ( ) (a) Convex lens
2. Twinkling of stars ( ) (b) Refractive index
Sin i
3. ( ) (c) Concave lens
Sin r
4. Hypermetropia ( ) (d). Refraction
5. Power of lens ( ) (e) Dispersion
(f) Diopter
II. Match the following
1. Mirages ( ) (a) Scattering of light
2. Sky appears as blue ( ) (b) Total internal reflection
3. Primary colours ( ) (c) Convex lens
4. Myopia ( ) (d). Red
5. Converging lens ( ) (e) Concave lens
(f) Yellow

8.1
1. Refraction
2. When the angle of incidence is greater than critical angle, the incident ray instead of refracting
through the medium starts bouncing back, this is called total internal reflection.
Ex : (i) Mirages (ii) Brilliance diamonds.
3. The process of emission by absorbed light in all directions with different intensities by
atoms is called ‘scattering of light’.
Ex : Sky appears as blue
4. Red, green and blue colours are primary colours.
Yellow, Magenta and Cyan colours are secondary colours.
5. (i) The incident ray, reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence, all lie in the
same plane.
Sine of angle of incidence
(ii) Refractive index (n) =
Sine of angle of refraction
Fill in the blanks
1. Refraction 2. Refractive index 3. Dispersion of light
4. Violet 5. Refraction
6. b 7. b 8. d 9. a 10. d
8.2
100 100
1. Power of the lens (P) = P = 2 diopters
f (in cm) 50
2. In ageing people is ‘near point’ gradually recedes away. They find it difficult to see nearby
objects clearly and distinctly. To correct this type of defect of vision we need bifocal lenses.
3. (i) increases (ii) decreases
4. (a) Short sightedness, it can be removed by using diverging lens.
(b) No defect
(c) Long sightedness, it can be removed by using converging lens.
Fill in the blanks
1. Concave 2. Convex 3. Concave 4. 25 cm 5. 600
6. c 7. b 8. d 9. c 10. d

1. Refer 8.1 2. Refer 8.8 3. Refer 8.8 4. Refer 8.2 5. Refer 8.8

I.
1. c 2. d 3. b 4. a 5. f
II.
1. b 2. a 3. d 4. e 5. c

1. Collect the information about the lenses available in an optical shop. Find out focal length
of a lens which can be determined by the given ‘power of the lens’.
2. Collect information on working of optical fibres. Prepare a report about various uses of
optical fibres in our daily life.
3. Collect the values of refractive index of the following media : water, coconut oil, flint
glass, crown glass, diamond, benzene and hydrogen gas.
9
Classification of Elements - Periodic Table
In the earlier chapter, chemical reactions and equations, you have learnt about elements, compounds
and mixtures. Elements contains atoms of only one type, where as compounds and mixtures contain
more than one element. Do you know how many elements are known till date? At present 118
elements are known to us. Up to the end of 18th century, limited number of elements were known.
As different elements were being discovered, scientists gathered more and more information about the
physical and chemical properties of the elements. Further, they also made several attempts to classify
elements according to their properties.
Objectives
know the necessity of classification of elements.
know early classification of elements
say acceptance and rejection of classification of elements.
know about Dobereiner’s Triads.
understand the concept of Newlands’ law of octaves.
· define the periodic law
explain the features of Mendeleev’s classification.

know the modern periodic law and long form of periodic table
know periodic properties and their trends.
9.1 Necessity for Classification of elements

As a large number of elements were discovered, scientists realized that it was not possible to
study all the elements and their compounds unless they are classified.
Classification of elements may help us to study them better, correlate the properties of the elements
with some fundamental property that is a characteristic of all the elements. And it reveal relationship
between the different elements.
Early attempts at the classification of elements

On the basis of the physical and chemical properties early chemists distinguished the elements
and classified into metal and non metals. But this classification had so many limitations. Hence the
classification was rejected.
Classification by Dobereiner
A German chemist Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner in 1817, tried to arrange the elements with
similar properties in to groups. He identified some groups having three elements each and named the
groups as “Triads”. Dobereiner showed that when the three elements in a triad were written in the
order of increasing atomic masses, the atomic mass of the middle element was roughly the mean of
the atomic masses of the other two elements.
For example, take the triad consisting of lithium (Li), sodium (Na) and potassium (K) with
respective atomic masses 6.9, 23 and 39. What is the average of the atomic masses Li and K?
6.9 39 45.9
23
2 2
Hence, the average is 23, which is atomic mass of middle element.
Activity 9.1
Observe the following table, elements in the row represent a triad. Calculate the
arithmetic mean of the atomic weights of 1st and 3rd element.
Classification of Elements-Periodic Table 157
Table - 9.1
Group Elements and their atomic weights Arithmetic mean of the
atomic weights of 1st
and 3rd elements
A Calcium (Ca) Strontium (Sr) Barium (Ba)
40.0 87.5 137.0
B Chlorine (Cl) Bromine (Br) Iodine (I)
35.5 50.0 127.0
C Sulphur (S) Selenium (Se) Tellurium (Te)
32.0 78.0 125.0
D Manganese(Mn) Chromium (Cr) Iron (Fe)
55.0 52.0 56.0
Limitations
Dobereiner’s Triad concept failed to elements with very low and very high atomic weights. More
over all the known elements at that time could not be arranged in the form of triads. Hence, this
system of classification into triads was not found to be useful.

1. The set of elements N, P and As whose atomic masses respectively 14.0, 31.0 and 74.9 is
Dobereiner’s Traid? Justify your answer.
2. Why the concept Triad is rejected?
9.2 Newlands Law of Octaves
In 1866 John Newlands an English chemist arranged the 56 known elements in the order of
increasing atomic masses. In this arrangement hydrogen is the first element and thorium is the last.
Newlands found that in his arrangement every eighth element had properties similar to that of
the first. He compared this to the octaves found in music. Therefore he called the Law of Octaves.
A part of the original form of Newlands octaves is given in the table
Table - 9.2 Newland’s octaves
Sa re ga ma pa da ni
Note of the Music (de) (re) (mi) (fa) (so) (la) (ti)
H Li Be B C N O
F Na Mg Al Si P S
Cl K Ca Cr Ti Mn Fe
CO & Ni Cu Zn Y In As Se
Br Rb Sr Ce & La Zr __ __
In Newlands octaves the properties of lithium and sodium were found to be the same.
Sodium is the eighth element after lithium. Similarly beryllium and magnesium resembles each
other.
Do you know!
Newlands compared the order of the elements with Indian musical notes in a scale
- Sa, re, ga, ma, pa, da, ni. The western musicians use notations - do, re, mi, fa, so, la,
ti. A musician uses these notes for composing the music of a song. Naturally there must
be same repetition of notes. Every eighth note is similar to the first and it is the first note
of the next scale.
The law of octaves was applicable only upto calcium, as after calcium every eighth element did
not possess properties similar to that of the first.
Newlands assumed that in nature there are only 56 elements and no more elements would be
discovered in the future. But later on several new elements were discovered whose properties
did not fit into law of octaves.
In order to fit elements into his table, Newlands adjusted two elements in the same slot, but also
put some unlike elements under same note. For example, cobalt and nickel are in the same slot
and they are placed in the same column as fluorine, chlorine and bromine which have very
different properties than these elements. Iron which resembles cobalt and nickel in properties
has been far away from these elements.
Thus, Newlands law of octaves worked well with lighter elements only.

1. What is the major defect of Newlands law of octaves?
2. What is the basis for Newlands classification of elements?
9.3 Mendeleev’s Periodic table
The Russian chemist Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev was the most important contributor to the
early development of a periodic table. He arranged the 63 elements, known to that time on the basis
of their atomic mass and also on the similarity of chemical properties. Among chemical properties
Mendeleev concentrated on the compounds formed by elements with oxygen and hydrogen. He selected
hydrogen and oxygen as they are very reactive and formed compounds with most of the elements.
The formulae of the hydrides and oxides formed by an element were treated as one of the basic
properties of an element for its classification.
Mendeleev constructed a periodic table on the basis of periodic recurrence with similar physical
and chemical properties. He formulated a periodic law which states that the properties of elements
are the periodic functions of their atomic masses. Mendeleev’s Periodic table contains vertical columns
called ‘groups’ and horizontal rows called ‘periods’.
Mendeleev’s Periodic table (Published in 1872)
Periodic law : The law states that the physical and chemical properties of the elements are
periodic functions of their atomic weights.
Periodic System of the elements In Groups and Periods 160
Fig. 9.1 Mendeleev’s Periodic Table

Description of Mendeleev’s periodic table

1. Groups and sub groups : There are eight vertical columns called groups and they are indicated
with Roman numeral I to VIII. The groups form I to VII are divided into the subgroups A and
B.
The properties of the elements in the same subgroup or main group as group VIII are similar.
2. Periods : There are seven horizontal rows called periods. In a period, the properties of the
elements gradually change from metallic to non metallic while moving in the period from left to
right.
3. Prediction of properties of missing elements : There are gaps in the periodic table. Mendeleev
left these gaps knowingly as these elements were not discovered at that time. He named by
prefixing a Sanskrit numeral Eka (one) to the name of preceding element in same group. For
example, scandium, gallium and germanium discovered later, have properties similar to Mendeleev’s
Eka-boron, Eka - aluminium and Eka silicon respectively.
The properties of Eka aluminium predicted by Mendeleev and those of the element gallium,
which was discovered later and replaced Eka aluminium are listed in the table.
Table - 9.3
S.No Property Eka alluminium Gallium
1. Atomic mass 68 69.7
2. Formula of oxide EO3 Ga2O3
3. Formula of chloride ECl3 GaCl3
This provided convincing evidence for both the correctness and usefulness of Mendeleev’s Periodic
table. One of the strengths of Mendeleev’s Periodic table was that, when noble gases (He, Ne and
Ar) were discovered they could be placed in a new group without disturbing the existing order.
Anomalous series : Some anomalous series of elements like ‘Te’ and ‘I’ were observed in the
table. The anomalous series contained elements with more atomic weights like Te(127.6) placed between
the elements with less atomic weight like I (126.9).
Mendeleev’s periodic Table also called short form of periodic table.
Limitations of Mendeleev’s Classification
1. Position of hydrogen : Just like halogens, hydrogen exists as diatomic molecule and it combines
with metals and non metals to form covalent compounds. Certainly no fixed position can be
given to hydrogen in the periodic table. He could not assign a correct position to hydrogen in
his table.
2. Anomalous pairs : Though the Mendeleev’s periodic table is constructed on the basis of atomic
weights, there are few pairs in which atomic weights of preceding elements is higher than that
of the following elements
Table - 9.4
Preceding element Following element
Cobalt (58.9) Nickel (58.6)
Tellurium (127.6) Iodine (126.9)
These pairs go against Mendeleev’s periodic law.
3. Overlooking of chemical similarities : In Mendeleev’s periodic table there are certain relationships
which are superfluous. For example, there is no relationship between alkali metals and copper,
silver and gold in group-I. In the same way there is no similarities between Fluorine and manganese
in Group - VIIA. Some obvious similarities between copper and nickel, platinum and gold were
overlooked.
4. Position of rare earth metals : The position of rare earth metals (Lathanides and actinides)
can not be justified on the basis of atomic weights.
5. Position of isotopes : Mendeleev’s periodic table cannot be justified the position of various
isotopes [elements having same atomic number / occupies same place in the periodic table] on
the basis of atomic weights. They can be explained on the basis of atomic number.

1. What is basis for Mendeleev’s classification of elements?
2. What is periodic law?
3. What is highlight of Mendeleev’s classification of elements?
4. What are elements that were guessed by Mendeleev which were unknown to him?
9.4 Modern periodic law and long form of periodic table

In 1913 Henry J Mosely by X-ray analysis stated that atomic number is most fundamental property
of an element than its atomic weight. By his analysis he introduced modern periodic law which states.
“The properties of elements are the periodic functions of their atomic number”. After that Neils Bohr
prepared long form of periodic table which consists of seven periods and 18 groups. Hence, it is
called Bohr’s periodic table
Classification of Elements-Periodic Table
Fig. 9.2 Long form of the Periodic Table of the Elements with their atomic numbers and ground state outer electronic configurations.
The groups are numbered 1-18 in accordance with the 1984 IUPAC recommendations. This notation replaces the old numbering
163
scheme of IA–VIIA, VIII, IB–VIIB and 0 for the elements.

As shown in periodic table (Fig. 9.2), the atomic number of an element (Z) indicates not only
the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom but also indicates the number of electrons in the
neutral atom of the element.
For example : 21Sc o contains 21 electrons and 21 protons.
30Zn
o contains 30 electrons and 30 protons.
Description of modern periodic table [long form of periodic table]
In the long form of periodic table, the elements are arranged in the order of increasing atomic
numbers, in horizontal rows called periods. Elements having the same number of valence electrons [the
nunber of electrons present in the outer most shell] comes under the same vertical column called
groups.
The long form of periodic table has three portions.
(i) The left portion : This portion has the elements of group-IA and group - IIA. These are
extremely electropositive in character.
(ii) The right portion : This portion of the elements of group - IIIA to zero group. This portion
has metals, nonmetals and metalloids like Germanium (Ge), Arsenic (As), Selenium (Se) etc. and
noble gases. The noble gases are at extreme right and highly electronegative elements (VIIA
group) are situated on the left of the noble gases.
(iii) The middle portion : This portion consists of the elements of groups IIIB, IVB, VB, VIB,
VIIB, VIII, IB and IIB. Elements present in this portion are classified into two groups - Transition
elements and inner transition elements.
Transition elements are divided into four series.
(a) 3d - series : This series has 10 elements from scandium ( 21Sc) to zinc (30Zn).
(b) 4d - series : This series consists 10 elements from Yttrium ( 39Y) to Cadmium (48Cd).
(c) 5d - series : This series consists 10 elements Lanthanum (57La) and from Hafnium (72Hf)
to mercury (80Hg).
(d) 6d - series : This series also contain 10 elements Actinium (89Ac) and from Rutherfordium
(104Rf) of Ununbium (112Uub).
Inner transition elements have been grouped into two groups viz., Lanthanides and Actinides.
Lanthanides are 14 starting from Cerium (58Ce) to Lutetium (91Lu). For convenience these are placed
at the bottom of the periodic table. Actinides also 14, from Thorium ( 90Th) to Lawrencium (113Lr).
These are also placed at the bottom of the periodic table along with Lanthanides.
Study of periods and Groups
Periods : These are the horizontal rows. Long form of periodic table consists of seven periods.
First period (n = 1), where ‘n’ indicates that there is only one main energy level for the elements of
this period. In this period, there are only two elements viz. Hydrogen (1H) and Helium (2He). Hence
it is called very short period. In second period (n = 2), there are two shells in the elements of this
period. It has eight elements viz. Lithium (3Li) to Neon (10Ne). Third period (n = 3), this period also
eight elements namely Sodium ( 11Na) to Argon ( 18Ar). These two periods are considered as short
periods.
Fourth period (n = 4) and fifth period (n = 5) have 18 elements each. Hence, they are called
long periods. Sixth period (n = 6) consists of 32 elements and it is called very long period. And
seventh period (n = 7), is an incomplete period. In this period there are naturally occurring radioactive
elements (Ex : 90Th, 92U), man made radioactive elements (Ex: 93Np; 94Pu). These elements are also
called trans uranic elements.
Groups : The vertical columns are called groups. These are 18. Among these IA, IIA, IIIA,
IVA, VA, VIA, VIIA (group numbers 1, 2, 13, 14, 15, 16 and 17) are called normal elements. ‘O’
group (group no. 18) is inert gas elements. Groups IB, IIB, IIIB, IVB, VB, VIIB and VIII are called
transition elements.
Merits and demerits of periodic table
(i) The arrangement of the elements in this table is based on a more fundamental and is related to
the electronic configuration of their atoms.
(ii) There is a gradual change in properties of the elements with the increase in their atomic numbers.
(iii) Transition elements have been placed in the middle of the periodic table. The properties of these
elements intermediate between s- and p-block elements.
(iv) Inner transition elements are the elements that interrupt the transition elements. The interruption
by 14 elements known as Lanthanides and other 14 interrupted elements viz actinides occurs
in sixth and seventh periods respectively. These 28 elements have been given a separate place
at the bottom of the periodic table.
(v) In this table, group numbers 1 to 12 i.e., IA to VIIA and VIII, IB and IIB are metals which
are left in the table. While the elements present on the right side of the periodic table i.e., group
13 to 18, IIIA to VIIA and ‘O’ group are metals non metals and metalloids.
(vi) Due to separation of the two subgroups dissimilar elements (Ex : Na and Cu) do not fall together.
(vii) This arrangement of elements is easy to remember and to reproduce.
(viii) On the basis of entering of differentiating electron in the orbitals elements these are classified into
four blocks.
(a) s-block elements : Elements of IA and IIA group are called s-block elements. In these elements
the differentiating electron enters in ‘ns’-orbital. The valence shell electronic configuration of
these element is ns 1 to ns2. The members of this block lie on left of the periodic table. All
elements of this block are metals.
(b) p-block elements : The elements in which p-orbitals are being progressively filled are called
p-block elements. The elements of IIIA to ‘O’ groups i.e. group number 13 to 18 comes under
this block. In these elements the differentiating electron enters in p-orbital and the valence configuration
of this block ns2, np1 to ns2 np6. These elements lie on the extreme right of the periodic table.
Metals, metalloids and non metals present in this block.
(c) d-block elements : The elements in which the differentiating electron enters the ( n 1)
d-orbitals of (n 1)th main shell are called d-block elements. These are placed in the middle
of the periodic table i.e., in between s- and p-blocks. The valence shell configuration of these
elements is ns12 (n 1)d110. These elements are called transition elements and are classified
into 3d, 4d, 5d and 6d series. Except 6d, all the remaining series have 10 elements each,
6d series is incomplete at present.
(d) f-block elements : The elements in which the differentiating electron enters the ( n 2)
f-orbitals of the (n 2)th main shell are called f-block elements. lanthanides and actinides i.e.
4f and 5f series comes under this block. The valence shell configuration of these elements is
ns2(n 1)d110 (n 2)f 114.
Depending on the number of incomplete shells with electrons in the atom, Neils Bohr classified
elements in to four categories.
(i) Inert gas elements : ‘O’ group or 18th group elements are called inert gas elements. In the
atoms of these elements, the s- and p-orbitals are completely filled. Thus the valence shell configuration
is ns2 np6, except helium, whose configuration is (ns2 ). Due to highly stable configuration they
have very little tendency to form chemical compounds with other elements.
(ii) Representative or normal elements : s-block and p-block elements are called representative
or normal elements. In the atoms of these elements, the outer most shell only incompletely filled
with electrons and the inner shells are filled to their capacity.
(iii) Transition elements : d-block elements are called transition elements whose outermost two
shells are incomplete and placed in the middle of the periodic table. Depending on the entry of
differentiating electron into d-orbital, these elements again classified into 3d, 4d, 5d and 6d-
series. All the members of this category are metals. Some of them are radio active elements.
(iv) Inner transition elements : f-block elements are called inner transition elements. The atoms
of these elements have outer, three shells i.e., outermost shell ns-orbital, (n 1) d orbital
and (n 2) forbital incomplete. There are 28 elements and placed at the bottom of the periodic
table. They are again categorised into 4f and 5fseries.
Defects of long form of periodic table
Through the scientific world accepted and followed the long form of periodic table, there are
few defects. They are -
(i) It is failed to accommodate lanthanides and actinides in the main body of the table.
(ii) The arrangement is unable to reflect electronic configuration of some elements in transition group
and in inner transition group.
(iii) The position of hydrogen is unresolved.

1. On what basis the long form of periodic table was constructed?
2. What is modern periodic law?
3. How many periods and groups are there in the long form of periodic table?
4. Name the inert gases, what is their position in the periodic table.
9.5 Periodic trends in properties of elements

There are many observable patterns in the physical and chemical properties of elements as we
move from top to bottom in group or move from left to right in a period in the periodic table. For
example, in a period, chemical reactivity tends to be high in group-IA metals, lowers in the elements
towards the middle of the table and increases to a maximum in the group-17 non metals. In a group,
example - alkali metals, the reactivity increases on moving down the group, where as with in halogens
reactivity decreases. Why do the properties of elements follow these trend? and how can we explain
periodicity? In this following section you can learn the periodic trends in term of number of electrons
and energy levels.
Periodic properties and their trends in groups and periods
Valency : The combining power of an element with respect to hydrogen, oxygen or indirectly another
element through hydrogen and oxygen is the valence of an element.
Valence of an element with respect to hydrogen is the number of hydrogen atoms with which
one atom of the element chemically combines. For example one atom of sodium chemically combines
with one atom of hydrogen to give NaH. Therefore the valence ‘Na’ is one.
Valence of an element with respect to oxygen is twice the number of oxygen atoms with which
one atom of that element combines. For example two atoms of ‘Na’ chemically combines with one
atom of oxygen to give ‘Na2O’ Therefore the valency of Na is 1.
In general the valence of an element with respect to hydrogen is its traditional Group number.
If the element is in group-I to IV, the number of valence electrons in their outer most shell itself their
valence. For example the number of valence electrons in sodium (11Na) is one and its valence is also
one. In Boron (B) the number of valence electrons is three, its valence is 3. If the element in the
group-V or above, its valence is (8-group number). For example the valence of oxygen is 8-6 = 2
where as in neon is zero (8 - 8).
Generally every period starts with valency one and increases to four and after decreases to zero.

1. What is the valence of halogens, group-VIIA?
2. How does the valency vary on going down in a group?
9.6 Atomic radius

Atomic radius of an element may be defined as the average distance from the nucleus of the
atom to its outer most shell. Atomic radius of an element is not possible to measure in its isolated state,
as it is not possible to determine the location of the electron that surrounds the nucleus. However we
can measure the distance between the nuclei of adjacent atoms in a solid. In a periodic table more
than 75% of the elements are metals and their atomic radii is called metallic radii.
There is another way of estimating the size of an atom is to measure the distance between the
two atoms in covalent nucleus. For example in chlorine (Cl2) molecule, the size of chlorine atom is
estimated by measuring the bond length between the two chlorine atoms. The bond length is 1.95 pm
or 1.98 A half of this distance is taken as atomic radius which is called covalent radius of chlorine
atom.
In case of ionic substances

If we remove one electron from the atom results the formation of cation where as gain of electron
leads to formation of anion. The ionic radii can be estimated by measuring the distances between
cation and anion in ionic crystals. In general the ionic radii of elements exhibit the same trend as the
atomic radii. A cation is smaller than its parent atom because it has fewer electrons, while its nuclear
charge remains the same. The size of an anion will be larger that of the parent atom, because the
addition of one or more electrons would result in increased repulsion among the electron and decreased
effective nuclear charge.

For example the ionic radius of F is 136 pm, where as the atomic radius of ‘F’ is only 64 pm.
On the other hand the atomic radius of ‘Na’ is 186 pm compared to the radius of ‘Na +’ is 95 pm.
Atomic radii of elements can be measured by X-ray or other spectroscopic methods and expressed
in picometers (pm)
1 pm = 1012 m
Variation of atomic radii in periods

Atomic radii of elements decrease across a period from left to right. As we go right, electrons
enter into the same main shell or even inner shell in case of d-block and f-block elements. Therefore
there should be no change in distance between nucleus and outer shell. But nuclear charge increases
because of the increase in the atomic number of elements in the period. Hence, the nuclear attraction
on the outer most shell electrons increases. As a result the size of the atom decreases.
Table - 9.5 Atomic radii values of the elements 2nd and 3rd periods (in Picometers)
Atom (Period - 2) Li Be B C N O F
Atomic radius (in pm) 152 111 88 77 74 66 64
Atom (period - 3) Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
Atomic radius (in pm) 186 160 143 117 110 104 99
Variation of Atomic radii in groups

Atomic radii increases from top to bottom in a group of the periodic table. As we go down in
a group, the atomic number of the elements increase. Thus, more shells are needed to accommodate
more number of electrons. As a result the number of shells in a group from top to bottom increases.
The distance between the nucleus and the outer shell of the atom increases. Hence, the atomic size
increases with increase in atomic number when we go down the group.
Table - 9.6 Atomic radii values of IA and VIIA groups (in Picometers)
Atom Atomic radius Atom Atomic radius
(Group - IA) (in pm) (Group - VIIA) (in pm)
Li 152 F 64
Na 186 Cl 99
K 231 Br 114
Rb 244 I 134
Cs 262 At 140

1. Among the pair ‘Na’ and ‘Na ’ which is larger in size? Why?
2. Which is smaller in size from ‘Na’ and ‘Al’?
3. What is the trend of atomic radii in periods as well as groups?
9.7 Ionization energy (IE)

The energy required to remove an electron from the outer most orbital or shell of a neutral
gaseous atom in its ground state is called ionization energy.
It is measured in KJ mole1.
The energy required to remove the first electron from the outer most orbital of a neutral gaseous
atom of the element is called first ionization energy and is denoted by IE 1.
M(g) + IE1 o M+(g) + e
The energy required to remove an electron from uni-positive ion of an element is called second
ionization energy and is denoted by IE 2.
M+(g) + IE2 o M2+(g) + e
When one electron has been taken out from an atom, it becomes increasingly difficult to remove
the second subsequent electron from the resulting positively charged ion an account of electrostatic
attraction. Thus IE 2 greater than IE 1.
Ionization energy of an element depends on its -------
1. Nuclear charge : More the nuclear charge greater is the ionization energy, due to more nuclear
attraction on electron of outer most shell.
Ex : Among 11Na and 17Cl, chlorine has more IE value than sodium.
2. Atomic size : Larger the atomic size, the smaller in the ionization energy. The reason for this
is that as the size of the atom increases, the outer electron lie farther away from the nucleus.
Hence the force of attraction decreases.
3. Screening or shielding effect : More the shells with electrons between the nucleus and the
valence shell, they act as screens and decrease nuclear attraction over outer electrons. This is
called the screening effect. More screening effect, less in the ionization energy. For example in
the pair 3Li and 55Cs, the element 55Cs has less ionization energy due to more inner shells.
4. Penetrating power of the orbitals : Orbitals belonging to the same main shell have different
penetration power towards the nucleus, for example 4s > 4p > 4d > 4f in the penetration.
Therefore it is easier to remove 4f-electron than 4s. Among 4Be and 5B, the element Boron has
less ionization energy.
5. Stable configuration : It is easier to remove one electron from 8O than 7N. This is because
nitrogen has stable half filled configuration.
Fig 9.3(a) Fig 9.3(b)
IE1
IE1
Fig 9.3(a) First ionization energies of elements of the second period as a

function of atomic number (Z) and Fig. 9.3(b) IE1 of alkali metals as a function of Z.
Ionization energy increases as we move left to right in a period and decreases from top to
bottom in a group.

1. Which element from the pair ‘Na’ and ‘Cs’ possesses least ionization energy? Why?
2. IE of inert gases is more than those of other elements. Why?
3. Give the reason for IE 2 of an element is more than (IE 1).
9.8 Electron affinity - Electron gaining enthalpy

When an electron is added to a neutral gaseous atom (X) to convert into uni negative ion

(X ), the enthalpy change accompanying the process is defined as electron gain enthalpy or electron
affinity. In other words “The energy liberated when an electron is added to a gaseous neutral atom
of an element is called electron affinity or electron gain enthalpy and it is denoted by EA.

X(g) + 1e o X (g) + EA
The energy released when an electron is added to an uni negative ion of the element is called
second electron affinity of that element. Practically no element shows liberation of energy when the
2nd electron is added to a uni negative ion.
Electron gain enthalpy is expressed in KJ mole1.
Table - 9.7 Electron gain enthalpies of some important group elements
Group-I EA in Group-VIA EA in Group-VIIA EA in Group-O EA in
KJ mole1 KJ mole1 KJ mole1 KJ mole1
H 73 O 141 F 328 He +48
Li 60 S 200 Cl 349 Ne +116
Na 53 Se 195 Br 325 Ar +96
K 48 Te 190 I 295 Kr +96
Rb 47 Po 114 At 270 Xe +71
Cs 46 Rn +68
Note : The ve sign for every value indicates that the energy is liberated or lost and the +ve sign
tells the energy is gained or absorbed.
Depending on the element, the process of adding of an electron to the atom can be either exothermic
or endothermic. For any element energy is released and its electron gain enthalpy is negative. For
example group - VIIA (halogens) have very high electron gain enthalpy, because they can attain stable
noble gas electronic contiguration by gaining one electron. Noble gases have large positive electron
gain enthalpies, because the electron has to enter the next higher energy level.
Electron gain enthalpy values decrease as we go down in a group, but increase along a period
from left to right. All the factors which influence the ionization energy would also influence the electron
affinity.

1. The first electron affinity of oxygen atom is 141 KJmol1. What would be its 2nd electron
gaining enthalpy?
2. Fluorine has less electron gaining enthalpy than chlorine. Why?

9.9 Electronegativity
Electronegativity of an element is defined as the relative tendency of an atom to attract elements
towards itself when it is bonded to the atom of another element.
Unlike ionization energy and electron gaining enthalpy it is not measurable quantity. In 1972
Linus Pauling assigned orbitrarily a value of 2.1 to hydrogen and on the basis of this value he has given
Values for other elements. Approximate electronegativity values of few elements are given under.
Table 9.8(a) : EN values of elements of 2 nd and 3rd periods (on pauling scale)
Atom (Period - 2) Li Be B C N O F
E.N. value 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Atom (period - 3) Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
E.N. value 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.5 3.0
Table 9.8(b) : E.N. Values of elements of Group - IIA and VIIA (on Pauling scale)
Atom E.N. Value Atom E.N. Value
(Group - IIA) (Group - VIIA)
Li 1.0 F 4.0
Na 0.9 Cl 3.0
K 0.8 Br 2.8
Rb 0.8 I 2.5
Cs 0.7 At 2.2
Electronegativity values of elements decrease as we go down in a group and increases along a
period from left to right. The most electronegative element is F (4.0) and the least electronegative
elements is Cs (0.7)
1. Give the reason for decrease in E.N values of elements in a group.
2. What is the relationship between IE, EA and EN?
9.10 Metallic and Non metallic character

In general, metals are least electronegative due to their larger atomic radii where as non metals
are highly electronegative due to smaller atomic radii.
Let us consider the elements of 3 rd period, they are Na, Mg, Al, Si, P, S, Cl and Ar. It is clear
that ‘Na’ and ‘Mg’ are metals. ‘Al’ and ‘Si’ are metalloids and ‘P’, ‘S’, ‘Cl’ and ‘Ar’ are non metals.
This indicates that metallic character decreases and non metals character increases along a period.
In the same way let us examine the elements of group - VIA. The members are ‘O’, ‘S’, ‘Se’,
‘Te’ and ‘Po’. Among these ‘O’ & ‘S’ are non-metals, ‘Se’ is metalloid and ‘Te’ and ‘Po’ are metals.
This means metallic character increase while non metallic character decrease as we move from top
to bottom in a group.
1. Why metals are electropositive elements?
2. What is the trend of metallic character in group - IA?
Key words
metals, non metals, metalloids, traid, atomic mass, octaves, periodicity, atomic number, periods,
groups, noble gas, valency, atomic radius, ionization energy, shielding effect, octet contiguration, electron
affinity, electronegativity, Pauling scale.
Summary
Due to several elements, classification is needed.
In early attempts in the classification of elements they were classified into metals and non-
metals.
Dobereiner introduced triads.
In a triad the atomic mass of second element is the mean of 1 st and 3rd.
Newlands introduced the concept of octaves.
Newlands classified elements on the basis of physical and chemical properties of elements.
Mendeleev introduced periodic law.
The properties of elements are the periodic functions of their atomic masses.
In Mendeleev’s periodic table there are 16 groups and 7 periods.
Mendeleev left some gaps in his periodic table.
Mosley introduced modern periodic law which state “The properties of elements are the
periodic functions of their atomic number”.
The long form of periodic table has 18 groups and 7 periods.
Each period starts with alkali metal and ends with noble gas element.
Long form of periodic table has been devided into four blocks viz. s-block, p-block d-bock
and f-block.
s- and p-block elements are representative elements. d-block elements are transition elements
and f-block elements are inner transition elements.
Valence, atomic radius, ionization energy, electron affinity and electronegativity are considered
as periodic properties.
Periodic properties varies along periods as well as in groups.
Metals are electropositive and non metals are electronegative.
Terminal Questions
1. What is traid? Explain with suitable example.
2. Define Newlands law of octaves? What are the demerits in the classification of elements by
Newlands?
3. On what basis Mendeleev classified elements? Write the merits and demerits of Mendeleev’s
classification?
4. Comment on the position of hydrogen in the periodic table?
5. Define periodic law? Write features of Mendeleev’s periodic table.
6. What is modern periodic law? Write features of long from of periodic table.
7. Write the differences between Mendeleev’s periodic table and long form of periodic table.
8. Explain how the elements are classified into s, p, d and f-block elements in the periodic table
and give the advantage of this kind of classification?
9. Why was the basis of classification of elements changed from the atomic mass to the atomic
number.
10. How does metallic character change when we move across a period and down a group.
11. What is ionization energy? Write factors which affects the ionization energy?
12. Generally IE1 of an element is less than IE2. Explain.
13. How does the defects in Mendeleev’s periodic table rectified by the modern periodic table?
14. From the following pairs, identify which element has more negative electron gain enthalpy? Why?
(a) F or Cl (b) O or F
15. Why zero group elements called noble gasses or inert gases.
1. Law of triads is proppased by ......... ( )
(a) Doberiener (b) Mendeleev (c) Mosley (d) Newlands
2. Mendeleev’s Eka-boron is ( )
(a) gallium (b) scandium
(c) germanium (d) silicon
3. The position of inner transition elements in the modern periodic table is ( )
(a) extreme left of the table (b) extreme right of the table
(c) middle of the table (d) bottom of the table
4. Ionization energy is expressed in ( )
(a) K.Cal (b) K.J (c) ev (d) KJ.mole
5. The most electronegative element in the periodic table is ( )
(a) oxygen (b) chlorine (c) flourine (d) hydrogen
6. Mendeleev constructed periodic table on the basis of ............. of the elements.

7. In long form of periodic table the number of groups is and the number of periods is ................
8. The general configuration of inert gas elements is ..............
9. When we move left to right in a period atomic radius ..............
10. 1 pm = ......................... m.
Set A - Element Set B - Group Number
1. Sodium ( ) (a) 16
2. Argon ( ) (b) 1
3. Flourine ( ) (c) 2
4. Magnesium ( ) (d) 18
5. Oxygen ( ) (e) 17

9.1
14.0 74.9 88.9
1. The mean of ‘N’ and “As’ is 45
2 2
which is not equal to atomic mass of ‘P’. Hence it is not a triad.
2. It is applicable for elements with high atomic weight more over all the elements can not be
arranged into triads.
9.2
1. It is applicable for lighter elements only.
2. Atomic weight is the basis for Newlands classification.
9.3
1. Atomic weight of elements and similarity in properties is basis for Mendeleev’s classification.
2. Periodic law : The properties of elements are the periodic functions of their atomic masses/
atomic weights.
3. Mendeleev left some gaps in his periodic table for unknown elements.
4. The predicted elements are - scandium, gallium and germanium.
9.4
1. Atomic member or electronic contiguration of elements.
2. The properties of elements are the periodic functions of their atomic number or electronic contifuration.
3. Groups - 18 and Periods - 7.
4. Helium (He), Neon (Ne), Argon (Ar), krypton (Kr), Xenon (Xe) and radon (Rn) are called inert
gases. These are accommodated in 18th group i.e. extreme right of the modern periodic table.
9.5
1. The valency of halogens is one.
2. In groups the valency does not change. It remains constant.
9.6
1. ‘Na’ has large size. Why because it consists 3 shells. Where as in Na+ then are only two shells.
2. Among ‘Na’ and ‘Al’, ‘Al’ is smaller due to more nucleus charge than Na.
3. In periods from left to right atomic radii decrease and in groups from top to bottom it increase.
9.7
1. Among ‘Na’ and ‘Cs’, ‘Cs’ possesses least ionization energy. Because of its large atomic radius
than ‘Na’.
2. Inert gases have more stability then the others. They have octet configuration in their outer most
shell. Hence, it requires more IE.
3. In case of uni positive ion there is more nucleus attraction on valence electrons than a neutral
atom. Hence IE 2 is greater than IE 1.
9.8
1. No energy will be liberated.
2. It is due to small size of fluorine atom. As a result there are strong inter electronic repulsion in
the relatively small 2p-orbitals of fluorine. Thus the electron does not experiences much attraction.
9.9
1. The large, the atomic size, the smaller electro negativity. In groups atomic radii increase, the EN
values decrease.
IE+EA
2. EN = .
2
9.10
1. Due to large size and electron loosing tendency metals are electro positive.
2. In a group metallic character increases as we move top to bottom.
Match the following Answers
(3) 1. b 2. d 3. e 4. c 5. a

7. Refer 9.3 and 9.4 8. Refer 9.4 9. Refer 9.4
1. Generally we give symbols for elements depending on their names. Some elements have special
names (Latin names). Prepare a list of elements with their special names and their symbols.
2. Prepare a brief report on classification of elements.
10
Chemical Bonding
You have learnt about electronic configuration of elements in previous lesson. We see various
substances around us which are either elements or compounds. You also know that atoms of same
element or different elements may combine to form molecules. But we get compounds when atoms
of different elements combine. What is the force that is holding these atoms together in molecules or
compounds ? If you take the example of common salt, NaCl and when you shake salt from a shaker
does it separate into sodium and chlorine ? No it does not separate. This shows that the sodium and
chlorine atoms are being held together. What is the force holding them together?
In this lesson, we will find answer to this question. We know what a chemical bond, how it
forms between two atoms or molecules, what are the causes of forming bonds, how many types of
bonds, how they are formed and properties of compounds, different theories relating to chemical
bonding, bond lengths, bond angles and shape of molecules you are going to learn in this lesson.
Objectives
learn what is chemical bonding.

learn the electronic theory of valence, how this theory helps in explaining the formation of
chemical bonding.
Identify the inert gases and their chemical activity.
learn the formation of cation, anion and ionic bond.
learn the properties of ionic compounds.
· learn the properties of covalent compounds.
know the formation of covalent bond and properties of covalent compounds.
know the bond angles in different molecules with VSEPR theory.
know the formation of single, double and triple bonds with the help of Lewis - dot method.
10.1 Chemical bonding

During twentieth century, scientists know about three types of forces
1. Gravitation force
2. Magnetic force
3. Electrostatic force
They also know about the existence of electrons and protons. So it was believed that electrostatic
forces were the cause of attraction between atoms in a molecule or compound. When two atoms
come sufficiently close together, the electrons of each atom experience the attractive force of the
nucleus of the other atom. But the electrons which are negatively charged repel each other, and the
positively charged nuclei also repel each other. The strength of attraction or repulsion decides the
bond formation. If attraction is more than the repulsion then atoms combine. If repulsion is more
than attraction then the atoms do not combine. The nucleus and the electrons in the inner shell remain
unaffected when atoms come closer together. But the electrons in the outermost shell of atoms get
affected. Electrons in valence shell (valence electrons) are responsible for the formation of bonds
between atoms.
Periodic classification and arrangement of elements in the periodic table on the basis of electron
configuration gave a new thought about chemical bond. The discovery of noble gases and the understanding
of their electronic configurations helped us in explaining the formation of chemical bonds. Noble gases
which belongs to zero group (18th group or VIIIA) are typical gases with almost negligible chemical
activity when compared to other elements. They undergo few or no chemical reactions. They are
more stable and do not form molecules by allowing their atoms to combine among themselves or with
the atoms of other elements.
Chemical Bonding 179
The following table shows the electronic configuration and valence electrons of inert gases.
Table 10.1
Element Atomic number Electronic configuration
Valence electrons
(Z) K L M N
Helium (He) 2 2 2
Neon (Ne) 10 2 8 8
Argon (Ar) 18 2 8 8 8
Krypton (Kr) 36 2 8 18 8 8
From the above table, it is clear that all the inert gases have 8 electrons in the outermost shell
except Helium (He).
Lewis symbols (or) Lewis dot structures

The arrangement of electrons in different shells of atoms in inert gases of elements is shown
in the above table (10.1). The valence electrons in the atom of an element is depicted in a short form
by Lewis symbol or electron dot structure. We represent the nucleus and inner shell electrons of the
atom by the symbol of the element and electrons in the outer shell by dots (.) or cross marks(x).
Let us see the dot structure of neon and sodium. Neon has eight electrons in the valence shell,
and the symbol of neon is ‘Ne’. Now place the valence electrons around the symbol. Put two dots
at a time on each of four sides of the symbol of element.
Ne
Similarly, the number of valence electrons in sodium is one and the symbol of sodium is Na.
Now we can use cross marks for the valence electrons in sodium. The Lewis structure for sodium
atom is
x
Na
Look at the periodic table. You can find the relation between the number of valence electrons
and group numbers. Group 1 has one outer electron, group 2 has two outer electrons, and group 13
has three outer electrons, group 14 has four outer electrons and so on. It was found that the elements
with ns2np1-6 configuration participate in chemical reaction to get octet or similar configuration to that
of noble gas elements.
Electronic theory of valence by Lewis and Kossel

In 1916 Kossel and Lewis were succeeded in explaining the chemical bond formation between
atoms in terms of electrons apart from various attempts made by different researchers. The basis of
this theory was valence in terms of electrons. They provide logical explanation of valence on the basis
of the lack of chemical activity of noble gases which led to the proposal of octet rule.
Observe the practical behaviour of atoms of main group elements (Group IA, IIA, IIIA, IVA,
VA, VIA, VIIA and zero or VIIIA group). When they are allowed to undergo chemical changes, they
try to get octet electronic configuration in the outer shells.
Let us understand this with the following illustrations.
Group IA elements (Li to Cs) try to lose one valence shell electron from their atoms to form
corresponding uni-positive ions to get octet configuration in their outer shells.
+
Example : 11Na o 2, 8, 1 11Na o 2, 8
Group IIA elements (Mg to Ba) try to lose two valence electrons from their atoms during chemical
changes and form di-positive ions with octet configuration in the outer shells.
+2
Example : 12Mg o 2, 8, 2, 12Mg o 2, 8
Group IIIA elements try to lose three valence electrons from their atoms and form corresponding
tri positive ions with octet configuration in the outer shells.
+3
Example : 13Al o 2, 8, 3 13Al o 2, 8
Group VIA elements try to gain two-electrons into the valence shells of their atoms during the
chemical changes and form corresponding di-negative anions which get octet configuration in their
outer shells.
Example : 8O o 2, 6 2
8O o 2, 8
Group VIIA elements try to gain one electron into the valence shells of their atoms during the
chemical changes and form corresponding uni-negative anions which get octet configuration in their
outer shells.
Example : 9F o 2, 7
9F o 2, 8
Group VIIIA elements, the noble gases do not try to lose or gain electrons. Generally Helium
and Neon do not participate in chemical changes. Even other elements of VIII A do not gain or lose
electrons from their atoms when they participate in a very few chemical changes.
Example : 10Ne o 2, 8. No electron gain or loss from the Neon atom.

Loss Electrons Magic Gain Electrons
p p
+1 +2 +3 octet -3 -2 -1
IA IIA IIIA VIIIA VA VIA VIIA
Na Mg Al Ne N O F
7 K Ca Ga Ar P S Cl
F
Rb Sr In Kr As Se Br
Cs Ba Tl Xe Sb Te I
Fr Ra Rn Bi Po At
Metals Noble gases Non Metals
Noble gases of VIIIA possess eight electrons in the valence shells of their atoms. Helium is an
exception. Noble gases with eight electrons in the valence shell in their atoms are highly stable and
rarely participate in chemical changes. Therefore it is concluded that any species (atom or ion) with
eight electrons in the valence shell is stable. Based on the above observations a statement known as
“The octet rule” is framed.
Octet rule
It may be stated as “The atoms of elements tend to undergo chemical changes that help to leave
their atoms with eight outer- shell electrons”.
Lewis depicted the atom in terms of a positively charged kernel (Kernel is the nucleus and all
other electrons in the atom except the outer most shell electrons) and the outer shell that could accommodate
a maximum of eight electrons.
Chemically active elements do not have an octet of electrons in the valence shell of their atoms.
Their reactivity arises from their tendency to achieve the octet, by forming bonds either with atoms
of their own type or with atoms of other elements.
Chemical bond : The force of attraction between any two atoms or a group of atoms that results
a stable entity is called a “Chemical bond”. There are many types of chemical bonds, but here we
discuss only about ionic bond and covalent bond.

1. Why noble gases are non reactive?
2. In the following table five elements and their atomic numbers are given. Which of them are
stable and will not form compound ?
Element Atomic Number
A 12
B 19
C 18
D 8
E 24
3. State octet rule ?

4. What is the valency of group VI A and VII A elements. Write examples.
5. Define a chemical bond ? Name some types of chemical bonds ?
10.2 Ionic bond

Kossel proposed the ionic bond (electrostatic bond) based on the following facts.
(i) Ionic bond is formed between atoms of two dissimilar elements due to transfer of electrons from
the atom of one element to the other.
(ii) There are highly reactive metals like alkali metals (IA) on the left side and highly reactive non-
metals like halogens on the (VIIA) right side of the periodic table.
(iii) Noble gases except helium have eight electrons in the valance shells of their atoms. They are
chemically inactive and stable.
(iv) To attain eight electrons in the outermost shell similar to noble gases metal atoms which have
one, two or three electrons in the valence shells generally lose those electrons and form stable
positive ions called cations.
Example : +
11Na
o 11Na
lose 1 electron
+2
12Mg o 12Mg
lose 2 electrons
+3
13Al o 13Al
lose 3 electrons
(v) To attain eight electrons in the outermost shell, non-metal atoms that have 5, 6 or 7 valence
electrons gain 3, 2 or 1 electron respectively and form negative ions known as ‘anions’.
Examples : 15P o
gain 3 electrons P3
16S
gain 2 electrons
o S2
17Cl
gain 1 electron
o Cl
The number of electrons lost from a metal atom is the valency of its element which
is equal to its group number
Ex : Na and Mg have valence 1 and 2 respectively.
The number of electrons gained by a non metal atom of an element is its ‘valence’
which is equal to (8 - its group number)
Ex : The valency of chlorine is (8 7) = 1
Formation of ionic bond

The positive ions (cations) and negative ions (anions) that are formed due to the transfer of
electrons from the metal atoms to the non metal atoms experience the electrostatic forces and get
attracted to form chemical bond. As this bond is between charged particles known as ions, it is called
“ionic bond”. Sometimes based on the forces being electrostatic, the bond is also called “the electrostatic
bond”. As the valence concept has been explained in terms of electrons, it is also called the “electrovalent
bond”.
Thus we can define ionic bond as follows :
The electrostatic attractive force that keeps cation and anion together to form, a new electrically
neutral compound is called ionic bond.
Eg : 1. Formation of sodium chloride (NaCl) :
Sodium chloride is formed from the elements sodium and chlorine. It can be explained as follows
1
Na(s) + Cl o NaCl(s)
2 2(g)
Cation Formation
When sodium (Na) atom loses one electron to get octet electron configuration it forms a cation
(Na+) and gets the electron configuration of Neon (Ne) atom.
Na o Na+ + e
2, 8, 1 2,8
1
or [Ne]3S o [Ne]
Anion formation
Chlorine has shortage of one electron to get octet in its valence shell. So it gains the electron
from Na atom to form anion and gets electron configuration as that of Argon (Ar).
Cl + e o Cl
2, 8, 7 2, 8, 8
(or) [Ne] 3s 2 3p5 [Ne]3s23p6 or [Ar]
Formation of NaCl from its ions
Transfer of electrons between ‘Na’ and ‘Cl’ atoms, results in the formation of ‘Na +’ and
‘Cl’ ions. These oppositely charged ions get attracted towards each other due to electrostatic forces
and form sodium chloride (NaCl)
Na+ + Cl o NaCl
Eg-2 : Formation of calcium chloride (CaCl 2)
Calcium Chloride is formed from the elements calcium and chlorine. The bond formation in
CaCl2 in brief using chemical equation is as follows.
Ca + Cl2 o CaCl2
Cation formation
Ca o Ca+2 + 2e
2,8,8,2 2,8,8
(or) [Ar]4s 2 [Ar]
Anion formation
2Cl + 2e o 2Cl
2,8,7 2,8,8
[Ne]3s23p5 [Ne]3s23p6 (or)[Ar]
Formation of CaCl 2 from its ions :

One ‘Ca’ atom transfers two electrons one each to two ‘Cl’ atoms. ‘Ca’ after loosing two
electrons gets the configuration of ‘Ar’ and each ‘Cl’ after gaining one electron each gets the configuration
of ‘Ar;. These oppositely charged ions get attracted each other and form CaCl 2.
Ca+2 + 2Cl o CaCl2
The arrangement of ions in ionic compounds

Remember that electrostatic forces are non directional. Therefore it is not possible for one
Na+ to be attracted by on Cl and vice- versa. Depending upon the size and charge of a particular
ion, number of oppositely charged ions gets attracted by it, but in a definite number. But in sodium
chloride crystal each Na + is surrounded by 6Cl and each Cl by 6Na ions. Ionic compounds in
the crystalline state consists of orderly arranged cations and anions held together by electrostatic forces
of attraction in three dimensions. The crystalline structure of sodium chloride is given below.
NaCl is said to possess face centered cubic lattice crystal

structure. The number of ions of opposite charge that surround
a given ion of given charge is known as the ‘coordination
number’ of that given ion. In sodium chloride crystal, the
coordination number of Na+ is 6 and that of Cl is also 6.
Factors affecting the formation of cation and anion
In ionic bond formation atoms either lose electrons or
gain electrons to attain octet in valence shell. Generally metals
have a tendency of losing electrons and non metals have a
tendency of gaining electrons. The tendency of losing electrons Na+
Fig 10.1 NaCl lattice
Cl –
to form cations (or) gaining electrons to form anions depends
on the following factors :
1. Atomic size.
2. Ionisation energy
3. Electron affinity
4. Electronegativity
The atoms of elements with low ionisation energy, low electron affinity, low electronegativity and
high atomic size form cations.
The atoms of elements with high ionisation potential, high electron affinity, high electronegativity
and low atomic size form anions.
Properties of ionic Compounds

Since the ionic compounds contain ions (cations and anions) which are held together by strong
electrostatic forces of attraction, they show the following characteristic properties.
(a) Physical state : Ionic compounds are crystalline solids. In the crystal, the ions are arranged
in a regular fashion. The ionic compounds are hard and brittle.
(b) Melting and boiling points : Ionic compounds possess high melting and boiling points. This
is because of the strong electrostatic forces of attraction present between the ions. Thus it
requires lot of thermal energy to overcome these forces of attraction. The thermal energy given
to the ionic compounds is used to overcome the interionic attractions present between the cations
and anions in an ionic crystal. Remember that the crystal has a three dimensional regular arrangement
of cations and anions which is called crystal lattice. On heating, the breaking of this crystal
lattice leads to the molten state of ionic compounds in which the cations and anions are free to
move.
(c) Electrical conductivity : Ionic compounds conduct electricity in their molten state and in aqueous
solutions. Since ions are free to move in the molten state, they can carry current from one
electrode to another in a cell. Thus ions can conduct electricity in molten state. However in
solid state such a movement of ions is not possible as they occupy fixed positions in the crystal
lattice. Hence in solid state, ionic compounds do not conduct electricity.
In aqueous solution, water is used as a solvent to dissolve ionic compounds. It weakens
the electrostatic forces of attraction present among the ions. When these forces are weakened,
the ions become free to move, hence they conduct electricity.
(d) Solubility : Ionic compounds are generally soluble in water but are insoluble in organic solvents
such as ether, alcohol, carbon tetrachloride etc. However a few ionic compounds are insoluble
in water due to strong electrostatic force between cation and anion. For example barium sulphate,
silver chloride and calcium fluoride.

1. Explain the formation of NaCl ?
2. State the loss or gain of electrons (giving their number) in the following changes ?
(i) Cu o Cu2+
(ii) O o O2
(iii) Cr o Cr+3
(iv) F o F
3. Write the properties of ionic compounds ?
4. Define coordination number ? What is the coordination number of Na + in NaCl ?
5. What is ‘valence’. Write the valence of a non metal?
10.3 Covalent bond

G.N. Lewis prosed that atoms of some elements could achieve an octet in their valence shells
without transfer of electrons between them. They can attain octet configuration in their valence shells
by sharing the valence electrons with one or more atoms.
The electrons shared between two atoms belong to both the atoms and “sharing of electrons
between them leads to the formation of chemical bond known as covalent bond”.
Let us consider the formation of hydrogen molecule (H2). The hydrogen atom has one electron.
It can attain the electronic configuration of the noble gas helium by sharing one electron of another
hydrogen atom. When the two hydrogen atoms come closer, there is an attraction between the electrons
of one atom and the proton of another and there are repulsions between the electrons as well as the
proton of the two hydrogen atoms. In the beginning, when the two hydrogen atoms approach each
other the potential energy of the system decreases due to the force of attraction. The value of potential
energy reaches a minimum at some particular distance between the two atoms. If the distance between
the two atoms further decreases, the potential energy increases because of the force of repulsion.
“The covalent bond forms when the forces of attraction and repulsion balance each other and
potential energy is minimum. Covalent bond is formed by the sharing of electrons between the atoms.
Formation of covalent bond in H2 molecule :
H +H o H H o H2
Formation of chlorine molecule (Cl 2) :

The electronic configuration of Cl atom is 2, 8, 7. Each chlorine atom needs one more electron
to complete its octet. If two chlorine atoms share one of their valence electrons as shown below, then
both of them can attain the stable noble gas configuration of argon.
Cl + Cl o Cl Cl (or) Cl Cl
Formation of O2 molecule
The electronic configuration of 8O is 2, 6. Oxygen atom has six electrons in its valence shell.
It requires two more electrons to get octet in its valence shell. Therefore two oxygen atoms come
closer together and each oxygen atom contributes two electrons for bonding. Thus there exist two
covalent bonds between two oxygen atoms in O2 molecule as there are two pairs of electrons shared
between them.
We can say that a double bond is formed between two oxygen atoms in O 2 molecule.
O + O o O O (or) O O
Formation N2 molecule
The electronic configuration of 7N atom is 2, 5. Each nitrogen atom requires three more electrons
to get octet configuration. When two nitrogen atoms approach each other, each atom contributes 3
electrons for bonding. There are six electrons shared between two nitrogen atoms in the form of three
pairs. Therefore there is a triple bond between two nitrogen atoms in N 2 molecule.
N + N o N N (or) N{N
Formation of methane molecule (CH 4)
In the formation of methane (CH4), carbon atom has four valence electrons. Hydrogen atom
has only one valence electron. Carbon contributes 4 electrons (one electron to each hydrogen atom)
and four hydrogen atoms contribute one electron each. Thus in CH 4 molecule, there are four C-H
bonds formed.
H H
C +H +H + H + H o H C H (or) H C
H
H H
Formation of NH3 molecule
Electronic configuration of nitrogen is 2, 5. Each nitrogen requires 3 electrons to get octet

configuration. Hydrogen atom electronic configuration is 1 requires one electron to get helium configuration.
Nitrogen contributes three electrons for bonding. Three hydrogen atoms contribute one electron each
for bonding. Therefore six electrons form three pairs and each pair is shared between nitrogen and
hydrogen. Thus in NH3 molecule, there are three N-H single bonds formed.
H N
N +H +H +H o H N (or) H H
H
H
Formation of molecule (H2O)
Electronic configuration of oxygen 8O is 2, 6 and hydrogen 1H is 1. Oxygen atom needs ‘2’

electrons to get octet and hydrogen requires one electron to get helium configuration. Therefore
oxygen contributes 2 and each hydrogen contributes one electron for sharing. Thus in H2O molecule
two O - H bonds formed.
O + H + Ho O H (or) O
H H H
The total number of covalent bonds that an atom of an element forms is called its ‘covalency’.
The bond lengths and bond energies of covalent bonds

Bond length is the equilibrium distance between the nuclei of two atoms which form a covalent
0
bond. It is generally given in nm (nanometer) or A (Angstrom unit).
Bond energy or bond dissociation energy is the energy needed to break a covalent bond between
two atoms of a diatomic covalent compound.
Drawbacks of electronic theory of valence

(a) When a covalent bond is formed between any two atoms, irrespective of the nature of the
atoms, the bond lengths and bond energies are expected to be the same. This is because any
covalent bond between any two atoms is a result of mere sharing of two identical electrons. But
practically it was observed that bond lengths and bond energies are not same when the atoms
form bonds with different atoms.
ˆ in BF is 1200, HCH
(b) The theory could not explain why Cl-Be-Cl in BeCl 2 is 1800, FBF ˆ in
3
ˆ in NH is 107 0 28c and HOH
CH4 is 1090 28c , HNH ˆ in H O is 104 0 31c etc. i.e. it fails to
3 2
explain the shapes of the molecules.
Valency Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory (VSEPRT)

To explain the bond angles in the molecules with three or more than three atoms with all atoms
attached to a central atom through covalent bonds a theory called the valence - shell - electron - pair
repulsion - theory was proposed by Sidgwick and Powell. It was further improved by Gillespie and
Nyholm.
This theory suggests the following points.
1. VSEPRT consider electrons in the valence shells which are in covalent bonds and in lone pairs
as charge clouds that repel one another and stay as far apart as possible. This is the reason
why molecules get specific shapes.
2. If we know the total number of electron pairs in the valence shell as covalent bonds and lone
pairs in the central atom, it will help to predict the arrangement of those pairs around the nucleus
of the central atom and form the shape of molecule.
3. Lone pairs occupy more space around the central atom than bond pairs. Lone pairs means
unshared electron pair or non-bonding electron pair. These are attracted to only one nucleus
where as the bond pairs is shared by two nuclei. Thus presence of lone pairs on the central
atom causes slight distortion of the bond angles from the expected regular shape. If the angle
between lone pair and bond pair increases at the central atom due to more repulsion, the actual
bond angles between atoms must be decreased.
4. (a) If two bond pairs are present in two covalent bonds around the nucleus of the central atom
without any lone pairs in the valence shell, they must be separated by 180 0 to have minimum
repulsion between them. Thus the molecule would be linear.
1800
Example : Be + Cl + Cl o Cl Be Cl (or) Cl Be Cl
(b) If three bond pairs are there in three covalent bonds around the nucleus of the central atom,
without any lone pairs they get separated by 120o along three corners of a triangle. Therefore
the shape of the molecule is trigonal - planar.
Example :
F F 120
0
o
B B
B+ F + F + F (or)
F F F F
Note : In the above two compounds BeCl2 and BF3 the central atoms Be and B did not possess
8 electrons around them in the valence shell. They have only 4 and 6 electrons respectively.
These molecules are known as electron deficient molecules.
(c) If there are four bond pairs in the valence shell of the central atom, the four bond pairs will orient
along the four corners of a tetrahedron (three dimensional arrangement) and the bond angle is
expected is 109 0 .28c .
Example : Methane
ˆ is 109 0 .28c , because of four electron pairs around carbon.
In methane molecule (CH4); HCH
0
H 109 28'
H C
H H
(d) If there are three bond pairs and one lone pair i.e. unshared electron pair, then the lone pair
occupies more space around the nucleus of the central atom. The remaining three bond pairs
come relatively closer as in NH3 molecule.
Example : Ammonia
In ammonia molecule, there are three bond pairs in covalent bonds (3N-H) around the nucleus
of the nitrogen atom and one lone pair. Lone pair - bond pair repulsion is greater than bond
pair - bond pair repulsion. Therefore, NH3 which is expected to be tetrahedral with four electron
pairs in the valence shell and HNHˆ is 109 0 .28c . But actual bond angle in between HNH ˆ is
107 0 48c due to the more repulsion by lone pair on the bond pairs.
H H
H
NH3 molecule
(e) If there are two bond pairs and two lone pairs of electrons around the nucleus of the central
atom in its valence shells lone pair - lone pair repulsion is greater than lone pair - bond pair
repulsion. Therefore, the angle between bond pairs further decreases.
Example : Water
In water molecule, (H2O) there are four electron pairs around the nucleus of oxygen atom, but
two of them are lone pairs and two bond pairs. Therefore H 2O molecule gets ‘V’ shape or
bent shape or angular instead of tetrahedral shape as that of CH 4 due to lone pair - lone pair
and lone pair - bond pair repulsions. HOHˆ is 1040 45c .
O
104o45'
H H
Water molecule
Properties of covalent compounds

The covalent compounds consists of molecules which are electrically neutral. The forces of
attraction present between the molecules are less strong as compared to forces present in ionic compounds.
Therefore, the properties of the covalent compounds are different from those of the ionic compounds.
The characteristic properties of covalent compounds are given below.
(a) Physical state : Because of the weak forces of attraction present between discrete molecules,
called intermolecular forces, the covalent compounds exists as a gas or a liquid or a solid. For
example O2, N2, CO2 are gases, water and CCl 4 are liquids and Iodine is a solid.
(b) Melting and boiling points : As the forces of attraction between the molecules are weak, a
small amount of energy is sufficient to overcome them. Hence the melting and boilingpoints of
covalent compounds are lower than those of ionic compounds. For example the meltingpoints
of naphthalene which is a covalent compound is 353 K (800C). Similarly, the boiling point of
carbon tetrachloride which is another covalent liquid compound is 350 K (770C).
(c) Electrical conductivity : The covalent compounds contain neutral molecules and do not have
charged species such as ions or electrons which can carry charge. Therefore these compounds
do not conduct electricity and are called poor conductors of electricity.
(d) Solubility : Covalent compounds are generally not soluble in water but are soluble in organic
solvents such as alcohol, chloroform, benzene, ether etc.

1. Explain covalent bond formation with an example ?
2. Explain formation of H2O molecule ?
3. How many covalent bond(s) is/are present in the following compounds.
(i) O2 (ii) N2
4. Write the properties of covalent compounds ?
5. Why the shape of Ammonia is pyramidal instead of tetrahedral ? Explain.
Summary
Location of elements in the periodic table helps in predicting the type of bonding that will
take place between the elements.
Ions are positively or negatively charged particles formed by the loss or gain of electrons.
The force between any two atoms or a group of atoms that results in the formation of a
stable entity is called chemical bond.
The outer most shell is called valence shell and the electrons in this shell are called valence
electrons.
The elements belongs to zero group are inert gases and they have octet in its valence shell
except helium.
Chemically active elements have an incomplete outer most shell of atoms.
The number of valence electrons available in the atoms decides the type of bond.
Elements which have a tendency to gain electrons for attaining octet in their valence shell
called electronegative character and they form anions.
Elements which have a tendency to loose electrons for attaining octet in their valence shell
called electropositive character and they form cation.
Transfer of electrons from one atom to the other leads to ionic bond.
Generally metals posses electropositive character and non metal posses electro negative character.
The electrostatic forces are present between cation and anion keeps together to form a new
electrically neutral entity called an ionic bond.
Ionic compounds are crystalline solids and covalent compounds are gases, liquids and some
are solids.
A chemical bond formed by the sharing of valence electrons between the atoms leads to the
formation of covalent bond.
A single bond is formed between two atoms when they share only one pair of electron.
Change in the shape of molecules and bond angles can be explained with valency - shell -
electron pair - repulsion theory (VSEPRT)
Number of bond pairs and lone pair of electrons decide the angle at the central atom in a
molecule.
Terminal Questions
1. Explain the formation of Cl ion from ‘Cl’ atom ?
2. How can you explain the bonding in MgCl 2 ?
3. Classify the following compounds as ionic or covalent ?
(i) Calcium chloride (ii) Oxygen (iii) nitrogen
(iv) Magnesium oxide (v) Nitrous oxide
4. Classify the following statements as true or false.

(i) Ionic compounds contain ions which are held together by weak electrostatic forces.
(ii) Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points.
(iii) Covalent compounds are good conductors of electricity.
(iv) Solid sodium chloride is a good conductor of electricity.
5. Write the bond angles present in the following molecules. ( )

(i) NH3 (ii) CH4 (iii) BeCl2 (iv) H2O
6. Explain the formation of H2O with VSEPR Theory ?

7. Depict the electron dot picture of chlorine atom ?

8. Name the type of bond form between an element ‘X’ with atomic number ‘11’ ‘Y’ with atomic
number ‘17’. Write the formula of compound formed by reacting X and Y.
9. How covalent bonds are formed ?
10. How Lewis dot structure helps in understanding bond formation between atoms ?
11. Write the reason for low melting point of covalent compounds when compared to ionic
compounds ?
12. Explain the formation of CH4 molecule with valency shell electron pair repulsion theory ?
13. Write the differences between ionic compounds and covalent compounds ?
14. Define bond lengths of covalent compounds ? Give units.
15. How many pairs of electrons are shared the atoms in
(i) Oxygen molecule (ii) Fluorine molecule
16. How an anion formed ? Explain with an example.
17. What is reason for the atoms take part in bonding ?
18. Explain the formation of ionic bond in AlCl3?
19. Explain briefly the arrangement of ions in ionic compounds ?
20. Write the draw backs of electronic theory of valence ?
1. Ionic bond is present in ......... ( )
(a) HCl (b) H2O (c) CH4 (d) MgCl2
2. Coordination number of Cl in NaCl lattice ( )
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 4 (d) 6
3. Number of lone pair of electrons present in ammonia molecule ( )
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
4. Bond angle in methane molecule ( )
(a) 1200 (b) 1800 (c) 1090281 (d) 104 0.31 1
5. Number of bonds present in N 2 ( )
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
Fill in the blanks

6. Inert gases contain ............. number of electron in its outermost shell.
7. Unit of Bond length is ................
8. VSEPRT was proposed by ..............
9. Total number of electrons present in Cl ion is .........................
10. Napthalene is soluble in .........................
Match the following
Group A Group B
1. CH4 ( ) (a) Linear
2. H2O ( ) (b) trigonal planar
3. BeCl2 ( ) (c) tetrajedrpm
4. BF3 ( ) (d) ‘V’ shape

10.1
1. Noble gases are having completely filled outer most shells. That’s why they are non reactive
and does not participate in chemical reactions.
2. Atomic number of A = 12
Electron configuration = 2, 8, 2
‘A’ gave ‘2’ electron in its valence shall. So it will participate in chemical reactions and forms
the compound.
Atomic number of B = 19
Electron configuration = 2, 8, 8, 1
‘B’ have ‘1’ electron in its valence shall. So it will participate in chemical reactions and forms
the compound.
Atomic number of C = 18
Electron configuration = 2, 8, 8
‘C’ have 8 electrons in its valence shell and does not forms the compound.
Atomic number of D = 8
Electron configuration = 2, 6
‘D’ have ‘6’ electrons in its valence shell and forms the compound.
Atomic number of E = 24
Electron configuration = 2, 8, 8, 6
‘E’ also will participate in chemical bond with ‘6’ electrons in outer most shell and forms the
compound.
3. “The atoms of elements tend to undergo chemical changes that help to leave their atoms with
eight outer - shell electrons”.
4. Valence of Group VIA elements is (8 - 6) = 2
Valence of Group VII A elements is (8 - 7) = 1
5. The force of attraction between any two atoms or group of atoms that results a stable entity
called a “Chemical bond”. There are many types of chemical bonds. Some of chemical bonds
are ionic bond and covalent bond.
10.2
1. Formation of sodium chloride (NaCl)
Sodium chloride is formed from the elements sodium and chlorine. When sodium losses one
electron to get octet configuration it forms a cation (Na+) and gets the electron configuration
of Neon (Ne)
Na o Na+ + e
2,8,1 2,8

When chlorine gains one electron to get octet configuration it forms an anion (Cl) and gets the
configuration of Argon (Ar).
Cl + e o Cl
2,8,7 2,8,8

Transfer of electrons between ‘Na’ and ‘Cl’ atoms, results in the formation of Na + and Cl
ions. These oppositely charged ions get attracted towards each due to electrostatic forces and
form the compound NaCl.

Na+ + Cl o NaCl
lose 2 electrons
2. (i) Cu o Cu+2
gain 2 electrons
(ii) O o O2
lose 3 electrons
(iii) Cr o Cr+3
gain 1 electron
(iv) F o F
3. Properties of ionic compounds

(i) Ionic compounds are crystalline solids.
(ii) They have high melting and boiling points.
(iii) They show electrical conductivity in their molten state and in aqueous solutions
(iv) Ionic compounds are generally soluble in solvents like water but insoluble in organic solvents
such as ether, alcohol, carbon tetra chloride etc.
4. The number of ions of opposite charge that surround a given ion of given charge is known as
‘coordination number’ of that given ion. The coordination number of Na+ is 6.
5. The number of electrons lost from a metal atom or the number of electrons gain by a non-metal
is called its valence. For example the valence of chlorine (nonmetal) is 1.
10.3
1. Formation of Cl2 molecule
The electronic configuration of 17Cl atom is 2, 8, 7. Each chlorine atom needs one more electron
to get octet. If two chlorine atoms share one of their valence electrons, then both of them can
attain the stable noble gas configuration of argon. Sharing of electrons between the two atoms
leads to the formation of covalent bond between two chlorine atoms.
Cl + Cl o Cl . . Cl (or) Cl Cl
2. Electronic configuration of oxygen 8O is 2, 6 and hydrogen 1H is 1. Oxygen atom need
2 electrons to get octet and hydrogen requires one to get helium configuration. Therefore oxygen
contributes two electrons and each hydrogen contributes one electron for sharing. Thus in H2O
molecule two OH bonds are formed.
O + H + Ho O H (or) O
H H H
3. (i) In O2 molecule three are two covalent bonds formed by sharing two pairs of electrons
O = O
(ii) In N2 molecule there are three covalent bonds formed by sharing of three pairs of electrons.
N { N
4. (i) Covalent compounds are generally gases, liquid and some are solids.
(ii) They have low melting and boiling points when compared to ionic compounds.
(iii) They do not conduct electricity.
(iv) Covalent compounds are generally insoluble in water but are soluble in organic compounds
like ether, alcohol, etc.
5. In ammonia molecule, there are three bond pairs around central nitrogen and one lone pair.
Lone pair-bond pair repulsions is greater than bond pair - bond pair repulsion. Therefore NH3
which is expected to be tetrahedral with four electron pairs, is trigonal pyramidal.
Answers :
1) a 2) d 3) a 4) c 5) c
6) 8 7) Angstrom 8) Sidgwick, Powell
9) 18 10) Organic solvent
11) c 12) d 13) a 14) b

1. Refer 10.1
2. Refer 10.1
3. Refer 10.2 and 10.3
4. Refer 10.2 and 10.3
5. Refer 10.3
6. Refer 10.3
7. Refer 10.1
8. Refer 10.2
9. Refer 10.3
10. Refer 10.1
11. Refer 10.3
12. Refer 10.3
13. Refer 10.2 and 10.3
14. Refer 10.3
15. Refer 10.3
16. Refer 10.2
17. Refer 10.1
18. Refer 10.2
19. Refer 10.2
20. Refer 10.3
1. Prepare a report on characteristic and uses of covalent compounds in our daily life.
2. Collect camphor, Napthalene balls, salt, baking soda, water and kerosene. List out substances
which is dissolved in water and kerosene separately. Prepare a report by mentioning the reason
for solubility and insolubility.
11
Electricity and Magnetism
Nature is the main source for the search and invention of new things by man. Thunder bolt,
thunder and lightning are examples of natural phenomena. It laid foundation for invention of “ electricity”.
Most of facilities enjoyed because of electric energy. We cannot imagine the world without electricity.
In this chapter, we try to observe and analyse this natural phenomena which helps us to understand
electric energy, magnetism and relation between them.
Objectives
After completing this lesson, you will be able to :
give examples of static electricity in everyday life.
identify two kinds of electric charge and describe the nature of transmission of charges.
know about the precautional measures to be taken when thunder, lighting and thunder bolt
occurs.
define electric current, electric circuit and potential differences.
state ohms law and define electrical resistance of a conductor.
compute equivalent resistance of series and parallel combination of resistors.
appreciate the heating effect of current by reciting examples in everyday life.
define the unit of electric power and electric energy in commercial use and solve problems
relating to them.
identify magnets and explains their properties.

explain the concept of magnetic field and state the properties of magnetic lines of force.
Infer that when electricity flows through a conductor, magnetic field is produced around it.
explain the force experienced by a current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field.
describe electromagnetic induction and its importance in different aspects of daily life.
describe Alternate current (AC) and Direct current (DC) and list the appliances.
11.1 Static Electricity

An understanding of electric charge, and its property and also about magnetism was began in
6th century B.C. The Greek word amber means electrum”. The systematic study of electricity was
done by Dr.William Gilbert. He conducted experiment i.e. the rubbing of glass rod with silk, rubber
shoes against a wooden carpet etc., in these experiments he found the electric charges on bodies.
Dr. Gilbert named this phenomems as “Electrica”.
In 1752, Benjamin Franklin, an American scientist, showed that lightning and the spark from our
clothes are essentially the same phenomena.
Nature of substance transmission of charges.

In the lesson atomic structure we have studied about the matter around us is made of atoms
and molecules. The atoms have subatomic particles electron, proton and neutron. The molecules are
formed by the combination of two are more atoms of an element.
The subatomic particles have charge. The electrons have negative charge, protons have positive
charge and neutrons have no charge.
The matter around us, exists in three states. They are solids, liquids and gases. In this lesson,
we can understand about the good conductors of elecctricity. They are all metals and alloys and the
poor conductors of electricity are like rubber, plastic, and glass etc. Generally good conductors have
free electrons, Through which conducts electric current. Where as in poor conductors like rubber,
plastic etc. when rubbed with another body they acquire current it is called “frictional or static electricity”.
Activity :
We can understand the concept of static electricity through this activity by using plastic
pen, polythene covers and pieces of paper. We know that the plastic pen and polythene
covers are poor conductors of electricity. When we rubb these two materials together the
exchange of charges takes place between them. The charge turn into the positive (+ve) and
negative (ve) and have equal charge on the material.
Electricity and Magnetism 201
When two poor conductors of electricity are rubbed each other, the material which looses the
charge has positive charge and the material which gains the charge gets negative charge.
The negative charged plastic pen attracts the piece of papers. The air lies in between the plastic
pen and the piece of paper is a poor conductor of electricity. Even though the transfer of charges
taken place between the materials, the charges on the piece of paper get neutralised when in contact
with earth / by hand.
Observations
1. Plastic pen attracts pieces of paper (unlike charges attracts)
2. Only certain part of the pen involves in the transformation of charge (static electricity)
3. As plastic pen is a poor conductor, charge transfer takes place at a small area of the pen, these
charges occurs only temporarily.
4. Though there is air, which is a poor conductor, it allows the transfer of charges and these charges
gets neutralised.
Intext Question (11.1)
1. You have understood the above activity. Now conduct an experiment and note down the observation
for charge transfer between plastic comb and piece of paper.
11.2 Thunders, Lighting and Thunder bolts

The formation of lighting in nature shows the transfer of charge and static electricity.
The clouds moving in air acquire a charge on their surface due to the friction with particles of
air. As the surface area of cloud is large the amount of charge accumulated on its surface is very high.
When a charged cloud comes close to another cloud it induces an opposite charge on the other and
the accumulated charge tries to move from one cloud to another cloud.
The air present between them being a poor conductor of electricity resists the flow of charge.
When the magnitude of the accumulated charge become very large, the air normally a poor
conductor, is no longer able to resist the flow of charges.
Hence discharge takes place
between negative and positive charges
which produces steaks of bright light is
called “lightning” and the sound produced
here is called “thunder”.
Fig. 11.1
1. Which of these reaches to us : first thunder or light? Why?
The process of electric discharge between cloud and the earth is called “thunder Bolt”. This
could destroy life and property.
Lightning conductor is a copper device used to protect buildings from the effect of thunder bolt.
A metallic copper rod, taller than the building, is installed in the walls of the building during its construction.
The projected end of the metal rod is at a height more than the height of the building the copper rod
is connected to a copper wire whose other end is tied to a rod in earthen pit. It receives the charge
first during lighting because it is closer to the thunder bolt than the building and this process is called
Earthing.
11.3 Nature of static Electricity

1. Two different types of charges (positive and negative) are produced.
2. Like charges repel : Charge developed on pen refills by rubbing it with polythene cover. The
two refills have like charges and repel each other.
3. Unlike charges attract :
The Coulomb’s law governs the force (attraction / repulsion) between the charges. This can be
studied in higher classes.
Transfer of electric charges and charges produced by rubbing is known as “static electricity”,
where as flow of electric charges is known as “current electricity”. The good conductors of electricity
are all metals, alloys and semi conductors. In this the free flow of electrons/charges are higher. The
free flow of electrons in a circuit is called “electric current”.
Electric circuit : Observe the figure a bulb, a cell a switch and insulated copper wire are arranged
as shown in the figure(11.2). The bulb glows when we switch on it.
bulb
A closed path created by the connecting
wires through a battery along which electrons
can flow is called a “ circuit”. A cell is a device
in which chemical energy is converted into electrical wire
energy. The combination of cells is called a battery. +
Battery Key
Fig. 11.2
1. Draw the following (a) cell (b) battery
11.4 Electric Current

“The ordered motion of electrons’ is called electric current (Fig. 11.3). Electric current is defined
as the amount of charge (q) crossing any cross section of the conductor in one second (t)”. The rate
of flow of charge is called ‘electric current’.
Q
I=
t
Electirc charge
Electric current =
Time interval
The SI unit of electric current is Ampere denoted by ‘A’
1 Ampere = 1 columb/1 sec
1 A = 1 C/s or 1A = 1 C s1.
Ammeter is a device which measure the flow of electricity
(I) in a circuit. The circuit symbol of ammeter is [(A)].
It always connected in a series in a circuit through which the
current is to be measured. Fig. 11.3 Ordered motion of electrons

1. Write the uses of Ammeter and volt meter ?
2. Write the SI units of electric current and potential difference?
11.5 Electric potential and potential difference

Do you know
Drude and Lorentz, The scientists of the 19th century proposed that in conductors the
arrangement of the positive ions is called ‘lattice’. All metals contain large number of free
electrons (1029 m3) are acts as charge carriers. In open circuit through a metallic conductor
free electrons move sufficiently high velocity in all possible direction, the net flow of electric
current is zero. But when the battery is connected across the ends of the conductor the electron
in it move with a certain average drift speed in orderly direction. The drift speed in copper
wire is 1 mms1.
To move the electrons in a specified direction we need a force, This force provides the potential
difference across the conductor. This potential difference across the entire conductor is set up by a
battery.
When the ends of a conducting wire are connected to the terminals of a battery, its +ve terminal
attracts the electrons and an electric field is set up through out the conductor. The force on the charge
accelerate in a specified direction is called “electric force”. As a result the positive charge decrease.
The chemical force (Fc) pulls respective ions form the positive end and make them to move negative
end the negative terminal pushes one electron into the conductor because of strong repulsion between
negative terminal and to negative ions, thus the flow of electrons starts from negative terminal in the
conductor.
The work done by the electric force on unit +ve charge to move from one end to other through
a distance is called “potential difference” between those points.
W
The work done by the electric force on ‘Q’ charge to move through ‘S’ distance =
Q
Fe .S
Hence potential difference between two points or two ends is V =
q
Work W Direction of electric field
V = =
Charge Q
1 Joule A Fe B
1 Volt =
1 Columb
J l
V = Fig. 11.4
C
The SI unit of potential difference is ‘volt’. Volt meter is a device used to measure the potential
difference in a electric circuit. It was always connected in parallel to the electric device in an electric
circuit to measure the potential difference across the ends of the electric device.
Do you know
Electrons were not known at the time when the phenomenon of electricity was first
observed. So, electric current was considered to be the flow of positive charges and the
direction of flow of positive charges was taken to be the direction of electric current. Conventionally
in an electric circuit the direction of electric current is taken as opposite to the direction of
the flow of electrons which is negative.
Ohm’s law:
During your laboratory classes in your study center, you can verify the Ohm’s law.
Aim: To find the relation between the current flowing through a wire and the potential difference
applied across it.
Materials required : A standard fixed resistance coil (Nichrome) (R), Ammeter (A), Volt meter
(v), Plug key (K), Rheostat (Rh) or 4 Batteries (1-5 v), copper wire.
Procedure : Set up a circuit as shown in the (Fig. 11.5) consisting of a nichrome wire XY of length.
First use only one cell as the source in the circuit. Note the current (I) reading in the ammeter (A)
and volt meter reading (V) for the potential difference across the wire XY in the circuit tabulate the
readings.
Next slowly increase the cells or battery in the circuit (as increasing potential difference) and
note down the readings of I and V in the given table.
Table 11.1 V
Sl.No. Number Current Potential V/I

Nichrome wire
of cells through the difference Volt/
I
used nichrome across the ampere A
in the wire, nichrome key
Battery
circuit (Ampere) I V Fig. 11.5
(in ampere)
1 1
I
2 2
3 3
V
4 4 (in volt)
Fig. 11.6
Result: Draw a graph using the values of v and I
V
The V I graph is a straight line that passes through the origin of the graph. It shows that.
I
is a constant ratio. This fact was established by German Physicist, George Simon Ohm and it is popularly
known as “Ohm’s law”.
Ohm’s law : “The potential difference between the ends of a conductor is directly proportional to the
electric current passing through it at constant temperature”.
V u I
V
= constant. V = IR, were R is called resistance.
I
? R is called Resistance.
V
This constant is the resistance ‘R’ of the conductor, = R.
I
‘R’ is the resistance of the conductor which we used in the experiment, i.e. nichrome wire.
The SI unit of resistance is “ohm” the symbol of ohm is ‘:’, it can be show in the circuit as
.
V V
?R =
I
Magic triangle shows the relation between V, I and R.
1 volt I u R
1 ohm =
1 ampere
Do you know?
A multi meter is an electronic measuring instrument that combines several measurement
functions in one unit.
Digital multi meter displays the measured value in numerals.
A multi meter has three parts
Display: The display usually has four digits and the ability to
display a negative sign.
Selection knob: The selection knob allows the user to set the
multi meter to read different functions such as milliamps (mA) of current,
voltage (V) and resistance (:).
Ports: Multi meters generally have two ports. One is usually
labelled as ‘COM’ (common or ground port). This is where black test
lead is connected. The other is labelled as mAV: port where the red
lead is conventionally plugged in.
WARNING: Most of the multi meters can measure AC quantities
also, but AC circuits can be dangerous. So measure DC quantities Fig. 11.7
only.
The resistance of a conductor is defined as “the obstruction to the motion of the electrons in
a conductor”.
A conductor of a given size which offers a low resistance is called a good conductor. A conductor
of a given size which offers of higher resistance is called a poor conductor and produces more
temperature and heat.
An insulator of the same size offers even very higher resistance.
The resistances of a conductor depends on
1. The nature of its material.
2. Temperature (when resistance increases temperature is also increases)
3. Its length (R v L) different metal rods are connected
between P and Q
P Q
I
A
Battery key
Fig. 11.8
1
4. On its area of cross section (R v )
A
l
R v
A
l RA
R=U /[(U - rho)] U=
A l
‘U’ is the specific resistance or resistivity of the Table 11.2

Resistivity of various materials
conductor.
Material U(:-m) at 20 °C
The SI unit for resistivity is [:-m] ohm-meter. Silver 1.59 u 108
The specific resistance depends on the temperature Copper 1.68 u 108
and nature of the material, where as the resistance of the Gold 2.44 u 108
condutor depends on nature of material, temperature, length, Aluminium 2.82 u 108
and cross section area of the conductor. Calcium 3.36 u 108
Tungsten 5.60 u 108
Metals and Alloys with low resistivity behave as good
Zinc 5.90 u 108
conductors Nickel 6.99 u 108
(1 0 8 to 106 ohm-meter) Iron 1.00 u 107
Lead 2.20 u 107
Where as rubber, glass, wood, are high resistivity
Nichrome 1.10 u 106
behave as insulators.
Carbon (Graphite) 2.50 u 106
(1014 to 1016 ohm-meter)
Germanium 4.60 u 101
The alloys have an advantage, that their resistance Drinking water 2.00 u 101
varies very little with temperature and they do not oxidise Silicon 6.40 u 102
easily. So they are used as heating elements in electric Wet wood 1.00 u 103
ions, toaster. Glass 10.0 u 1010
Rubber 1.00 u 1013
Air 1.30 u 1016
1. Write the difference between conductor and
resistance.
2. Write the difference between resistance and specific resistance.
11.6 Series connection of resistors

Connect the three resistors R 1, R2 and R3 in series as shown in the figure 11.9(a) in between
P and Q ends There is only one path for the flow of current in the circuit.
V
V
V1 V2 V3
P R1 i Q P i i Q
i R2 R3 Req
Fig. 11.9(a) Fig. 11.9(b)

The potential difference between PQ is V = V 1 + V2 + V3
According to Ohm’s law, V = iR

V1 = iR1, V2 = iR2, V3 = iR3
V = V1 + V2 + V3
iR = iR1 + iR2 + iR3
Req = Rs = R1 + R2 + R3
“The sum of individual resistances is equal to their equivalent resistance when the resistors are
connected in series”. When one of the resistors in series break down, the circuit opens. Series circuit
is used in fairy lights to decorate buildings on festivals, on marriage celebrations etc.
Parallel connection of Resistors
Connect the three resistance R1, R2 and R3 in parallel as shown in the figure 11.10(a) between
P and Q ends. The potential difference between P and Q is constant in the circuit.
R1
i1
A
I
R2
i2
A A
P i i Q P
i i Q
R3 Req
i3
A
Fig. 11.10(a) Fig. 11.10(b)

The current through P and Q are I 1, I2, and I3 flows from R1, R2 and R3.
Current through PQ is, i = i 1 + i2 + i3
V
According to Ohm’s law, i =
R
The potential difference between P and Q is V
V V V
i1 = i2 = i3 =
R1 R2 R3
i = i1 + i2 + i3
V V V V 1 1 1 1
= + + , = + +
RP R1 R2 R3 RP R1 R2 R3
R1R 2 R 3
(or) Req = Rp =
R1R 2 R 2 R 3 R 3R1
The equivalent resistance of a parallel combination is less than the resistance of each of the
resistors. Let us imagine a thick wire as a parallel combination of several thin wires. The result is the
resistance of metal wire which is inversely proportional to its area of cross section. Normally all the
appliances in our house hold circuits are connected in parallel.

1. Three resisters 3:, 6:, 9: are connected in series. Find the resultant resistance of the circuit.
2. Three resistors of values 3:, 6: and 9: are connected in parallel. Find the equivalent resistance
of the three resistors.
3. Above mentioned three resistors are connected to 12V battery in the circuit. Find the current
through each resistor?
11.7 Heating effect of Electric Current

Consider a current (i) flowing through a V
R
resistor of resistance R. The potential difference
across it be V as shown in the figure.(11.11)
The work done in moving the charge ‘Q’
through the potential difference V is. + + + A
Fig. 11.11
q
W = Vq I=
t
W = Vit ?q = it
According to Ohm’s law V = iR.
W = iR , it = i2 Rt
the amount of heat produced H = i 2 Rt
Hence “the amount of heat produced in a conductor on passing the current is directly proportional
to the square of the current (i 2), the resistance of the conductor (R) and the time (t) for which the
current flows through the conductor”.
This is known as “Joules law of heating”. SI unit of heat is “joule” (J)

1. An electric heater of resistance 10:takes a current of 2A calculate the heat developed in 200
second.
2. Write the words in the formula of H = i 2 Rt.
11.8 Electrical Appliances

Electrical appliances based on thermal effect of electric current are electric iron, electric kettle,
electric immersion rod / heater, electric geyser, electric stove, room heater, electric tester etc..
Electric bulb : In an electric bulb the filament usually made of tungsten, Heater
because of its higher resistivity values and melting point (3422 oC). Inside
the bulb is filled with the inert gas, Argon and also fills with nitrogen, so
4A Fan
that no oxidation, takes place inside. It gives more heat and less light.
Fuse Wire : 2A Bulb

A piece of wire made of lead and tin alloy is used as fuse wire.
It has low melting point and high resistance, than that of electric wire. 8A Fridge
Due to this if current in circuit increases above a particular point over load,
i.e., the fuse wire gets heated and burns out. Then the whole circuit is saved 6A TV
from burning. The fuse wire is connected to the main source in series. Usually
the fuse wires that we are using are from 5A and 15A wires. Fuse
Miniature circuit breaker (MCB) 20A
It is a self regulatory switch which saves the circuit from overloading

as well as from short circuits. 240V
Fig. 11.12
Earthling of electric Appliances
Leakage of electric current in electrical appliances made of metal can
harm us and may get electrical shock by touching them. In electric circuits other than phase and neutral
there is another wire called “earth wire”. The metallic end of the appliance is connected to one end
of this wire and the other end is attached to a copper plate and buried deep in the earth (Earthing)
When we come in contact with electrical current, the path of earthning would be shorter than
that through our bodies and thus we would be saved as current would flow through the electronic
(earth) path way other than through our body.
Electric power : In our daily life, we consider electric current through Home Appliance like fans,
refrigerators, heaters, electric cookers etc..
The rate at which electric energy is consumed is called “electric power”.
Work done (W) Joule
Electric power P = = or watt
Time taken (t) Sec
W
P= (W = vit)
t
Vit
P= = Vii ... (1)
t
P = iR.i = i2.R .... (2)
2
V
P= .... (3)
R
P = Vi
1 watt = 1 volt u 1 ampere
Since ‘watt’ is a very small unit of power, the bigger unit is ‘killo watt’ (KW)
1 Kilo watt (Kw) = 1000w = 1000 J/s.
1 Mega watt (Mw) = 10 6w
Electrical energy used in electric circuits express “watt - hour or kilowatt hour”. Generally, the
kilowatt hour is the electric energy power consumption in hour/in industries can be expressed in ‘unit’.
1 kilo watt hour (1 KWH) = 1 kilo - watt - hour.
= 1000 - J/sec - 3600sec. = 1000. 3600. J
= 36 u 105 J or 3.6 u 106 J
1. A bulb is marked 60w and 120 v. The same is connected to 12v battery find its resistance and
power.
2. What is the value of 1KWH. in joules.
3. Why do we use tungsten flament in bulb?
A common electric circuit symbols
Fig. 11.13
11.9 Electromagnetism
In the previous topic we learnt about the electric current. In our daily life we are using electric
motors, generators, calling bells, electric crane like electrical appliances regularly. How these appliances
are working? What is the relation between electricity and magnetism and what is an electro magnetism?
How electricity and magnetism have become synonyms today?
In this chapter we will study about the electromagnetic effect and to know the answers for the
above questions.
Magnet
Magnet is an interesting object, which has property of attracting some materials near by it.
during ancient Greeks period, they found some stones which were able to attract Iron and Nickel like
other materials. This naturally occurring stone is called ‘lode stone’, which is used as magnetic compass.
Natural magnets are made of Ironoxide Fe3O4 with is called as ‘magnetite’. They attract iron materials,
but are not strong. Artificial magnets are made of alloys, Iron, Nickel and cobalt.
Magnets made of ‘Al, Ni, Co’ and Lead, are permanent magnets which are very strong. They
are made in different shapes Like, bar magnet, horse shoe, cylindrical, circular and rectangular magnets
are used in many electrical appliances such as calling bell, radio, motor, head phones, speaker phones
etc. If a natural magnet is suspended freely with the help of a string in air, it always rests in the ‘North
- South’ direction of the Earth. (North pole - South pole). Our Earth, itself acts as a giant magnet,
behaves like a bar magnet. The poles of Earth (inside) are not same with the geographic north and
south poles on a map and Earth’s poles tilted at an angle of 11.3 o with respect to geographic poles,
which is useful for navigation.
Properties of Magnets
1. It attracts iron
2. Freely suspended magnet always rests at the North-South direction of Earth.
3. Like poles repel while unlike poles attract each other.
4. If iron pieces are brought near a strong magnet they also starts behave as magnets.
5. The poles of a magnet cannot be separated.
Magnetic Field and Field lines
The magnetic compass works as a small bar magnet. It shows geographical North and South
poles.
Activity
Fix the bar magnet using adhesive material at the centre of the
white chart. Sprinkle some iron fillings around the bar magnet and
tap the chart gently (Fig. 11.14).
The iron fillings around the bar magnet experience the magnetic
force, the space around the magnet in which its attraction force present
is called “magnetic field”.
The region surrounding the magnet in which the force of magnet
can be found (or) detected is said to be “magnetic field”. Fig. 11.14
The lines along which the iron fillings align themselves is called “magnetic field lines”. The
strength of the field lines at poles is more than at middle of the bar magnet. The path followed
by the unit north pole placed in a magnetic field is called magnetic lines of force.
Lines of force of magnetic field

Place a bar magnet on the sheet as shown in the figure (11.15a) and mark the boundary of bar
magnet. Place a compass near the north pole of the magnet, north pole of the compass repel and the
south pole attracts. Mark the position of two ends after compass needle, move the compass to the
new position such that its south pole occupies the position previously occupied by its north pole.
Continue this, from north pole of the bar magnet to south pole as shown in the figure(11.15b).
Join the points, we will get the magnetic field lines around the bar magnet. The magnetic field has both
direction and magnitude.
8
F
(a) (b)
Fig. 11.15
Properties of magnetic field line
They are closed loops and curve in nature.
The field is stronger at poles because closed lines at strong field, spreaded lines at weak field.
No two field lines are found to intersect or cross each other.
When we draw a tangent to the magnetic field line, it shows the direction field.
Oersted experiment
The experiment conducts by Hans Christian Oersted (1777-1851), a Denmark Scientist, which
enable us a current carrying conductor produces magnetic field.
The apparatus required : Thermocole sheet 1 cm (thickness) ‘Y’ shaped wooden sticks (2)
height of 1 cm each, 3V battery, conducting wire (Copper),
switch and magnetic compass. The circuit consists of battery,
key and copper wire are connected in series as
shown in the figure (11.16).
Fig. 11.16 Oersted experiment
Observations
Keep the magnetic compass below the wire, and close the circuit, the deflection will occur in
compass needle is due to the flow of current in the wire, which produces the magnetic field,
deflect the needle in the magnetic compass.
If we change the direction of current in the circuit, the deflection in the needle is also changes.
If the flow of current stops in the circuit, the deflection of the needle stops.
Result: In this experiment we learned that the current-carrying wire produces magnetic feild which
is three dimensional in the wire and also deflects the magnetic needle near the wire.

1. What ‘oersted experiment’ says?
2. Draw the figure showing magnetic field lines?
3. Mention any two specification of magnetic field lines?
11.10 Magnetic field due to a straight current carrying conductor

Arrange the electric circuit as shown in the figure (11.17(a)) in which the wire is normal to the
plane of a rectangular cardboard. Sprinkle the iron filings uniformly on the cardboard, close the key,
so that a current flows through the wire and the iron filings align themselves showing concentric circles
as shown in the fig. (11.17(b))around the copper wire.
If the direction of current changes, the iron filling align, showing concentric circles also change
their direction. The concentric circles shows clockwise or anticlock wise direction and their direction
can be understood by “right hand thumb rule”.
Fig. 11.17
Right hand thumb rule
It is easy way to find the direction of magnetic field associated with a current - carrying conductor.
If you hold the current carrying wire with your right hand in such a way that eracted thumb shows
the direction of current, then the direction of folded fingers shows the direction of the magnetic field
as shown in the figure (11.18(a)).
Right hand thumble Current out of the page Current into the page
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 11.18
Magnetic field due to a circular coil or loop carrying current

In circular coil or loop the flow of current is shown in two directiones, as shown in the figure(11.18(a)).
The flow of current at ‘B’ on rectangular cardboard is shown as upward (n ) direction. Based on right
hand thumb rule which direction the magnetic field force shows? Yes, it shows anticlock wise
direction(11.18(b)). At the same time the flow of current at ‘A’ is shown as downward (p ) direction,
So it shows the magnetic field force in clockwise direction based on right hand thumb rule(11.18(c)).
Like this, it is easy to identify of the direction magnetic field in a circular coil or loop carrying current
as shown in the Fig. (11.19).
Fig. 11.19 Fig. 11.20

Solenoid as an electromagnet
“A solenoid is a long wire wound in a close packed helix” as shown in the figure 11.20.
Making a solenoid
Material required : Thick drawing sheet, Copper wire (2 meter), 9v - battery or eliminator. switch
and Iron scale.
Structure of Solenoid
Make a cylindrical tube of 15 cm long with a diameter of 1 cm by rolling the thick drawing
sheet. Then made around 100 to 150 coils of copper wire which is wound around this tube (Fig
11.21).
How it works?
Connect the two ends of the coil wires in electric circuit. Bring an Iron scale near the tube
before the switch is off, no force may be felt over the iron scale. Now switch on and then bring the
iron scale near the tube and it is observed that scale is pulled towards the tube and works as a magnet
and this solenoid acts as an electromagnet.
Fig. 11.21 Fig. 11.22

Magnetic field due to a current in a solenoid

The magnetic field pattern of a solenoid is just like, carrying current magnetic field around a ‘bar
magnet’. In solenoid one end behaves as a magnetic north pole, while the other end behaves as south
pole. The field lines inside the solenoid are in parallel straight lines. They are closed loops (Fig. 11.22).
1. Which rule is helpful to identify the magnetic field in straight line conductor ?
2. Define solenoid ?
3. Draw the figure showing the magnetic field direction out of this plane paper upside ?
11.11 Force on a current - carrying conductor in a magnetic field

An electric current carrying conductor produces a magnetic field and this magnetic field exerts
a force on a magnet placed in the vicinity of the conductor. External magnet exerts an equal and
opposite force on the current - carrying conductor, so that the resultant force is perpendicular to the
two magnetic fields. This can be shown by this activity.
Activity
Hang a small Aluminium rod AB of 5 cm from a stand with the help of copper wires connection
as shown in the fig (11.23). The two ends of the wire are connected to an electric circuit.
Externally place a horse shoe magnet perpendicular to the Aluminium rod, where north pole of
the magnet vertically below and south pole vertically above the aluminium rod.
Now pass the current through the
circuit Q to P. The rod is displaced towards
left, which show the perpendicular direction
to both the magnetic fields (Horse shoe
Q
and electrical field). If the direction of the
P
current changes in the circuit, P to Q, the
rod displaces towards right and it shows
perpendicular to Both magnetic fields.
Fig. 11.23
One more observation, keeping an electric circuit in constant position. The charge in the direction
of horse shoes magnet, which exerts force to change in the direction of Aluminium rod from right to
left.
The resultant Force (F) on Aluminium rod is due to the effect of Horse shoe magnetic field (B)
and the direction of electric current (i). This can be understood by Fleming left hand rule.
Fleming left hand rule

Stretch the thumb, fore finger and middle
finger of your left hand such that they are naturally
perpendicular to each other as shown in the fig.
11.24. The fore finger shows direction of
magnetic field (B), the middle finger shows the
direction of current (i) and thumb shows the
direction of resultant force (F).
Fig. 11.24
Hence it is helpful to understand the functioning of electric motor.
Electric motor
Electric motor is a device which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. It is used in
many house appliances like, electric fans, refrigerators, mixers, washing machine, computer etc. It
works on the basis of Fleming left hand rule.
Structure of Motor
An electric motor is shown in
the fig(11.25). It consists of a
rectangular coil ABCD of insulated
copper wire, which is called
“Armeture”. This coil is placed
between the two poles of magnetic
field (N-S). The Armeture can be
rotated with the help of shaft or axile.
Fig. 11.25
The two ends of the Armeture connects with copper wire to two half rings (P and Q). When
shaft rotates, the Armeture rotates along with two half rings, which are also rotated (called commutators).
On outerside of commutators two carbon brushes are touching the two half rings and are connected
with the electric circuit.
Functioning
Current in the coil ABCD enters from the battery through conducting brush X and flows back
to the battery through brush Y. Hence the current in Arm AB of the coil flows from A to B. In the
arm CD it flows from C to D opposite to the direction of current flow through arm AB.
Based on the Flemings left hand rule, the force acting on arm AB pushes it downwards at the
same time the arm CD pushes upward, thus the coil and axile “O” rotates in anticlock wise direction.
For half rotation, ‘Q’ makes (half ring) contact with the brush X and P with brush Y. Then the
current in the coil gets reversed along the path DCBA and hence, the direction of forces acting on
two arms AB and CD. The arm AB pushes upwards and arm CD pushes donward.
Thus two equal and unlike forces act on the coil due to reversing of the current and forms torque
on the coil. With this repeated frequency half rotations give rise to a continuous rotations of the coil
or the axle.
When reverse the direction of flow of current through a circuit it is called ‘commutation’ and
the split rings are act as ‘commutators’.
Torque
“Torque” is a cause of rotation of coil in motor. The opening of cap of the bottle is an example
where two equal and opposite force acts on the cap. Two forces equal in magnitude but opposite in
direction must act on the either side of cap of the bottle, brings the cap into rotation. Similarly rectangular
coil comes into rotation in magnetic field force.
Torque : Two equal unlike parallel forces acting on a body is called
“Torque”. Due to torque the body gets rotation(fig. 11.26).
Fig. 11.26
1. State Flaming left hand rule?
2. Name the parts of electric motor?
3. Mention the words in FBI?
11.12 Electromagnetic Induction

Electromagnetic induction was first
studied by English Physicist Michael Faraday
(1831). Based on electromagnetic induction
electric generators are working.
Fig. 11.27
Electromagnetic Induction
Connect the terminal of a coil A and B to a galvanometer as shown in the figure.
1. Take a strong bar magnet and move its north pole towards the end ‘B’ of the coil. Then the
galvanometer deflects towards right side. This indicates the presence of a current in the coil AB.
The deflection becomes zero when the motion of the magnet stops.
2. Now magnet is move away from the “B” end of the coil. Then the galvanometer deflection
towards left side. This shows the current is now set up in the direction opposite to the first.
3. Place the magnet stationary or at rest, at a point near the coil, end ‘B’. Now move the coil
towards north pole of the magnet. The deflection in galvanometer is towards the right. Similarly
the needle moves toward left when the coil is moved away from north pole.
When the coil is kept stationary with respect to the magnet , the deflection of the galvanometer
drops to zero. Says that there is no current flow in coil.
Note : A galvanometer is an instrument that can detect the presence of current in a circuit.
“Whenever there is a continuous change of magnetic flux linked with a closed coil, a current is
generated in the coil” this is one form of Faradays law. This phenomenon of forming induced current
into coil is called “electromagnetic induction”.
The induced current formed is to be the highest when the direction of motion of the coil is at
right angles to the magnetic field. This can be known by the “Fleming’s right-hand rule”.
Fleming’s right hand rule
F
Stretch the thumb, fore finger and middle finger of right hand so B out of
paper
that they are perpendicular to each other as shown in the figure(11.28).
The fore finger indicates the direction of magnetic field and thumb
shows the direction of motion of conductor (Force), then the middle i
finger shows the direction of induced current.

Fig. 11.28
The induced current is produced by the generator. Then function of generator can be understood
by Fleming right hand rule.
Electric Generator
Electric generator is a device which
converts Mechanical energy into electrical energy.
It is used in producing electricity in power stations
used in home appliance. split rings
Fig. 11.29
Structure of Generator carbon brush
Generator is shown in the figure (11.29). It consists of a rectangular coil of insulated copper
wire, which is called as Armeture. The coil is placed between the two poles of magnetic field(N-S).
The end of the coil is connected to two slip rings insulated inside. The Armeture and the split rings
are connected to shaft or axle. Two carbon brushes are arranged in such a way that they press the
split rings to obtain the current from the coil.
Functioning
AC (Alternating current Generator)
1. Initially positioned the coil in such away that magnetic flux passes through it. Here, the coil is
rest in vertical position, with side (A) of coil at top position and side (B) at bottom position.
No current will be induced in it. Thus current in coil is zero.
2. When the coil is rotated in clockwise direction and if it comes to horizontal position then current
will be induced in it and it flows from A to B. The current increases from zero to a maximum
and reaches peak value.
3. On rotation when the arm A comes to downward and arm ‘B’ comes upward in vertical position
then the induced current in the coil is zero.
4. Again if it is clockwise rotation, the coil comes to horizontal position as BA, then the induced
current in the coil is maximum.
5. At last, in one rotation the coil of arm A comes
to up and the arm ‘B’ comes to down as in first
position, vertically. Thus the induced current is
zero.
The current obtained by this process changes
its direction alternatively for each half cycle as shown
in the fig. (graph) (11.30)
Fig. 11.30
D.C Generator
(Direct current Generator)
The structure of D.C generator is as same as A.C.
generator. Instead of two split rings (in AC generator), one
B
split ring is used in D.C generator and attached to the ends A split rings
of the armeture. The split rings are called commutator which carbon
are arranged opposite to each other. The carbon brushes brush
are touching the commutator in producing induced
current. (Fig. 11.31) Fig. 11.31
Functioning
When the coil is in the vertical position,
the induced current generated during the first half
rotation current rises from zero to maximum and
then falls to zero again.
In second half rotation, the current is
reversed in the coil itself, the current generated
in the coil is identical with the first half of rotation.
So it is called direct current (D.C) and is shown
in figure (graph) (11.32). Fig. 11.32
1. A.C generator (Alternating current generator) : This produces current that flows in such a manner
that its direction and amplitude changes constantly with time (Fig. 11.30)
2. D.C generator (Direct current generator) : This generator produces current that flows in the
same direction in a continuous manner.(Fig. 11.32)
Deformation of AC and DC currents?
1. AC is transmitted from electricity generation centers to houses and to industries. Using step up
transformer and step down transformer, both cost of transmission as well as wastage of energy
is minimized. Transformer cannot be used for DC.
2. Devices like electric motors that work on AC are stronger than those of D.C;
DC is generally used in electrolysis, charging the cells, making electromagnets, etc.
3. DC of same voltage as AC is more dangerous. Thus people come into contact with DC accidentally
get struck to it. While when come in contact with AC due to change in direction of flow of
current they are flung a far.
4. Major portion of AC flows through the upper portion of a wire. Thus where a thick wire has
to be installed, several thin wires are coiled together to form a thick wire which will not the case
with D.C.
1. When electric current passed in solenoid. How the resultant magnetice field pattern are formed?
2. Define commutator ?
3. Write any two differences between bar magnet and electro magnet ?
Key words :
Positive charge, negative charge, neutralisation, earthning. Electric circuit, ampere, potential difference,
columb, resistance, specific resistance, conductance, series, parallel. Joule law. Fuse, electric power,
killo - watt - hour (unit)
Magnetic field, magnetic compass, magnetic lines of force, direction of current, right hand thumb
rule, solenoid, bar magnet, Fleming left hand rule, electric motor, torque, magnetic induction, electromagnetic.
Fleming right hand rule, electric generators, Alternating current (AC), Direct Current (D.C)
Summary
Some objects can be charged by rubbing with other object is said to be satic electricity
(static charge)
Like charge repel and unlike charges attract each other.
Thunders, lightnings and thunderbolts show the transformation of charges from cloud to cloud
and cloud to earth.
Electric current is expressed as the amount of charge flowing through particular cross section
q
area in unit time : i = .
t
Electric potential difference between points in an electric circuit is the work done to move
a unit of positive charge from one point to another.
Ammeter is used to measure the flow of current in a circuit and the voltmeter is used to
measure the potential difference between points in electric circuit.
Ohms law is valid for metal conductors at constant temperature.
The resistance of wire depends on the material of the wire, its length and area of cross
l
section, R v .
A
In electric circuit ammeter connects in series, whereas voltmeter connects in parallel.
H = i2 Rt, shows Joules law.
Electric power is the product of potential difference and the current. SI unit of power is watt.
Electrical energy is the product of power and time. Units of electrical energy W-S and KWH.
Magnetic (field) lines of force has both direction and magnitude.
A current carrying conductor produces magnetic field.
Right - hand thumb rule is a convenient way to determine the direction of magnetic field
associated with current carrying conductors.
Solenoid works as electromagnet.
In electric motor, electrical energy is converted into mechanical energy.
In generators, mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy.
Termination Questions
1. How many types of electric charges are there and what are they?
2. Define the terms thunder, lightning and thunder bolt? How can we protect a building from thunder
bolt?
3. Mention the quantities measuring as V.A; CS1.
4. 20 C of charge transmission from one terminal to another terminal of a battery and the work
done between these two terminals is 250 J. Find the potential differences between two terminals
of the battery.
5. Draw the circuit symbols of (a) cell (b) battery (c) resistance (d) volt-meter.
6. Suppose you have 2 resistors as 3:, and 6:. How many resistors can you obtain in combination
of these two.
7. Why do we use fuses in household circuit?
8. Deduce the expression for the equivalent resistance of three resistors connected in series.
9. Deduce the expression for the equivalent resistance of the resistors connected in parallel.
10. Silver is better conductor of electricity than copper. Why do we use copper wire for conduction
of electricity.
11. Two bulbs have rating 100w, 220v and 60w, 220v which one has the great resistance?
12. Are the head lights of a car connected in series of parallel? Why?
13. State ohms law suggest an experiment to verify it and explain the procedure.
14. Draw the rough sketch (graph diagram) showing the relation between potential difference (V)
and to electric current (i) of a wire. Write a comment on shape of this graph.
15. Draw a circuit diagram for a circuit in which two resistance A and B are connected in series
with a battery and a volt-meter connected to measure potential difference across the resistor A?
16. A house has 4 bulbs, two fans and a television. Each bulb draws 40 w. The fan and Televison
draw 60w. on the average all the lights are kept on for five hours. two fans for 10 hours and
television for five hours everyday. Find the cost of electric energy used in 30 days at he rate
of Rs.300 per KWH?
17. When 9v is the potential difference across a conductor the current in the conductor is 0.3A.
what is the resistance of the conductor?
18. A 15: resistor is connected to 6v battery. How much is the current flowing in the resistor?
19. Three resistors of 2 ohm, 4 ohm, and 9 ohm are connected in parallel to a 9 V battery what
is the equivalent resistance of the circuit? Draw a circuit diagram of the circuit ? What is the
current in each resistor?
20. Calculate the electrical power of resistance 20 ohm that runs at 0.5A of current?
Fill in the blanks.
1. ____________ particle is not having any charge
2. In a circuit the flow of current can be measured by the instrument is ____________
3. The product of volt and ampere shows ____________
4. A common house hold electric unit means ____________
5. The materials which offers resistance to the motion of electron is called ____________
l
6. In R = U where ‘U’ is ____________
A
7. In an electric circuit the volt-meter connects as in ____________
8. The product of power and time is ____________
Multiple Choices Questions
1. JC1 is the unit of ............. ( )
(a) watt (b) volt (c) ampere (d) ohm
2. The electric insulation of the following is ( )
(a) copper (b) nicrome (c) iron (d) mica
3. Specific resistance depends on ( )
1. Temperature 2. Length
3. Nature of material 4. Thickness.
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 3 (d) 2 and 4
4. A uniform of wire of resistance 50:is cut into five equal parts. These equal parts
are now connected in parallel. The equivalent resistance of the combination is ( )
a) 2: b) 10: c) 250: d) 6250:
5. Consider the following statements ( )
(A) In series, connection the same current flows through each element.
(B) In parallel, connection the same potential difference gets applied across each element.
(a) both A and B are correct (b) A is corrected but B is wrong
(c) A is wrong but B is correct (d) both A and B are wrong
6. Three resistor of values 2:, 4:, 6:, are connected in parallel the equivalent
resistance of combination of resistors is ....... ( )
(a) 12: (b) greater than 12 : (c) 2: (d) less than 2:
7. Unit of electric current is ....... ( )
(a) A (b) V (c) J (d) C
8. An unknown circuit draws a current of 2A from a 12V battery its equivalent
resistance is ....... ( )
(a) 24: (b) 6 : (c) 48 : (d) 12 :
Electromagnetism
1. How can you say the magnetic lines of force are closed? Explain.
2. The magnetic lines of force are shown in the figure.
Name of the pole out of the page?
3. Explain the working of electric motor with neat diagram?
4. State the Faraday’s law of induction?
5. Explain the activity that current carrying wire produces magnetic field?
6. Define solenoid? Explain how it functions as electromagnet?
7. Draw a neat diagram of an AC generator and Explain its function?
8. Draw a neat diagram of DC generator and explain its function?
9. Explain Faraday’s law of induction with the help of activity?
10. Explain the words F, B and I. How can you identify these in Fleming left hand rule.
11. Define Torque? Give one example of this?
12. Write the difference between Alternating current and Direct current.
13. Explain the Oersted experiment?
Fill in the blanks
1. The rectangular coil in motor is called .......................
2. In current carrying wire the direction of magnetic field can be detect by ...............
3. The direction of thumb, in Fleming left hand rule is .................

4. Solenoid means .............
5. The magnetic field lines in solenoid is as ............
6. .......... called “commutator”
7. The direction of middle finger in Fleming right hand rule is ...............
8. .......... works on magnetisation of an electric current.
Multiple Choices Questions
1. Which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy ( )
(a) Motor (b) Generator (c) Ammeter (d) Voltameter
2. Which converts Mechanical energy into electrical energy ( )
(a) Ammeter (b) Voltameter (c) Motor (d) Generator
3. In current carrying wire the direction of magnetic field can be shown by ( )
(a) Fleming right hand rule (b)Fleming left hand rule
(c) Right hand thumb rule (d) Left hand thumb rule
4. The induced electric current or induced emf proposed by ( )
(a) Oersted (b) Faraday (c) Lenz (d) Fleming
5. Which of the following is not belongs to electromagnet. ( )
(a) We can change the poles (b) It is strong
(c) They are peramanent magnets (d) Intensity of field can be change
6. Which of the following instrument works on Electromagnet induction? ( )
(a) Electrical lamp (b) Electrical immersion
(c) Electrical heater (d) Electrical Generator
7. The Fuse wire in common house appliances is .............. ampere ( )
(a) 1 (b) 5 (c) 15 (d) 25
8. The current - carrying wire produces magnetic field was proved by ( )
(a) Oersted (b) Faraday (c) Lenz (d) Fleming
Answer to Intext Questions

11.1
1. A plastic comb is move through dry hair for few times, and bring the comb near small pieces
of paper the transfer of charges taken place and the bits of paper attracts by the comb.
In this activity the observation are
1. The comb attracts the pieces of paper (Unlike charges attracts)
2. The plastic comb acquires a small charge, temporarily at a limited place (static electricity)
3. The plastic comb is a poor conductor of electricity, charges should not occur on entire
material (comb).
4. When we brought the comb near to bits of paper, the air in between them is a poor conductor
of electricity, even though the transfer of charges taken place. When they reach (charges) the
earth becomes neutral.
11.2
1. Lightning reaches first, the sound of thunder reaches us ;atter.
11.3
+ + + +
1. Battery cell
11.4
Ammeter Volt meter
1. The symbol of ammeter is A The symbol of volta meter is V
2. In a circuit it connects in series it connects in parallel.
3. It can detect the flow of current It can detect the potential difference
in a circuit in any two points in a circuit.
q
2. The SI unit of electric current is I =
t
Ampere (A) = columbs/sec = CS 1
W
The SI unit of potential difference is V =
q
Joule
Volt (V) = work/charge = = JC1
Columbs
11.5
1. Conductor : The free flow of electrons/charges taken place through a conductor in an electric
circuit. Ex : copper, iron, platinum, like all metals.
Resistance: The motion of electrons obstructed by inside ions in a conductor. In electric circuit,
where it gets heat and given light. The metals.
2.
Resistance Specific resistance
1. It depends on nature of material, It depends on nature of the material
temperature, length and thickness and temperature.
of the conduction.
2. The SI units is Volt/Ampere (V/A) The SI unit is ohm meter.

11.6
1. The Three resistance 3:, 6:, and 9: are connected in series.
The resistance is R S = R1 + R2 + R3
= 3 + 6 + 9 = 18:
2. The three resistors 3:, 6:, and 9: are connects in parallel.

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
The resistant i.e. = R R R =
Rp 1 2 3 3 6 9
1 2 11
Rp =6 +3 + =
18 18
1 18
+ = 1.6:
Rp 11
3. The Three resistor 3:, 6: and 9: are connects to 12V battery finding of electric current from
each resistance is as.
V 12
3: I= = 4A.
R 3
V 1
6: I= = 2A
R 6
V 12
9: I= = 1.3 A
R 9
11.7
1. Resistance of electric heater R = 10:
Flow of electric current I = 2A
Time periods t = 200 sec
Resistor Heat H = ?
H = i2 Rt
= 2.2 10.200
= 4.10.200
= 8000 J
2. The formula H = i 2 Rt where
H = Heat (roules)
i = Flow of electric current through resistance (A)
R = Value of resistance (ohms)
t = Time period (sec)
11.8
1. The power of bulb = P = 60 W
Potential difference V = 120V
V2
P=
R
V2 120 u 120
R= = = 240:
P 60
Resistance connected to 12 V battery then
12 u 12 6
Power P = = = 0.6 W
240 10
2. 1 killow watt hour = 1 killo - watt - hour

= 1000 - J/S - 60 u 60 sec.
= 1000 J. 3600
= 36 u 105 J (or) 3.6 u 106 J
3. Metal, tungsten is used as filament in the bulbs why because it has high specific resistance, and
has heigh melting point (3422 oC).
11.9
1. To detect the magnetic field in current - carrying conductor.
2. Try to draw the figure
3. 1. The magnetic field lines shows the direction from North pole to South pole and to mid
point, they are South to North pole.
2. They are three dimensional
3. They are closed loops
4. They never intersects each other.
5. The thickness of the field lines shows strength of the magnetic force.
11.10
1. Right hand thumb rule.
2. A solenoid is a long wire wouned in a close packed helix.
3.
11.11
1. Fleming left hand rule : According to the rule, stretch the thumb, fore finger and middle finger
of your left hand such that they are mutually pendicular to each other. The fore finger shows the
direction of magnetic field, the middle finger shows the direction of current, then the thumb
shows the direction motion or force acts on a conductor.
2. The parts of electric motor are Armeture [Rectangular coil], commutaters (Semi circular rings),
Carbon brushes, shaft, permanent magnets, battery, key.
3. F : Direction of resultant force
B : Direction of magnetic field force.
I : Direction of flow of current.
11.12
1. To looks like magnetic field lines of a bar magnet.
2. Semi circular rings (in DC motor, DC generator)
3. Difference between Bar magnetic are electromagnet.
Bar magnet Electromagnet
1. This is a permanent magnet 1. This is temporary magnet.

2. Its magnetic strength can not 2. Its magnetic strength may be changed by
be reduced or increased. changing the amount of current flow.
3. This is a weak magnet. 3. This is a strong magnet.
4. The poles do not change 4. By mere change in the direction of flow
electric current the poles may be altered.
Fill in the Blanks
1. neutron 2. Ammeter 3. power

4. KWH 5. resistor 6. specific resistance
7. parallel
8. Electrical energy or KWH
1. Armeture 2. right hand thumbrule 3. resultant force
4. a long wine wound in a closed packed helix
5. Bar magnet 6. splitring
7. 15 8. Electromagnet
1. b 2. d 3. c 4. b 5. a
6. d 7. a 8. b

1. Refer 11.1
2. Refer 11.1
3. Refer 11.3
4. Refer 11.5
5. Refer Fig. 11.14
6. Refer 11.6, 11.7
8. Refer 11.8
9. Refer 11.6
10. Refer 11.6
11. Refer 11.4, Table 3
12. Refer 11.8
13. Refer 11.6
14. Refer 11.6
15. Refer 11.6
16. Refer 11.8
17. Refer 11.8
18. Refer 11.6
19. Refer 11.6
20. Refer 11.8
22. Refer 11.8

1. Analyse the current bill, in view of KWH.
2. Analyse any home appliance in view of concepts of electricity (Resistance, Power etc.)
12
Chemistry of Carbon Compounds
In long form of periodic table more than 75% elements are metals, very few are metalloids and
few are non metals. Among non metals carbon is one of the most important non metal. Carbon is the
sixth most abundant element in the Universe. It can exist in the free state or in the form of its compounds.
It is the major chemical constituent of most organic materials. Carbon is the second most common
element in the human body after oxygen. It is present in coal, petroleum and natural gas. It also occurs
in a number of minerals. You might have seen that when kerosene oil lamp burns it produces black
soot which contains carbon particles. When wood, paper like material are burnt, a black residue is
left which contains carbon.
Carbon atoms can form compounds by combining with other carbon atoms as well as atoms
of other elements. The compounds of carbon have variety of structures, properties and uses in our
daily life. You will study about some such compounds like ethanol (ethyl alcohol) ethanoic acid (acetic
acid) etc. in this lesson. Moreover various allotropic forms of carbon and versatile nature of carbon,
hydrocarbons and their various aspects will be covered in this lesson.
Objectives
identify various sources of carbon compounds.
apprecite the existence of large number of carbon compounds.
various allotropes of carbon and compare their properties.
recognise “catenation” as the unique property of carbon.

classify the hydrocarbons into saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons.
describe various homologous series and identify various homologues.
recognise different functional groups present in common organic compounds.
naming the carbon compounds.
appreciate the naming system IUPAC.
describe the methods of preparation, properties and uses of carbon compounds like ethanol,
ethanoic acid, soap etc...
12.1 Sources of carbon compounds

Carbon is abundant in the universe. i.e. in stars like sun, planets and atmosphere of our earth.
It is present in the form of its compounds in all living organisms, for example carbohydrates, proteins,
fats etc. It is also a major constituent of fossil fuels, like coal, petroleum and natural gas etc. it is also
present in minerals like limestone, dolomite, marble etc.. When it is combined with oxygen it produces,
oxides like carbondioxide and carbonmonoxide. The major sources for carbon compounds is petroleum
and natural gas.
Versatile nature of carbon

In our daily life the things which are used by us are the compounds of carbon. The number of
carbon compounds whose formulae are recently known to us estimated to be about three millions. The
unique nature of carbon atom is responsible for the existence of large number of organic compounds.
The following reasons explain the unique nature of carbon atom.
1. Tetravalency : Atomic number of carbon is 6 and it belongs to IV-A group in long form of
periodic table. Its electronic configuration is 1s22s22p2. To attain octet configuration like neon
(10Ne) four more electrons are needed. So, it is tetravalent and can form four covalent bonds.
2. Catenation : Carbon has the unique property of combining with other carbon atoms
(C-C) to form long straight chains, branched chains and rings of different sizes. This property
is called catenation. Consequently, endless number of compounds are possible, just with carbon
and hydrogen alone.
Ex : CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3 Pentane
(Straight chain of five carbon atoms)
Chemistry of Carbon Compounds 233
CH3 CH CH2 CH2 CH3

|
CH3
Iso pentane (Branched chain of five carbon atoms)
H C C H
H C C H
H
Benzene (Ring of six carbon atoms)
3. Isomerism : Another reason for the abundance of organic compounds is the phenomenon of
isomerism.
“Isomerism is the phenomenon by which compounds have the same molecular formula but different
structural formulae”.
The compounds having the same molecular formula, but different structural formulae are called
isomers.
They have different physical and chemical properties due to the difference in the arrangement
of atoms in their molecules. They are called structural isomers.
For Example :
(i) Butane (C4 H10) can have two structures as follows.
CH3 CH2 CH2 CH3 (normal butane) (n-Butane)
CH3 CH CH3 (iso butane)

|
CH3
The molecular formula C 2H6O represents two different compounds, one is ethyl alcohol
(C2H5OH) and another di methyl ether (CH3O CH3). The structures of these two compounds
are as follows.
CH3 CH2 OH CH3 O CH3
ethyl alcohol (ethanol) dimethyl ether (Methoxy methane).
Due to different functional groups, the two compounds show different chemical properties.
Thus isomerism gives us a large number of compounds with the same molecular formula.
4. Formation of multiple bonds : Due to four valency, carbon can form four covalent bonds.
Carbon atoms can form C C single bonds, at the same time they can form double bonds
(C = C) and triple bonds (C { C) with each other as with other atoms like oxygen and nitrogen.
This leads to formation of a variety of structures.
For example, ethane has carbon-carbon single bond (H 3C CH3), In ethene carbon-carbon
double bond (H2C = CH2) and in ethyne carbon-carbon triple bond (HC { CH) is present.
5. Strength of bonds:
Due to small size, its electronegativity is more than those of metals and less than those of
nonmetals. It can form strong covalent bonds with not only carbon atoms but also with hydrogen,
oxygen and nitrogen. Moreover it can form bonds with metals also.
Example: Haemoglobin, Chlorophyll.
Intext Question (12.1)

1. What is the valency of carbon? How many bonds can it form?
2. What is nature of bonds formed by carbon?
3. What are the main sources of carbon compounds?
12.2 Allotropes of carbon
The property of an element to exist in two or more physical forms having more or less similar
chemical properties but different physical properties is called allotropy. The different forms of the
element are called allotropes. Allotropes form due to difference in the arrangement of atoms in the
molecules.
Carbon exhibits many allotropic forms, both crystalline as well as amorphous. Diamond and
graphite are well known crystalline forms of carbon. Coal, coke, wood charcoal, animal charcoal,
lamp black, gas carbon, petroleum coke, sugar charcoal are the amorphous allotropes. In 1985, the
third form of carbon known as “fullerene” was discovered by H.W Kroto, E. Smalley and RF.Curl.
For this discovery they were awarded nobel prize in 1996.
Diamond : It has a crystalline lattice. In

diamond each carbon atom undergoes sp3-
hybridization and linked to four other carbon
atoms by using hybridized orbitals in
tetrahedral fashion. The C C bond length
in 154 pm.
Fig. 12.1 Structure of diamond

The density of diamond is high [3.51 gm.cm3], and hence the melting point is also very high
i.e., 3500oC. All the four electrons of carbon in diamond covalently bonded. Hence, it does not
conduct electricity. But it is a good conductor of heat.
Because of the above mentioned properties, diamond has the following uses:
(i) It is used in cutting and grinding of other hard materials.
(ii) It is used for cutting of glass and drilling of rocks.
(iii) It is used in Jewellary. The high refractive index of diamond. (2.42) makes it very bright; when
it is properly cut and polished. 142.6 pm
Graphite:
Graphite has layered structure. The layers
are separated by the distance 340 pm. Each
layer is composed of planar hexagonal rings of
carbon atoms. C C bond length with in the
layer is 142.6 pm each carbon atom in hexagonal
ring undergoes sp2-hybridization and makes three
sigma bonds with three neighbouring carbon
atoms. The fourth electron forms a S-bond and
delocalised. Hence electrons are mobile and
carries charge. Therefore it conducts electricity.
Fig. 12.2 Structure of graphite
The density of graphite is less than that of diamond (2.2 gm.cm3). In vacuum its melting point
is about 3700 oC. It can be converted to diamond by applying very high pressure and temperature.
Because of the above properties, graphite has the following uses.

(i) It is used as a dry lubricant for many machines at high temperature and where oil lubricants
cannot be used.
(ii) It is used as electrodes in electric arcs and dry cells.

(iii) It is used for pencil leads.
Fullerenes : Fullerenes are made by heating

of graphite in an electric arc in the presence of
inert gases such as helium or argon. The sooty
material is formed by condensation of vaporised
carbon atoms. Small quantity of C60 and smaller
quantity of C70 and fullereness with 350 carbon
atoms are formed. Fullerenes are cage like
molecules. C60 molecules has a shape like soccer
ball and called Buck minister fullerenes.
Fig. 12.3 Structure of C60
It contains six membered rings - 20 and five membered rings - 12. A six membered ring is fused
with six or five membered rings but a five membered ring can only fuse with six membered rings. All
the carbon atoms are equal and undergo sp2-hybridization. The ball shaped molecule has 60 vertices
and each one is occupied by one carbon and it also contains both sigma and double bond with
CC distances at 143.5 pm and 138.3 pm respectively. Spherical fullereness are also called “Buckyballs”
in short.
Graphene :
Graphene is extracted from graphite. It is entirely composed of carbon atoms. For a
thickness of 1 mm graphite contains 3 million layers of graphene. The carbons are perfectly
distributed in a hexagonal honeycomb formation only in 0.3 nanometers thickness. It conducts
electricity better than copper. It is 200 times stronger than steel but six times lighter. It is
almost perfectly transparent to light.
Fig. 12.4 Sheet of graphene Fig. 12.5 A piece of graphene aerogel. Weighing
only 0.16 mg/cc is placed on a flower

1. Why diamond has higher melting point ?
2. Diamond is an insulator and graphite is a conductor. Give reasons.
12.3 Hydrocarbons
The simplest organic compounds are the hydrocarbons. As the name indicates, they contain
carbon and hydrogen only. Hydrocarbons occur abundantly in nature, mostly in petroleum, natural gas
and coal. These are the parent organic compounds from which other organic compounds are derived
by replacement of one or more hydrogen atoms by other atoms or group of atoms. Thus they form
the basis for the classification and systematic naming of organic compounds.
Representation of organic compounds:

The structural formula of organic compound can be represented in different ways. The structural
formula is the formula showing the arrangement of atoms in a molecule. The simple ways of representing
structural formula of organic compound are-
(a) Electron dot Formula: In this type of representation, the electrons of the valence shell are
shown by dots.
Ex: Methane (CH 4)
H C H
(b) Graphic formula: In this type of representation a straight line representing a shared pair of
electrons is drawn between the atoms as shown below.
Ex: Ethane (C 2H6)
H H
H C C H
H H
(c) Condensed formula: In order to save space, structural formula is written in an abbreviated
form or condensed form. In the representation, the atoms or groups of atoms attached to each
carbon atom in the molecule are written by the side of the carbon atom.
Ex. Propane (C 3H8) CH3 CH2 CH3

1. What are hydrocarbons ?
2. What is the main difference between saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons?
3. Write the condensed formula for hexane (C6H14)
12.4 Homologous series

A large number of organic compounds can be grouped into smaller series called homologous
series.
Homologous series is a series of organic compounds in which each member differs from the
preceding or succeding member by methylene group i.e. ‘CH2’.
Homologous series of alkanes :

Alkanes, the saturated hydrocarbons have the general formula CnH2n+2, where “n” is an integer,
by putting n = 1, 2, 3, ... we will have the members of this group.
Table 12.1
Name Molecular formula Name Molecular formula

Methane CH4 Hexane C6H14
Ethane C 2H 6 Heptane C7H16
Propane C 3H 8 Octane C8H18
Butane C4H10 Nonane C9H20
Pentane C5H12 Decane C10H22
In the above series the difference between any two successive compounds is CH2. The members
of the series are called homologues and this phenomenon is called “homology”.
Characteristics of homologous series :
(i) All members of a homologous series can be represented by the simple general formula.
(ii) Each member of the homologous series differs from the next member by ‘ CH2’ group.
(iii) Each member of the homologous series differs from the next member by 14 amu.
(iv) Due to change in the molecular mass, the physical properties of the homologue differ appreciably
from other homologue. They possess similar chemecial properties.

1. What is the difference between the two successive homologues of a homologous series ?
2. One of the homologues is C6H12 What would be the formula of the preceding and following
homologues?
12.5 Nomenclature of organic compounds

In the early days organic compounds were named on the basis of the source from which the
compounds were obtained or on the basis of some of their properties. Such names are called“Trivial
names” or “common names”. Although they are not systematic, they are usually similar and commonly
used even today.
Table - 12.2 Some trivial or common names of organic compounds and their origin.
S.No Compound Common name Source
1 CH4 Methane Marshes

(marsh gas)
2 CH3COOH Acetic acid Grapes
3 C 6H 8O 7 Citric acid Citrus fruits
4 C 3H 6O 3 Lactic acid Sour milk or curd
5 C 4H 8O 2 Butyric acid Rancid butter
6 HCOOH Formic acid Red ants
7 C 2H 2O 4 Oxalic acid Oxalis plant
In the end of the nineteenth century, the number of known organic compounds became very
large. So it became necessary to have systematic scheme for naming organic compounds. The systematic
method of naming the organic compounds is developed by IUPAC, (International Union of Pure and
Applied Chemistry).
According to the IUPAC system, the name of an organic compound, in general, constitute of
the three parts.
(i) Root Word
(ii) Suffix
(iii) Prefix
Thus the name of an organic compound = prefix + root word + suffix.
(i) Root Word : It is the basic unit of the name which represents the number of carbon atoms
present in the parent chain of the molecule. Parent chain of the molecule is the largest possible
chain of carbon atoms. For parent chains upto four carbon atoms, the trivial word roots are
used. While for remaining, Greek number roots are used as shown in the table.
Table - 12.3 Number of carbon atoms and root words.

No. of Carbon atoms Root Word
1 Meth
2 Eth
3 Prop
4 But
5 Pent
6 Hex
7 Hept
8 Oct
9 Non
10 Dec
(ii) Suffix: The suffix comes after the root word and it is of two kinds.
(a) Primary suffix : It denotes the nature of C C bond.
Table - 12.4 Nature of C C bond and suffix.
Nature of C - C bond Suffix Name of the
homologous series
C - C (single bond) ane alkane
C = C (double bond) ene alkene
C { C (Triple bond) yne alkyne
(b) Secondary suffix : It is used for compounds other than hydrocarbons and denotes the nature
of the functional group.
The characteristic properties of an organic compound depend mainly on an atom or group of
atoms in its molecule known as the functional group. Functional groups are responsible for the
behaviour of the organic compounds. Compounds containing the same functional group undergo
similar type of reactions.
(i) Halo hydrocarbons : Compounds contains C, H, X, where ‘X’ represents halogen like
Cl, Br, I etc.
Ex : CH3Cl, CH3CH2Br
These are known as halogen derivatives of hydrocarbons or halo hydrocarbons and denoted
by R-X, where ‘R’ is alkyl group.
(ii) Alcohols: The hydrocarbons which contains OH group are called alcohols or hydroxy
compounds.
Ex. CH3OH, CH3CH2OH
The hydrocarbons which contain ‘OH’ group can be denote by ROH, where ‘R’ is Alkyl
group
The secondary suffix is ‘ol’
(iii) Aldehydes : The hydrocarbons with functional group CHO are called aldehydes.
Ex. CH3 CHO, HCHO
The General formula of aldehyde is R CHO, where ‘R’ is alkyl group or hydrogene atom.
The secondary suffix is ‘al’
(iv) Ketones: The Hydrocarbons with C O functional group are called Ketones
CH3
Ex: C O
CH3
R
General formula of Ketones is C O , where R and R’ are
R'
alkyl groups which may be same or different. The secondary suffix is “ one”
(v) Carboxylic acids : The hydrocarbons with COOH group is called carboxylic acids and
COOH is called carboxyl functional group.
Ex: CH3COOH, HCOOH.
The general formula is R-COOH where ‘R’ is alkyl group. Secondary suffix is “-oic acid”.
(vi) Ethers: Ethers are carbon compounds related to H 2O in such a way that both hydrogen
atoms are replaced by two alkyl groups which may be same or different.
Ex: CH3 O CH3, CH3 O C2H5
General formula of ether is R O R’, Where ‘R’ and ‘R’’ are alkyl groups which may
be same or different
(vii) Esters: These compounds are derivatives of carboxylic acids. If the hydrogen atom of
COOH gets replaced by ‘R’ the alkyl group, esters (COOR) are obtained. The secondary
suffix is ‘-oate’.
Ex. CH3COOCH3, CH3COOC 2H5

The general formula of esters is COOR, where ‘R’ is alkyl group.
(viii) Amines: If the hydrogen atom is replaced from NH3 by an alkyl group are called amines.
-NH2 group is called amine group and is denoted by R NH2, where ‘R’ is alkyl group.
Ex. CH3NH2, C2H5NH2
(iii) Prefix: The prefix comes before the ‘root word’ and denotes the branched chains which are
considered as substituents. The numbering of the parent chain in the hydrocarbon is done in such
a manner that the branched chains in the hydrocarbon gets lowest number.
The different functional groups, their suffixes and prefixes are given in the table 12.5.
Table - 12.5 Some functional groups and classes of organic compounds.
Class of Functional IUPAC IUPAC Example
Compounds Group Group group
structure prefix suffix
Alkanes - ane CH3 CH2 CH2 CH3
(Butane)
Alkenes C = C - ene CH2 = CH CH2 CH3
(But-1-ene)
Alkynes C{ C - yne HC { C CH2 CH3
(But-1-yne)
Halides X halo CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2Br
(1 - Bromobutane)
Alcohols OH hydroxy ol CH3 CH2 CHOH CH3
(Butan-2-ol)
Aldehydes CHO Formyl(or) al CH3 CH2 CH2 CHO
oxo (Butanal)
Ketone C=O oxo one CH3-CH2-CO-CH3
(Butanone)
Ethers ROR alkoxy CH3 O CH3
(Methoxymethane)
Carboxylic COOH Carboxy oic acid CH3 CH2 CH2 COOH
acids (Butanoic acid)
Ester COOR alkoxy oate CH3 CH2 COOCH3
carbonyl (Methyl propanoate)
Amines NH2 Amino Amine CH3 CH NH2 CH2 CH3
(Butan-2-amine)
IUPAC nomenclature of Hydrocarbons

Naming of carbon compound can be done by the following method.
(i) Identify the number of carbon atoms in the compound.
(ii) If the functional group is present, it is indicated in the name of the compound with either a prefix
or a suffix.
(iii) If a name of the functional group is to give as suffix, the name of the carbon chain is modified
by deleting the final ‘e’ and adding appropriate suffix.
For example a three carbon chain with a carboxylic acid functional group would be named in
the following manner.
Propane e = propan + oic acid = Propanoic acid.
(iv) If the carbon chain is unsaturated, then the final ‘ane’ in the name of the carbon chain is substituted
by ‘ene’ or ‘yne’
For example : a four number carbon chain with a double bond would be called ‘butene’ and
if it has a triple bond, it would be called butyne.
(v) While naming the compound, we can give number to carbon atoms from left to right or from
right to left so that the sum of numbers indicating the positions at substituents and functional
groups should be minimum.
(vi) The functional group carbon should be given the lowest number even if it does not obey rule
(v).
(vii) The carbon atoms of the chain terminating functional group sayCHO or COOH groups
should be given always number ‘1’ even if it does not obey Rule (v) & (vi).
IUPAC rules for naming the carbon compounds (saturated hydrocarbons)
1. Largest chain rule (L.C.R) : Select the largest continuous chain of carbon atom which is
known as parent chain or principal chain. All the other constitute atoms constitute in the chain
are branch chains or side chains.
Ex. (i) CH3 CH2 CH2 CH CH2 CH3
CH3
In the above condensed formula, the largest chain of carbon atoms is six carbon atoms.
Thus the above compound is named as derivative of hexane.
The name of the above compound is “methylhexane”.
2. Lowest number Rule (LNR) : The carbon compound which contains only one substituent
number, the carbon atom in such a way that the carbon atom carrying the substituent get lowest
number.
Ex. 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5
CH3 CH CH2 CH2 CH3 CH3 CH CH2 CH2 CH3
CH3 CH3
(4methylpentane) (incorrect method) (2methylpentane) (correct method)
3. Lowest sum rule: (LSR) : If there are two or more substituents in the carbon compounds
the parent chain is numbered from the end which gives the lowest sum of more substituent
carbon.
Ex. CH3
1 2 3 4 56
CH3 CH CH2 CH2 C CH3
CH3 CH3
(2 + 5 + 5 = 12 incorrect method)
CH3
6 5 4 3 2 1
CH3 CH CH2 CH2 C CH3
CH3 CH3
(2 + 2 + 5 = 9 correct method)
4. Alphabetical order : When two or more different groups are present such groups are arranged
in alphabetical order.
Ex. C2H 5
1 2 3 4 5 6
CH3 CH2 CH CH CH2 CH3
CH3
4-ethyl - 3 - methylhexane (correct method)
C2H 5
1 2 3 4 5 6
CH3 CH2 CH CH CH2 CH3
CH3
3methyl - 4ethylhexane (incorrect method)

1. What is alkyl group?
2. What is the general formula of the following functional groups.
(a) carboxylic acid (b) aldehyde (c) ester
3. Write the suffixes for the following functional groups
(a) alcohol (b) aldehyde (c) ketone (d) ester
12.6 Chemical properties of carbon compounds

Though there are millions of organic compounds, they under go limited reaction. Some of the
9
F chemical reactions are discussed here.
(i) Combustion : Carbon and its compounds burn in presence of oxygen or air to gives carbon dioxide,
heat and light. The process of burning of carbon or carbon compounds in excess of oxygen to
give heat and light is called the combustion reaction.
Ex. CH4 + O2 CO2 + 2H2O + Heat and light.
Generally saturated hydrocarbons burn with a clear light blue flame (Ex: Methane of biogas,
butane of LPG burns with blue flame) Where as unsaturated hydrocarbon burns with yellow
flame with soot (Ex. Polythene, the polymer of ethene (ethylene) burns with yellow flame with
soot). If air is not sufficiently available during combustion, even saturated hydrocarbons give
sooty flame. Most of the aromatic compounds burns with sooty flame.
Combustion reaction is always exothermic, that is energy is liberated during combustion reaction.
(ii) Oxidation reaction : Oxidation reaction carried out using oxidizing agents. Oxidazing agent or
oxidants are substances that oxidize other substances. They themselves undergo reduction.
(iii) Addition reactions: Unsaturated hydrocarbons like alkenes and alkynes undergo addition reaction
to become saturated hydrocarbons (alkanes)
Ex: In presence of nickel as catalyst alkynes undergo addition reaction to give alkenes and
finally alkanes.
HC { CH + H Ni H C = CH + H Ni CH
2 2 2 2 2 6
ethyne (alkyne) ethene(alkene) ethane (alkane)
Hydrogenation of vegetable oils using nickel as catalyst is best example for addition reaction.
In this reaction addition of H 2 to oils becomes fats.
oil + H Ni fat
2
(iv) Substitution reaction : A reaction in which an atom or a group of atoms in a given compound
is replaced by other atom or group of atoms is called a substitution reaction.
Alkanes are paraffins. They are chemically least reactive. They undergo some chemical changes
under suitable conditions which are substitution reactions. For example methane (CH4) reacts
with chlorine in the presence of sunlight. Hydrogen atoms of methane are replaced by chlorine
atoms.
CH + Cl sunlight CH Cl + HCl
4 2 3
methane methyl chloride
CH3Cl + Cl2 sunlight CH2Cl2 + HCl
methylene chloride
CH2Cl2 + Cl2 sunlight CHCl3 + HCl
chloroform
CHCl3 + Cl2 sunlight CCl4 + HCl
carbon tetrachloride.
(v) Polymarization reaction: Unsaturated hydrocarbons like alkenes and alkynes undergo
polymerization to give polymers.
Ex. Ethene gas at high pressure passed over catalyst like HF or H2SO4 at very high temperature
polymerizes to form polyethene (Polythene).
HF/H2SO4
n (H2C = CH2) CH
( 2 CH2)n
ethene polythene

1. When do you get blue flame?
2. What are the products in a combustion reaction?
3. Name the oxidising agent used in oxidation of ethanol to obtain ethanoic acid?
12.7 Some important carbon compounds

Ethyl alcohol (C2H5OH) :
The IUPAC name of ethyl alcohol is ‘ethanol’ and condensed formula is CH 3CH2OH
Preparation:
(i) Fermentation of molasses or starch : Molasses is the dark coloured liquid left after the
crystallization of cane sugar C12H22O11, from concentrated sugar cane juice. It is diluted with
water and then fermented by two enzymes invertase and zymase present in yeast.
C12H22O11 + H2O Invertase C6H12O6 + C6H12O6

sucrose glucose fructose
zymase
C6H12O6 2CH3CH2OH + 2CO 2 n
Hydration of ethene : Ethyl alcohol /ethanol is obtained as a large scale from ethene. At 80 oC and
30 atm pressure ethene is treated with concentrated sulphuric acid. Ethyl hydrogen sulphate is formed
and on hydrolysis by boiling water ethanol is obtained.
CH2 = CH2 + H2SO4 80oC, 30atm CH3 CH2 HSO4

ethene (ethyl hydrogen sulphate)
CH3 CH2 HSO4 + H2O CH3 CH2 OH + H2SO4
ethanol
Physical and chemical properties:
1. Ethanol is a colourless, volatile liquid with a characteristic odour.
2. It is highly soluble in water, as well as in organic solvents.
3. It is an intoxicating beverage and it effects central nervus system, prolonged usage of ethyl alcohol
damages vital organs of the body, and affects the memory.
4. The boiling point is 78.3 oC
5. Reaction with sodium : Ethanol reacts with sodium metal at room temperature and produces
hydrogen gas.
2C2H5OH + 2 Na 2C2H5ONa + H2 n
sodium ethoxide
6. Esterification : The reaction in which a carboxylic acid combines with alcohol to form an ester
is called esterification. This reaction takes place in presence of dehydrating agents like concentrated
sulphuric acid.
conc. H2SO4
C2H2OH + CH3COOH CH3COOC2H5 + H2O
ethanol ethanoic acid ethyl acetate (ester)
Uses :
(i) It is used as an antifreeze in motor cars.
(ii) It is used as a solvent in many industries and pharmaceuticals etc.
(iii) It is used as a beverage in wine, rum, brandy, wisky etc.
(iv) Absolute alcohol (100% pure alcohol) is used to preserve biological specimens.
(v) Alcohol mixed petrol in presence of benzene is used as power alcohol.
(vi) It is used as a germicide.
(vii) It is used in the construction of thermometers and spirit levels etc.
Ethanoic acid (CH3COOH)

The common name of ethanoic acid is acetic acid. It is the most important member among
carboxylic acids. 3-8% of ethanoic acid is called as vinegar, which is often used to preserve pickcle
and preserve food items in fast food centres instead of tamarind juice.
Preperation:
(i) Ethanol is oxidized by oxidizing agents like acidified potassium dichromate and concentrated
sulphuric acid mixture. In this reaction acetaldehyde is formed as an intermediate product and
finally gives acetic Acid.
acidic K2Cr2O7
CH3CH2OH CH3 CHO + H2O
(O)
ethanol acetaldehyde
acidic K2Cr2O7
CH3 CHO CH3 COOH
(O)
Acetic Acid.
Properties:
1. Acetic acid is a colourless with pungent odour.
2. It is soluble in water and solvents like alcohol and ether.
3. It is corrosive and causes blisters on the skin.
4. It has boiling point of 118 oC
5. It reacts with active metals to displace hydrogen gas.
2CH3COOH + 2Na 2CH3 COONa + H 2 n
sodium acetate.
6. It neutralizes with alkalis like NaOH to form salt and water
CH3COOH + NaOH CH3COONa + H2O
7. It decomposes carbonates and bi carbonates to release CO 2 gas with effervescence.
2CH3COOH + Na2CO3 2CH3COONa + CO 2 n + H2O
CH3COOH + NaHCO 3 CH3COONa + CO 2 n + H2O
8. Acetic acid on reduction with strong reducing agents like lithium aluminium hydride (LiAlH4)
forms ethyl alcohol.
LiAlH4
CH3COOH + 4(H) C2H5OH + H2O
Uses:
1. Acetic acid is used as vinegar in food.
2. It is used as laboratory reagent.
3. It is one of the best solvents used in many industries.
4. It is used to manufacture esters, dyes, perfumes, paint pigments etc.
Soaps and Detergents

The substances which are used for cleaning or for removing dirt are known as detergents. Soap
has been used as a detergent for a long time.
Soap : Soap is the sodium or potassium salt of a long chain carboxylic acid. The carboxylic acids
contain chains of 15 to 18 carbon atoms. Glycerol is an alcohol containing three hydroxyl
(OH) groups. Sodium stearate (C17H35COONa), sodium oleate (C17H33COONa) are examples of
soaps.
Preperation:
Soap is prepared from oils and fats. Fats and oils obtained from plants viz, olive oil, palm oil,
caster oil are used for the preparation of soaps. When oils or fats are heated with a solution of sodium
hydroxide, they split up to form sodium salt of the respective fatty acid and glycerol.
Oil / Salt + NaOH Soap + Glycerol
3(C17H35COOH) + 3NaOH 3C17H35COONa + 3(CH 2OH)
Strearic acid Sodium stearate Glycerol
The process of splitting esters like fats and oils using aqueous alkali is called saponification.
The reaction from which soap is made is an example of saponification.
Activity:
(i) Take 20mL of caster oil in beaker. An equal volume of conc. NaOH, solution be added
to it.
(ii) Heat the mixture slowly to boil and keep boiling for about 10 minutes.
(iii) Add 5gr. of sodium chloride to the mixture and allow to cool.
(iv) A crust is formed on the surface of the liquid. The crust is sodium oleate, the soap.
To know the cleaning action of soap, we should know about true solution and colloidal solution.
If the size of the solute particles is about 1 nm, then the solution is considered as true solution and
if the size of the solute particles is in between 1 nm and 1000 nm, it is called colloidal solution.
Soap is an electrolyte. When soap is put in water in very small amount, it gives low concentrated
solution. But at a particular concentration, soap particles get together, this is called critical micelle
concentration. At this concentration soap particles get aggregated and these agrregated particles are
called micelle.
Cleansing action of soap
When a dirty cloth is inserted in the solution then the hydrocarbon part sticks to the dirt or oil
with a little agitation. The dirt particles get entrapped by the soap micelles and get dispersed in water
due to which the soap water gets dirty and the cloth gets cleaned.
Soap has two ends viz polar end (hydrophilic) and non polar end (hydrophobic) as shown in
the Fig. 12.6.
Hydrophobic Hydrophilic
end end
Fig. 12.6 Soap molecule
The polar end is attracted towards water and the

Soap molecules
non polar end attracted towards dirt (oil/grease) but not
attracted towards water. When soap is dissolved in water, Soap solution
cloth
its hydrophobic ends attach themselves to dirt and remove Dirt
it from the cloth as shown sequentially in the figure that follows.
The hydrophobic end of the soap molecules move

towards the dirt particle. The hydrophobic ends attached to
the dirt particle try to pullout. The molecules of soap surround
the dirt particle at the centre of the cluster and form a spherical
structure called micelle. These micelle remain suspended in
dirt with micelle
water like particles in a colloidal solution. The dirt particles
clean cloth
trapped in micelle and are rinsed away with water.
Fig. 12.7 The Cleaning action of soap
Detergents :
Soap does not work well with hard water. With soft water soap forms lather easily. When soap
is used with hard water due to presence of salts of calcium and magnesium, they reduce the formation
of lather. Because, the ion of calcium and magnesium present in the hard water react with the long
chain carboxylic acid group present in soap to form insoluble precipitate. This reduces the efficiency
of soap. To over come this problem detergents are used.
Detergent is not soap based. It has a structure similar to that of soap. The detergent has a long
hydrophobic tail and a short hydrophilic head. The hydrophilic head is usually a sulphate (SO4Na)
or sulfonate (SO3Na) group. When mixed with water form micelle. This micelles help in removing
dirt just like a soap.
Preparation of detergent:
Detergent is made from hydrocarbons obtained from coal or petroleum. These hydrocarbons
are treated with conc H 2SO4, long-chain of benzene sulphonic acid or long chain alkyl hydrogen
sulphate obtained. Addition of sodium hydroxide gives the sodium salt of alkyl benzene sulphonic acid,
which is a detergent.
Properties:
Synthetic detergents do not react with the ions present in the hard water. So, they can produce
more lather even in hard water than the soaps. More over detergents dissolve faster than soaps in
water. That is why detergents replaced soaps in the cleaning of clothes.
Advantages of detergents:
(i) Detergents work well even with hard water but soaps do not.
(ii) They may be used in sea water and acidic water also
(iii) They dissolve faster in water than soap
(iv) Detergents do not form insoluble salts of calcium or magnesium with hard water. Hence, lesser
amount of detergent is enough for washing.
Disadvantages of detergents:
Some of the detergents are not bio degradeble. So, they causes water pollution. They tend to
persist for long time making the water unfit for aquatic life.

1. What is power alcohol?
2. What is the use of vinegar?
3. Define esterification?
4. What is saponification reaction ?

Key Words
Hydrocarbons, catenation, isomerism, isomers, allotropy, fullerene, bucky ball, alkanes, alkenes,
alkynes, alkyl radicals, IUPAC, root word, suffix, prefix, functional group, aliphatic and aromatic,
combustion, addition reaction, substitution reaction, esterification, saponification, hydrophillic, hydrophobic.
Summary
Carbon is one of the most important non-metal.
The living organisms, coal, petroleum and natural gas are the natural sources of carbon
compounds.
The unique nature of carbon atoms is responsible for the existence of a large number of
carbon compounds.
Carbon is a tetravalent
Carbon has a typical character, the self linking of called Catenation.
Isomerism is the phenomenon by which compounds have the same molecular formula but
different structural formula.
Carbon can form single bonds as well as double and triple bonds.
Carbon has both crystalline and amorphous allotropes.
Diamond and graphite are crystalline allotropes, where as coal, coke are amorphous.
Fullerene is called as bucky ball.
Hydrocarbons are classified into saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons.
On removal of one hydrogen atom from alkanes we get alkyl radical (R-)
The name of a carbon compound is given on the basis of recommendations of IUPAC.
The characteristic properties of an organic compound depend mainly on its functional group.
In combustion reaction of hydrocarbons, the products are, CO 2, H2O, heat and light.
Combustion of organic compounds is an exothermic.
Addition reaction of unsaturated hydrocarbons takes place in presence of catalyst only.
Saturated hydrocarbons undergo substitution reaction.
Ethanol is one of the best solvents and it is used in many ways.
Dilute form of acetic acid is called vinegar.
Soap is the sodium or potassium salt of a long chain carboxylic acid.
Alkyl benzene sulphonate is called detergent.
Terminal Exercises
1. Write the sources of carbon compounds.
2. Explain the phenomenon of isomerism with examples.
3. Carbon has the ability to form single bonds along with double and triple bonds explain.
4. Explain the phenomenon allotropy. Write different types of allotropic forms of carbon.
5. Give the reason for the hardness of diamond.
6. Buck minister fullerene is called bucky ball. Why?
7. Give the reasons for the electrical conductivity of graphite.
8. What is homologues series? Write the characteristics of a homologoues series.
9. Write the IUPAC names of the following organic compounds.
(a) CH3CH2COOH (b) CH3-CH2-CH2OH
O
||
(c) CH3-CH2-CH=CH2 (d) CH3-CH2- C - CH3
10. Explain the rules of IUPAC nomenclature with suitable examples.
11. Write the products in combustion of alcohol.
12. Write the substitution reaction of saturated hydrocarbons.
13. What is catalyst? Explain the catalytic reaction of unsaturated hydrocarbons.
14. How do alcohol is manufactured from molasses and starch.
15. Explain how the esterification reaction is carried out?
16. Explain the saponification reaction?
17. Explain the cleansing action of soaps?
1. Which of the following carbon allotrope is called bucky ball ( )
(a) Diamand (b) Graphene (c) Graphite (d) Fullerence
2. Alkanes undergo ( )
(a) Addition reaction (b) Substitution reaction (c) Oxidation reaction (d) Both A & C
3. The general formula of saturated hydrocarbons is ( )
(a) CnH2n (b) CnH2n+2 (c) CnH2n2 (d) CnH2n+1
4. The word root of a compound with eight carbon atoms is ( )
(a) hept (b) hex (c) oct (d) dec
5. In hydrogenation of oils ........... is used as catalyst ( )

(a) H2 (b) Pt (c) Ni (d) Pd
Fill in the blanks
6. Dilute acetic acid is called as .............
7. In saponification reaction. fat/oil is treated with ................
8. When sodium reacts with ethanol .............. gas will be produced.
9. The difference between any two successive homologues of a homologous series by ........... amu.
10. In fullerene .........................hydridization is present
Match the following
Set A Set B
11. Aldehyde ( ) (a) ol
12. Ester ( ) (b) oic acid
13. Alcohol ( ) (c) al
14. Ketone ( ) (d) oate
15. Carboxylic acid ( ) (e) one
Answer to Intext Questions

12.1
1. Valency of carbon is 4 it can form four covalent bonds
2. Covalent bond
3. Coal, petroleum and natural gas.
12.2
1. It is due to high density.
2. In diamond there are no free electrons to carry the current. In graphite there are free electrons
which carry charge.
12.3
1. The carbon compounds formed with carbon and hydrogen only are called hydrocarbons.
2. In saturated hydrocarbons, between carbon atoms only sigma bonds are present. In unsaturated
hydrocarbons, there is either double or triple bond.
3. The condensed formula of C 6H14 is CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3.
12.4
1. CH2
2. The formula of proceeding homologue is C5H10 and the following is C7H14.
12.5
1. On removal of one hydrogen atom from alkane is a alkyl redical.
2. General formula of (a) carboxylic acid : R COOH
(b) aldehyde : R CHO
(c) ester : R COOR
3. Suffixest (a) alcohol : ol
(b) aldehyde : al
(c) ketone : one
(d) ester : oate
12.6
1. When the fuel is pure, we get blue flame.
2. CO2,H2O heat and light
3. Alkaline KMnO 4 or acidified K 2Cr2O7
12.7
1. The mixture of ethanol + benzene + petrol
2. It is used as preservative.
3. The reaction in which a carboxylic acid combines with an alcohol to form ester is called esterification.
4. Hydrolysis of fatty acids in presence of alkali is called saponification reaction.
Answers :
1) d 2) b 3) b 4) c 5) c
6) 8 7) Angstrom 8) Sidgwick, Powell
9) 18 10) Organic solvent
11) c 12) d 13) a 14) b
Terminal Exercises
16. Refer 12.7 17. Refer 12.7

1. Collect the information about different amorphous allotropes of carbon and prepare a report on
it.
2. Prepare a report on how the different carbon compounds often used by us in our daily life.
3. Collect water from different sources and test hardness/softness by using soap/detergent. Prepare
a report on it.
13
Nutrition – Food Supply System
Food is needed by all living organisms for growth and repair of the body parts. Our food consists
of carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals and dietary fibres along with water. Plants prepare
their food by photosynthesis.
Objectives
O emphasize the need of food for life process.
O classify the different modes of nutrition.
O differentiate the autotrophic and heterotrophic nutrition.
O explain and draw the structure of leaf and structure of chloroplast.
O define the photosynthesis and importance of photosynthesis in our daily life.
O realize the relation between light reaction and dark reaction.
O organize the experiments on photosynthesis.
O identify the different parts of human digestive system and explain their function.
13.1 Why do we need food?

How do you feel if you do not have food for a day or two? You may feel exhausted and weak.
But if you do not get food for a few days, will you survive? So living beings need food to survive
for the following reasons :
Y Food gives required energy to carry out basic functions in our body.
Y All the cells requires energy to perform their functions.
Y For body building and for energy production.
Y To maintain body temperature.
Y To fight infection and protect us from diseases.
Y Repairing damaged tissues.
Y For growth and keep us healthy.

1. What gives us energy?
2. Why do cells require energy?
13.2 Nutrition
The chemical compounds which are required for body building and for energy production are
called nutrients. Nutrients may be simple or complex inorganic and organic compounds. Intake of
nutrients into the body of an organism is called nutrition.
Modes of Nutrition
There are two main modes of nutrition- autotrophic and heterotrophic nutrition.
1. Autotrophic nutrition : The green plants and algae prepare their food through photosynthesis.
They are called autotrophs and their mode of nutrition is autotrophic nutrition. It is of two types:
(a) Photoautotrophic nutrition : The autotrophs utilise sunlight as a source of energy to
synthesize complex organic molecules. E.g., Green plants and algae.
(b) Chemoautotrophic nutrition : These organisms obtain energy by oxidizing inorganic
compounds to synthesize organic compounds. e.g., Sulphur bacteria.
2. Heterotrophic nutrition : The organisms, which depend on other organisms for their food are
called heterotrophs and their mode of nutrition is heterotrophic nutrition. It is of three types.
Nutrition – Food Supply System 259
(i) Holozoic nutrition : Intake of solid particulate food or liquid food through special feeding
mechanisms and digest them with the help of digestive enzymes is known as holozoic nutrition.
E.g., Amoeba, human beings.
The animals, which depend on plants for food are known as herbivores (e.g., rabbit,
deer), those depend on other animals are known as carnivores (e.g., tiger, lion) and those
depend on both plants and animals are known as omnivores (e.g., human beings, dog).
(ii) Parasitic nutrition : The organisms that live on or inside the body of other living
organisms and derive their food from them are called parasites and the nutrition is
called parasitic nutrition. Eg. Plasmodium, Head louse.
Fig. 13.1(a) Cuscuta Fig. 13.1(b) Leech Fig. 13.1(c) Head louse
(iii) Saprophytic nutrition : organisms that derive their food from dead and decaying bodies
of organisms are called saprophytes. Saprophytes releases digestive enzymes on the surrounding
dead and decaying matter to convert the complex molecules into simple molecules. Saprophytes
help in cleaning the environment by decomposing the dead and decaying matter.
E.g., Mushrooms, breadmould, yeast, bacteria
Fig. 13.2(a) Mushroom Fig. 13.2(b)Breadmould Fig. 13.2(c) Yeast

1. Define the term nutrition.
2. Give an example for an omnivorous animal.
3. What are the types in heterotrophic nutrition?
13.3 Nutrition in plants-photosynthesis

Photosynthesis is a biochemical process by which green plants prepare their food by using carbon
dioxide and water in presence of sunlight and chlorophyll. Oxygen is released as a by product in this
process. The over all equation of photosynthesis is
Sunlight
6 CO2 + 12 H2O C6H12O6 + 6 H2O + 6O2
Chlorophyll
Importance of photosynthesis :
O The process of photosynthesis makes plants as the universal food provider for all living organisms.
O Fossil fuels like coal, petroleum and natural gas formed through the degradation of plants and
animals which were grown up from photosynthesis.
O Plant products like timber, rubber, herbs, medicines, resins and oils are post photo-synthetic
products.
O Photosynthesis reduces the concentration of carbon dioxide and other harmful industrial wastes.
O Photosynthesis is the only one process which provides oxygen for all living organisms on the
earth.
To carry out photosynthesis, plants require carbon dioxide, water, light and chlorophyll as raw
materials . Light gives energy for photosynthesis. Photosynthesis takes place in chloroplasts in the cells
of leaves. The green colour of plants is due to the presence of the pigment chlorophyll in chloroplasts.
Structure of leaf
A leaf is a flattened structure borne at
a node. Leaf constitutes the main
photosynthetic organ of plants owing to the
presence of chloroplasts and chlorophyll. The
expanded portion of the leaf is called the
lamina. It has a number of veins and veinlets.
Prominent vein in the middle is known as the
mid rib.
Internal structure of leaf Fig. 13.3 Leaf

A transverse section of a typical leaf shows that it is covered by epidermis on both surfaces –
the upper epidermis on the upper surface and lower epidermis on the lower surface. Epidermis is
covered by cuticle. Epidermis contains a number of openings called stomata. The spaces which open
out through stomata are called air chambers or sub stomata cavities. Stomata regulate the exchange
of gases and water vapour from the leaves. The tissue between the two epidermal layers is called
mesophyll. Mesophyll has two types of cells, namely, palisade parenchyma and spongy parenchyma.
Palisade parenchyma is made up of elongated cells arranged in parallel rows. Spongy parenchyma is
situated below the palisade parenchyma and the cells are irregularly arranged with wide intercellular
spaces. The mesophyll cells contain abundant chloroplasts.
Vascular bundles in the leaf are located in the mid rib and the veins. In each vascular bundle,
phloem is located towards the lower epidermis and xylem towards the upper epidermis. Xylem and
phloem are the conductive tissues which transport water, minerals and nutrients to the various parts
of the plant body.
Upper
epidermis
Lower
epidermis
Fig. 13.4 Internal structure of leaf
Green parts of the plants can perform on photosynthesis because they have chloroplasts with
chlorophyll.
Structure of Chloroplast
The cells of green coloured parts of plants contain membrane bound organelles called chloroplasts.
Chloroplasts are abundant in the mesophyll cells of leaves. Typical chloroplasts are disc shaped and
are with colourless area called stroma.
Stacks of grana are located in the stroma
and are connected by stroma lamellae.
These chloroplasts are green because of
the pigment called chlorophyll. The
chlorophyll and other pigments are located
on the membranes of the grana and are
Fig. 13.5 Structure of Chloroplast
organized as reaction centres. Granum is the site for trapping solar energy and stroma is responsible
for enzymatic reactions leading to synthesis of glucose.
The mechanism of photosynthesis

As mentioned earlier, photosynthesis is the process in which light energy is converted into chemical
energy through a series of reactions that occur in the chloroplasts. Photosynthesis occurs in two steps,
namely 1. Light reactions and 2. Dark reactions. These two reactions occur simultaneously.
1. The light reactions: Light reaction occurs in the presence of sunlight only. It takes place in the
grana of chloroplasts. In this reaction chlorophyll on exposure to light energy becomes activated
by absorbing light. The activated chlorophyll is used in splitting the water molecule into H+ and
−
OH . This reaction is known as photolysis which means splitting by light. This reaction is discovered
by Robert Hill. Hence it is called Hill’s reaction. Oxygen, ATP, NADPH are the end products
of light reaction. Among these ATP, NADPH are discribed as assimilatory energy. Oxygen is
liberated through stomata. Here oxygen is produced from the water and not from the carbon
dioxide.
2. Dark reactions : The second phase of photosynthesis did not require light and therefore called
dark reaction. Carbon dioxide is used for the production of glucose in a series of reactions
that occur in stroma of chloroplast. ATP and NADPH produced in light reaction are used in
these reactions. The conversion of carbon dioxide to glucose was identified by an American
scientist Melvin Calvin. Hence these reactions are also termed as Calvin cycle. The end product
of the dark reactions is glucose which will be converted to starch.

1. Choose the correct sentence.
(a) Oxygen is liberated from carbon dioxide.
(b) Oxygen is produced from splitting of water molecule.
2. ……………. are known as assimilatory power.
3. What are the factors of photosynthesis?
4. What is the function of stomata?

5. Match the following

(a) Grana ( ) I) dark reaction
(b) Stroma ( ) II) gaseous exchange
(c) Stomata ( ) III) conductive tissue
(d) Vascular bundle ( ) IV) light reaction
6. Define photosynthesis.
13.4 Experiment - Oxygen is released in photosynthesis

You learned that photosynthesis is the only process in which oxygen is released. You can conduct
a simple experiment to show that oxygen is released during photosynthesis.
Take a few pieces of water plants like Hydrilla. Keep a wide mouthed funnel into a beaker with
water. Place the Hydrilla pieces inside the funnel. Carefully invert a test tube filled with water over
the narrow end of the funnel as shown in the figure. Keep the entire setup in sunlight. After some time,
you will observe small bubbles coming out of the leaves of Hydrilla. It is actually a gas that collected
into test tube. When sufficient gas
collected lift the test tube by closing
its mouth with the thumb. Test the
gas by introducing glowing splinter.
The splinter glows and burns more
vigorously indicating that the gas
released from the Hydrilla is oxygen.
Fig. 13.6 Photosynthesis - release of oxygen
13.5 The process of nutrition in human beings

Human food consists of carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals, water etc. Vitamins,
minerals and water can be absorbed into the cells directly where as carbohydrates, proteins and fats
cannot be absorbed, because they are macromolecules. Hence they are broken into simple and absorbable
molecules in the alimentary canal. Breakdown of complex molecules of food into simple and absorbable
molecules is known as digestion.
Human digestive system

Human digestive system consists of an alimentary
canal and digestive glands associated with it.
Alimentary canal
The alimentary canal or digestive tract is a long
tube. It contains the mouth, buccal cavity, pharynx,
oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum
and anus.
1. Mouth : The mouth is bounded by movable and
muscular upper and lower lips. Taking of food
through the mouth is called ingestion.
2. Buccal cavity / oral cavity : The cavity in the
mouth is called buccal cavity. Teeth, tongue and
openings of 3 pairs of salivary glands are present
in the buccal cavity. Fig. 13.7 Human digestive system
The arrangement of teeth on upper and lower
jaws is called dentition. There are 4 types of teeth in human beings, namely, incisors, canines,
premolars and molars. Hence the dentition is called heterodont dentition. The arrangement of
different types of teeth in each half of the jaw is represented by dental formula.
2 1 2 3
In adult human dental formula = i c pm m = 32
2 1 2 3
Milk dentition of a baby = = 20
Incisors are used for cutting or cropping, canines

are used for piercing and tearing the meat. They are
well developed in carnivores. Premolars and molars are
used for grinding the food.
Tongue is muscular and pushes the food on to

the teeth during mastication. It also helps to push
masticated food into pharynx. Taste buds on the tongue
sense the taste of food.
Fig. 13.8 The arrangement of teeth
3. Pharynx : The posterior portion of the oral cavity is called

pharynx. This is a common passage for digestive and respiratory
systems. The food passes from pharynx into oesophagus by
the activity of tongue. This is known as swallowing. Epiglottis
is a flap like structure prevents the entry of food into the wind
pipe.
4. Oesophagus : It is a narrow tube and connects pharynx and

stomach. It extends posteriorly through the neck, thorax and
Fig. 13.9 Taste buds
opens into the stomach. A muscular sphincter regulates the opening
of the oesophagus into the stomach. When food enters into oesophagus the muscles present in
its wall contract and relax producing wave like movements. These are called peristaltic movements.
5. Stomach : It is a muscular bag like structure. It is located on the left side of abdominal cavity
below the diaphragm. It has three major parts- anterior part cardiac portion into which oesophagus
opens, a middle large fundic region and a posterior pyloric portion which opens into the duodenum.
Flow of food from pyloric stomach into duodenum is regulated by pyloric sphincter.
6. Small intestine : It consists of 3 parts.
(a) Duodenum : It is U shaped and the anterior part of the small intestine.
(b) Jejunum : Jejunum is the middle part of small intestine.
(c) Ileum : It is the longest and the posterior part in alimentary canal. Internally intestinal wall
produce finger like projections called villi. The villi increase the surface area of absorption.
7. Large intestine : It consists of caecum, colon and rectum. A narrow finger like tubular projection
the vermiform appendix arises from caecum. The caecum opens into colon. Colon is divided into
– an ascending colon, a transverse colon, a descending colon and a sigmoid colon that continues
behind as rectum. Rectum is a small dilated sac. It opens out through anus.
8. Anus : The alimentary canal opens out through anus. It is guarded by an internal anal sphincter
formed by smooth muscles and external sphincter formed by a ring of voluntary muscles. The
undigested material is eliminated through the anus. This process is called as defacation.
Digestive glands
1. Salivary glands : Opening into the buccal cavity there are three pairs of salivary glands, namely,
parotid glands, sub maxillary glands and sub lingual glands. They secrete saliva, which contain
an enzyme called ptyalin, water, salts, mucus etc.
2. Gastric glands : The inner lining of stomach contain minute tubular gastric glands. They secrete
gastric juice, which contains HCl, Pepsin, rennin, mucus etc.
3. Liver : Liver is largest gland in human body. It lies just below the diaphragm towards right side
in the abdominal cavity. It is a reddish brown gland and is composed of hepatocytes. Liver
secretes bile juice. It is alkaline and is stored in the gall bladder. From the gall bladder, bile juice
reaches the duodenum through a bile duct. Bile juice contain bile salts that emulsify fats. Glycocholate
and taurocholate of sodium and potassium are the bile salts. Bilirubin and Biliverdin are the bile
pigments. Enzymes are absent in bile juice.
4. Pancreas: Pancreas is the second largest gland and lies towards left side of duodenum. It is
a mixed gland having an exocrine part and an endocrine part. Exocrine part secretes pancreatic
juice which contains trypsin, amylase, lipase etc. Endocrine part secrete hormones, namely insulin
and glucagon.
5. Intestinal glands : In the wall of small intestine, intestinal glands are present. They secrete
intestinal juice which contains enterokinase, peptidases, lipase etc.

1. The finger like projections which increases the surface area in small intestine are
called……………………………..
2. Elimination of undigested food is called ..................
(a) absorption (b) defacation (c) digestion (d) ingestion
3. Name the largest gland in digestive system.
4. Why pancreas is called as a mixed gland?
5. Fill the blanks given in the table
Type of teeth Number Function
Incisors
Canines
Premolars
Molars
13.6 Process of Digestion

In the human digestion the following processess are involved.
1. Ingestion : Taking of food into the body through mouth.
2. Digestion : Conversion of complex food into simple form by the action of enzymes.
3. Absorption: Diffusion of simple, soluble nutrients into blood or lymph.
4. Assimilation : Utilization of absorbed food for various metabolic activities.
5. Egestion : Expelling the undigested food.
Mechanism of digestion in human beings

(a) Digestion in buccal cavity : Buccal cavity performs two major functions, namely, mastication
of food and facilitation of swallowing. Mucus of saliva helps in lubricating the oesaphagus and
facilitates the easy swallowing of masticated food. Food is cut and crushed among the teeth and
mixed with saliva to make it wet and slippery. This is called mastication. Salivary amylase (ptyalin)
acts on starch (carbohydrates) and converts it into maltose.
Starch (carbohydrates) Maltose
(b) Digestion in stomach: In the stomach food is stored for 4-5 hours. The food is mixed with
gastric juice by churning movements of muscles. Mucus plays an important role in the lubrication
and protection of epithelium from the action of enzymes and HCl. The proenzymes pepsinogen
and prorennin are activated by the HCl into pepsin and rennin respectively.
They digest proteins as shown below.
Pepsinogen Pepsin
Proteins Peptones
Prorennin Rennin
Casein (Milk protein) Calcium para caseinate (Curd)
Ca++
The partially digested food is known as chyme.
(c) Digestion in the small intestine: The secretions of liver (bile) and pancreas (pancreatic juice)
mixed with food in duodenum. Bile salts convert the fats into small microscopic colloidal particles.
This is called emulsification. Trypsinogen is activated by the enzyme enterokinase secreted by
the intestinal glands. Intestinal glands secrete mucin and intestinal juice. In small intestine food
in digested in the following manner.
Starch (carbohydrates) Maltose
Maltose Glucose + Glucose
Sucrose Glucose + Fructose
Trypsinogen Trypsin
Proteins Peptones
Peptides Amino acids
Fats Fatty acids + Glycerol
Absorption of digested food

The end products of digestion diffuse through the intestinal mucosa into blood or lymph. This
process is called absorption. Area of absorption is increased by the villi and microvilli.
Assimilation of digested food

The absorbed food materials reach the tissues through the blood. In tissues these are used for
production of energy, growth and repair. This process is called assimilation.
Defecation
The undigested and unabsorbed substances are passed on to the large intestine, where water
and mineral salts are absorbed. Thus solid faeces is formed. Faecal matter temporarily stored in
rectum and expelled out through the anus at intervals.

1. The acid in gastric juice is …………………………….. .
2. Digestive juice in which enzymes are absent is ................................
(a) Saliva (b) gastric juice (c) bile (d) pancreatic juice
3. Match the following?
(a) Saliva ( ) (i) pancreas
(b) Pepsin ( ) (ii) salivary glands
(c) Trypsin ( ) (iii) stomach
4. What is emulsification?
13.7 Malnutrition
Malnutrition is caused due to lack of one or more nutrients in the diet. Illness, willful starvation,
lack of awareness about the nutrients and cooking methods, socio - economic conditions are the
reasons for malnutrition. The following are the diseases that caused due to malnutrition.
1. Kwashiorkor : This is a disease caused due to protein deficiency in the diet in children. The
symptoms of the disease are——
Y Body parts become swollen due to accumulation of water in the
inter cellular spaces.
Y Development of muscles will be very poor.
Y Face will be fluffy and moon shaped.
Y The child frequently suffers from diarrhoea.
Y Retardation of physical and mental growth.
Eating a protein rich diet that consists of milk, meat, soya bean,
eggs, can cure this disease. Fig. 13.10 Kwashiorkor
2. Marasmus: This is a disease caused due to the deficiency of proteins and calories (carbohydrates
and fats). It is caused in children when the mother is extremely weak due to repeated deliveries.
This is also seen during famines and war time. The symptoms of this disease are—
Y The child very lean and weak.
Y The limbs thin and the ribs are prominent in the
child.
Y The skin dry and loose folds.
Y Abdomen is swollen
Y The child suffers from infections and diarrhoea.
It can be cured by ensuring breast feeding for infants and by
giving a diet rich in carbohydrates, protein and fats.
3. Obesity : Obesity is caused due to over eating
and excess of energy food intake. Excess food Fig. 13.11 Marasmus
is converted to fat and is stored in the cells of
adipose tissue located under the skin. It results
in increase in body weight and size. Recent studies
indicated that obesity is also caused due to genetic
defects and also hereditory.
Obesity leads to diabetes, cardiovascular, renal
and gall bladder problems. The only way to treat
obesity is to increase the energy expenditure and
reduce the energy intake. They are advised to
take more balanced diet, fibre rich food and doing
Fig. 13.12 Obesity
regular exercise.
13.8 Vitamins
Vitamins are organic, essential nutrients that require in minute quantity. The two sources of the
vitamins to our body is through the diet and the bacteria present in the intestine. They are essential
for normal physiological functioning of the body. When vitamins are deficient in our diet, it leads to
specific deficiency disease.
Based on their solubility vitamins are classified into two groups.

1. Water soluble vitamins – B complex, Vitamin C
2. Fat soluble vitamins – Vitamin A, Vitamin D, Vitamin E, Vitamin K.
Minerals :
Minerals are also essential nutrients that our body needs to grow and work properly. Calcium,
iron, zinc, potassium and sodium are some of the examples of minerals. Minerals are necessary in
food for 3 main reasons : 1. Building strong bones and teeth. 2. Controlling body fluids inside and
outside cells and 3. Turning the food we eat into energy.
Intext Questions (13.7, 13.8)

(a) Vitamin A ( ) i) delay of blood clotting
(b) Vitamin D ( ) ii) fertility disorders
(c) Vitamin E ( ) iii) night blindness
(d) Vitamin k ( ) iv) rickets
2. What is malnutrition?
3. What are the B complex vitamins?
4. Write any four reasons for malnutrition.
5. ……………………. is the disease due to protein deficiency in diet.
Summary
O Nutrients are the components that provides the energy and helps to body building. Intake of
nutrients is known as nutrition.
O Nutrition is mainly two types those are autotrophic and heterotrophic nutrition.
O Photosynthesis is the biochemical process by which green plants manufacture their own food
by using CO2 and water as raw materials in presence of sunlight and chlorophyll.
O Chloroplast is the organelle that perform the photosynthesis in green plants.
O Photosynthesis occurs in two steps as 1. Light reaction 2. Dark reaction.
O Oxygen is released in photosynthesis from water molecule and not from the CO2.
O Breakdown the complex molecules into simple form by the enzymes is known as digestion.
O Human digestion process has 4 stages as ingestion, digestion, absorption and defecation.
O Human digestive system comprises of alimentary canal and digestive glands.
O Human digestive system starts from mouth and ends with anus.
O Stomach is the largest part and the small intestine is longest part in digestive tract.
O Liver is the largest digestive gland that secretes the bile juice that does not have any enzymes.
O Human dental formula is .
O In the digestive tract digestion takes place in mouth, stomach, duodenum and small intestine.
O After the digestion food materials forms the end products as glucose, amino acids, fatty acids
and glycerol.
O Our diet should be balanced with proper amount of carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins,
minerals and dietary fibres. This is known as balanced diet.
O Eating of the food that does not have one or more than one nutrient in required amount known
as malnutrition.
O Kwashiorkor is caused by protein deficiency and marasmus is caused by deficiency of proteins
and calories.
O Vitamins are organic, micro essential nutrients that has a key role in body metabolism.
O Based on the solubility vitamins are two types—1. Fat soluble vitamins 2. Water soluble vitamins.
Terminal Questions
1. What is importance of nutrients to our body?
2. What are the types in nutrition?
3. What are the factors required for photosynthesis?
4. Describe the light reactions.
5. Describe the structure of chloroplast with the help of a diagram.
6. Draw labeled diagram of internal structure of leaf.
7. Write an equation for photosynthesis showing all the factors and the end products are formed.
8. What are the stages in the digestion process?
9. What is mastication and which parts involved in this process?
10. Make a table with digestive glands their juices and the enzymes.
11. What is the role of stomach in the digestive process?
12. Write about the malnutrition and its types.
13. What are the symptoms of Kwashiorkor and how it will be cured?
14. How will you prove that oxygen is released in photosynthesis?
15. What is the difference between autotrophic and heterotrophic nutrition?
16. Explain the digestion process in small intestine?

13.1
1. Food 2. To perform their functions.
13.2
1. Intake of nutrients into the body is known as nutrition.
2. Dog, human beings.
3. Heterotrophic nutrition is of three types :
A) Holozoic - e.g. , Ameoba, Man
B) Parasitic - e.g. Cuscuta, Hookeworm
C) Saprophytic - e.g. Bread mould.
13.3
1. B
2. ATP, NADPH
3. CO2, water, sunlight and chlorophyll
4. Gaseous exchange and transpiration
5. IV, I, II, III
6. Photosynthesis is the biochemical process by which green plants manufacture their own food by
using CO2 and water as raw materials in presence of sunlight and chlorophyll.
13.5
1. Villi
2. B
3. Liver
4. As it secretes enzymes and hormones.
5.
Type of teeth Number Function
Incisors 2/2 cutting
Canines 1/1 Piercing
Premolars 2/2 Chewing
Molars 3/3 grinding
13.6
1. HCl
2. C
3. ii, iii, i
4. Breakdown of fats into small droplets by the bile salts, is known as emulsification.
13.7, 13.8
1. iii, iv, ii, i
2. Eating of the food that does not have one or more than one nutrient in required amount is known
as malnutrition.
3. Thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid, pyridoxine, biotin, Cyanocobalamin.
4. Poor health, Lack of awareness of nutritional habits, Poverty, Lack of exercise, Lack of balanced
diet, Will full starvation, Dirty environment
5. Kwashiorkor.

16. Refer to 13.6

1. Prepare a model of chloroplast with Wax/Mud and Clolours.
2. Collect the information about, nutrients present in different food items.
14
Respiration-The Energy Generating System
In the lesson Nutrition we learnt that we need food to survive. But what happens to food after
digestion and how energy is obtained from it? There is a life process called Respiration involved in
obtaining the energy. Respiration is a catabolic process in which oxidation of food material and liberation
of energy takes place.
Objectives
O learn about different types of respiratory organs present in different organisms.
O explain the functioning model and mechanism of human respiratory system.
O differentiate aerobic and anaerobic respiration.
O draw and explain the structure of human lungs and respiratory pathway.
O identify the different parts of mitochondria and explain the role of it in cellular respiration.
O explain the mechanism of plant respiration.
O conduct experiments related to respiration.
O differentiate photosynthesis and respiration.

14.1 Respiratory Organs in different Animals

The process of exchange of O2 from the medium (air or water) with CO2 produced by the cells
is called breathing. The inhaled oxygen reached the cells of tissues for chemical break down of food
materials to release energy. It takes place at the tissue level. This process is called intracellular respiration
or cellular respiration. Different organisms respire through different organs as shown below.
Respiratory organ Mode of respiration Example
Body surface Diffusion Protozoans, sponges and coelenterates.
Gills Branchial respiration Fishes and some aquatic larvae like
tadpole of frog
Skin Cutaneous respiration Earthworms, frogs, salamander
Trachea Tracheal respiration Insects like butterfly, cockroach.
Lungs Pulmonary respiration Frogs, Reptiles, Birds and Mammals

1. What do you mean by breathing?
2. What are the respiratory organs of frog?
3. Name the process by which unicellular organisms respire.
4. Why do we respire?
14.2 Human Respiratory System

Respiratory system of man includes the following:
I. External nostrils (external nares) : A pair of external nostrils open out above the upper lip.
They lead into nasal chambers through the nasal passages.
II. Nasal chambers : They lie above the palate and are separated from each other by a nasal
septum. Small hair and sebaceous glands are present here to prevent dust particles. Air is
conditioned in these chambers to make suitable to reach lungs. The olfactory parts helps in
detection of smell.
III. Pharynx : Pharynx is a common chamber for air and food passages. Nasopharynx is a portion
of pharynx into which nasal chambers open through a pair of internal nostrils. Nasopharynx
leads into laryngopharynx and opens larynx through glottis.
Respiration-The Energy Generating System 277
nasal cavity
nostril
pharynx epiglottis
larynx
trachea
bronchi capillaries in which O2 and

bronchioles CO2 exchanges occur
alveoli
lung
Fig. 14.1 Respiratory system of man

10 IV. Larynx : Larynx is also called voice box as it is the sound producing organ. Wall of larynx is
F supported by nine cartilages. Adams apple is a laryngeal prominence formed from the mid ventral
part of the thyroid cartilage. The vocal cords in male are thicker, longer and produce low pitch
voice where as in females and children they are short and produce high pitch voice.
Epiglottis is a thin leaf like elastic cartilaginous flap attached to the thyroid cartilage to prevent
the entry of food and water into the larynx through the glottis.
V. Trachea : Trachea, the wind pipe is a straight tube extending up to the mid-thoracic cavity. Wall
of it is supported by C-shaped cartilages. These rings are incomplete dorsally and keep the
trachea always open. Internally the trachea is lined by pseudo stratified ciliated epithelium.
VI. Bronchi and Bronchioles : In the thoracic cavity, trachea divides into right and left primary
bronchi. They enter the corresponding lung and divide into secondary bronchi and then tertiary
bronchi. Each tertiary bronchus divides and re-divides to form primary, secondary, tertiary, terminal
and respiratory bronchioles. Respiratory bronchioles terminates in a cluster of alveolar ducts
which end in alveolar sacs. Bronchi and initial bronchioles are supported by incomplete cartilaginous
rings. The branching network of trachea, bronchi and bronchioles constitute the pulmonary
tree (an upside down tree.)
Fig. 14.2 Alveoli

VII. Lungs : The lungs are situated in the thoracic chamber. Lungs are covered by a double layered
pleura, with pleural fluid between them. It reduces friction on the lung surface. The part starting
with external nostrils up to the terminal bronchioles constitute the conducting part, whereas the
alveoli and their ducts form the exchange part of the respiratory system.
The conducting part transports the atmospheric air to the alveoli, humidifies and also brings the
inhaled air to the body temperature. In the exchange part diffusion of respiratory gases takes
place between air and blood.
Fig. 14.3 Human lungs

The thoracic cavity is dorsally bound by the vertebral column, ventrally the sternum, laterally
by ribs and on the lower side by the dome shaped muscular diaphragm. Diaphragm plays a vital role
in breathing by contraction and relaxation of its muscles along with the intercostal muscles present
among the ribs.

1. Larynx is also called…………………………
2. What is epiglottis? What is its function?
3. What prevents trachea from being collapsed?
4. What is pulmonary tree?
(a) trachea ( ) (i) Entrance for outside air
(b) Larynx ( ) (ii) The wind pipe
(c) small hairs ( ) (iii) Contains vocal cords
(d) Nasal cavity ( ) (iv) Prevents dust particles
14.3 Mechanism of Breathing

Mechanism of breathing involves two stages
I. Inspiration: Intake of atmospheric air into the lungs is called inspiration. It takes place by the
contractions of the muscles of the diaphragm and the external intercostal muscles. Hence the
diaphragm becomes flat and the rib cages is dragged forward and downward. Thus the volume
of the thoracic chamber increases. It also leads in increase in the pulmonary volume. Thus pressure
in lungs decrease and thus atmospheric air rushed into the alveoli.
II. Expiration: Elimination of used air from lungs is called

expiration. The muscles of the diaphragm and the
external intercostal muscles relax and thus the diaphragm
and rib cage reach to their original places. It reduces
the volume of thoracic cavity. Now the pressure in
lungs increase and thus the used air goes out.
On an average, a healthy human breaths 12-16 times

per minute. A spirometer is used to estimate it, which
helps in clinical assessment of the pulmonary functions.

1. Choose the correct answer Fig. 14.4 Movement of diaphragm
(a) When the air pressure is low in lungs inspiration takes place.
(b) When the air pressure is high in lungs inspiration takes place.
2 …………………is used to estimate breathing rate in human beings.
3. What are inspiration and expiration?
14.4 Exchange of Gases

Gaseous exchange takes place in alveoli of lungs and between blood and tissues. Oxygen and
carbon dioxides are exchanged between these by simple diffusion. The following factors influence the
rate of diffusion.
(i) Partial pressure/concentration gradient of gases.
(ii) Solubility of the gases.
(iii) Thickness of the respiratory membrane.
(iv) Surface area
The diffusion takes place in two ways.

I. Pulmonary gas exchange and
II. Systemic gas exchange
I. Pulmonary gas exchange : Partial pressure
of oxygen in inhaled air in alveoli is more
than the blood supplied to them. Hence O2
from alveoli diffuses into the blood and at
the same time CO2 from the blood diffuses Fig. 14.5 Diffusion path way for gaseous
into the alveoli, because partial pressure of exchange between Alveolous and blood
CO2 in alveoli is very less. Capillaries
II. Systemic gas exchange: The partial pressure of O2 in arterial blood is more than in cells of
tissues. Hence O2 diffuses into the tissue cells. At the same time CO2 from the cells diffuses into
the blood.

1. What factors do influence the rate of diffusion?
2. What is the role of diaphragm in gaseous exchange ?
3. Gaseous exchange between alveoli and blood takes place in …………………………..
14.5 Transport of Gases

Oxygen and carbon dioxide gets transported by blood itself. Oxygen is transported through
plasma and RBC. About 3% of oxygen is transported by blood plasma in a dissolved state and 97%
of oxygen is carried by a respiratory pigment called haemoglobin present in the RBC. Each haemoglobin
can carry four molecules of Oxygen. Oxygen combines with haemoglobin and form an unstable compound
called oxyhaemoglobin. In tissues it is dissociated and release the O2.
Hb + O2 HbO2
Carbon dioxide is transported in three ways by the blood. 7% of CO2 is carried in a dissolved
state through plasma.
CO2 + H2O H2CO3 (carbonic acid)
About 20-25% of CO2 combine directly with Hb and forms carbamino haemoglobin. (CO2 +
amino group combine in a reversible manner.)
About 70% of carbon dioxide is transported as bicarbonate through RBC. RBC contains an
enzyme called carbonic anhydrase and minute quantity of the same is present in the plasma also. It
promotes the reaction between CO2 and H2O.

1. Oxygen is transferred through ……………………and …………………………
2. What is haemoglobin? What is its role in respiration?
3. Haemoglobin can carry
(a) 2 molecules of O2 (b) 2 molecules of CO2
(c) 4 molecules of O2 (d) 4 molecules of CO2
4. What are oxyhemoglobin and carbamino haemoglobin?
14.6 Cellular Respiration

Cellular respiration refers to the pathway by which cells release energy from the chemical bonds
of food molecules. As the chemical breakdown of the nutrients occur inside the living cells of every
organism, it is also called Internal Respiration.
Cellular respiration is of two types.
1. Anaerobic Respiration (Fermentation): Anaerobic respiration takes place in absence of oxygen.
In this process incomplete breakdown of organic molecules takes place with less yield of energy.
This type of respiration is seen in yeast, bacteria. Either ethanol or lactic acid is formed in this
type of respiration.
C6H12O6 CO2 + C2H5OH (Ethanol) + 2ATP
C6H12O6 CO2 + C3H6OH (Lactic acd) + 2ATP
2. Aerobic Respiration : Aerobic respiration occurs in presence of oxygen. The nutrients in the
cells yield more energy (in the form of ATP) due to complete breakdown by utilizing oxygen.
This process takes place in mitochondria of the cell. Hence mitochondria are described as the
power houses of the cell.
C6H12O6 + H2O + O2 CO2 + H2O + 36 ATP
Structure of Mitochondrion
Fig. 14.6 Structure of Mitochondrion

Mitochondrion is a double layered cell organelle. The inner membrane is thrown into the inner
cavity as finger like folds called cristae. The inner cavity is filled with a colourless fluid called matrix.
It contain some strands of DNA and ribosomes besides the elementary particles. Cellular respiration
takes place in mitochondria with help of some oxidative enzymes.

1. Mitochondria are called ………………………………of the cell.
2. What are the main differences between aerobic and anaerobic respiration?
3. What are cristae?
(i) yeast and bacteria ( ) (a) aerobic respiration
(ii) 36 ATP ( ) (b) ethanol
(iii) matrix ( ) (c) anaerobic respiration
(iv) C2H5OH ( ) (d) fluid present in mitochondria
14.7 Respiration in Plants

As the plants are living organisms, they also respire to get energy. Food prepared by photosynthesis
is used in respiration to yield energy. Hence respiration is opposite to photosynthesis. Unlike animals,
plants have very simple respiratory organs in leaves, stem and roots.
1. Stomata: present on leaves for gaseous exchange.
2. Lenticels: present on stems that help in exchange of gases.
3. Aerial spaces or pockets: present in roots for breathing. (Eg: Mangrove plants)
The stomatal openings lead to a series of spaces among the cells. It forms a continuous network
all over the plant. The air spaces are very large in the leaves, much smaller in other parts of the plant.
The air spaces are lined by moisture. Oxygen is dissolved in moisture and diffuses into the cells. In
respiration the sugar is broken down into carbon dioxide and water with the liberation of energy.
C6H12O6 + O2 CO2 + H2O + Energy. (Aerobic Respiration)
1. What are the organs that take part in respiration of plants?
2. Why do plants respire?
3. Respiration is opposite to ……………………..
4. Choose the correct statement
(a) Plants carry out only Photosynthesis.
(b) Plants carry out both photosynthesis and respiration.
14.8 Experiment
Carbon dioxide is released during respiration

We learnt that carbon dioxide is released during
respiration. To prove it, take a clean test tube and fill it with
transparent lime water. Take a two holed rubber cork and
insert two bent glass tubes as shown in the figure. Let the
first one be immersed in lime water and the second one
above the level of lime water. Put the first glass tube into
your mouth and blow air into it. After some time you will
find that the lime water turns milky.
Fig. 14.7 Respiratory gases
Heat and CO2 is produced during anaerobic respiration

Take a thermos flask and pour lukewarm glucose solution into it. Add some yeast powder to
it and cover the mixture by pouring liquid paraffin over it. Insert a thermometer through the paraffin
into the glucose solution and mark the reading. Insert a U shaped glass tube into the flask as shown
in the figure. Insert the other end of the glass tube in glass jar having bicarbonate
solution though a two holed rubber cork. Insert a

glass tube in the second hole of the cork. Observe
the temperature in thermometer. After some time you
will notice that the mercury level has increased and
there are some bubbles in bicarbonate solution turning
it into milky. It proves that heat and carbon dioxide
is produced in anaerobic respiration. Fig. 14.8 Testing for Production of heat
and CO2 under anaeroboc respiration
14.9 Comparison of Photosynthesis and Respiration

Photosynthesis is an anabolic process and respiration is a catabolic process, the following are
the similarities and differences between photosynthesis and respiration.
1. Similarities
Y Both involve in production of energy.
Y Both involve the exchange of gases.
Y Both take place in cell organelles. Photosynthesis takes place in Chloroplast whereas respiration
takes place in mitochondria.
2. Differences
Respiration
1. It is a catabolic process in which food material is broken down and energy is released.
2. Carbohydrates, like glucose, act as raw material. Oxygen is required in aerobic respiration
3. The process of respiration is a continuous process.
4. Every living cell of the organism respires.
5. The end products of respiration are H2O, CO2 and energy in the form of ATP.
6. The day weight of the plant decreases due to utilization of food materials.
Photosynthesis
1. It is an anabolic process in which food material is synthesized and energy is stored.
2. Carbon dioxide, water, chlorophyll and light act as raw materials.
3. In natural conditions it takes place in day time, because light is essential for this process.
4. Only chlorophyll containing cells can carry out the process of photosynthesis.
5. O2, water and food material are the end-products of photosynthesis.
6. The day weight of the plant increases due to synthesis of food material.

1. Photosynthesis is an ……………………process where respiration is a ………………….process.
2. Name the cell organelles for photosynthesis and respiration in plants.
3. Fill the following table with mark where necessary
Photosynthesis Respiration
Stores energy as glucose
Release energy from glucose
Occur in living cells
Occur in plant cells
Occur in animal cells
Release of CO2
Summary
Y All organisms need energy for their survival. They respire to get it.
Y There are separate respiratory organs for different organisms.
Y Respiration refers to getting energy by oxidising food present in the blood.
Y Lower organism use their body surface to exchange of gases where gills, trachea, skin and
lungs are used as respiratory organs in various organisms.
Y In plants stomata, lenticels and aerial roots help in respiration.
Y Air passes from nostrils to nasal cavity to pharynx, larynx, trachea and bronchi, bronchioles
to alveoli and blood. It backs through the same route.
Y Gas exchange takes place in the tiny air sacs of lungs called Alveoli. Lungs have some millions
of alveoli that help in gas exchange into blood.
Y Diaphragm is a muscular flap present at the floor of chest cavity it helps in controlling air
pressure for inhalation and exhalation.
Y Pharynx is the common passage of digestive and respiratory system.
Y Epiglottis, a flap like muscle valve controls movement of air and food towards their respective
passage.
Y Larynx is a cartilaginous box like structure containing vocal cords.
Y Trachea is the wind pipe channelling air to lungs. It is divided into several bronchioles that
ends up with the air sacs called alveoli.
Y Gaseous exchange takes place in alveoli of lungs as blood in the blood capillaries take up
oxygen and expel carbon di oxide.
Y The respiratory pigment Haemoglobin binds these gases in RBC of blood binds with O2 and
CO2 and helps in their transportation.
Y When oxygen is abundantly available Aerobic respiration takes place where high energy is
generated in the cells. This energy is stored in Mitochondria in the form of ATP.
Y Mitochondria are called powerhouses of the cell as it generates ATP, the energy currency.
Y Anaerobic respiration or fermentation occurs in inadequate supply or absence of oxygen to
produce energy.
Y In fermentation (Anaerobic respiration) ethanol or lactic acid is formed.
· Photosynthesis and respiration are opposing reactions, but they have some similarities too.
Y Photosynthesis takes place in chloroplast to produce sugars or their forms.
Y Respiration takes place in the mitochondria where mainly these sugars are oxidised to produce
energy to do work at the cellular level.
Terminal Questions
1. Name the different respiratory organs in animals.
2. Make a list of organs and their function in human respiration system.
3. What is the difference between breathing and respiration?
4. What is the role of epiglottis and diaphragm in respiration?
5. Define respiration and state its types keeping in view of availability of oxygen?
6. Differentiate between anaerobic and aerobic respiration in a table.
7. Explain pulmonary gas exchange and systemic gas exchange.
8. Explain structure of human lungs with a neat labelled diagram.
9. Draw a neat labelled diagram of Mitochondrion?
10. How can you prove that carbon dioxide is liberated in respiration?
11. Explain how do plants respire?
12. What are the differences between photosynthesis and respiration?
13. Explain the mechanism of breathing.
14. What is larynx? Why is it called voice box?

14.1.
1. The process of exchange of O2 from the medium (air or water) with CO2 produced by the cells
is called breathing.
2. Skin and lung are the respiratory organs in frog.
3. Unicellular organisms respire through body surface by simple diffusion.
4. To get energy from digested food are need to breath.
14.2
1. Voice box
2. Epiglottis is a thin leaf like elastic cartilaginous flap attached to the thyroid cartilage to
prevent the entry of food and water into the larynx through the glottis.
3. The C- shaped cartilagineous rings prevent trachea from being collapsed.
4. The branching network of trachea, bronchi and bronchioles constitute the pulmonary
tree (an upside down tree.)
5. ii, iii, iv, i
14.3
1. A) When the air pressure is low in lungs inspiration takes place.
2. Spirometer
3. Inhalation of atmospheric oxygen is called inspiration and exhalation of used air is called expiration
14.4
The following factors are responsible for diffusion.
1. (i) Partial pressure/concentrate on gradient of gases.
(ii) Solubility of the gases. (iii) Thickness of the respiratory membrane.
(iv) Surface area
2. When diaphragm is contracted inspiration takes place and when diaphragm is relaxed expiration
takes place. Diaphragm along with intercostal muscles control pressure in lungs.
3. Diffussion
14.5
1. Plasma and RBC
2. Haemoglobin is a respiratory pigment. It carries Oxygen and Carbon dioxide in blood.
3. c) 4 molecules of O2
4. O2 combines with haemoglobin and form an unstable compound called Oxyhemoglobin. CO2
combine directly with Hb and forms carbamino haemoglobin.
14.6
1. Power house of the cell
2. Availability of Oxygen. Aerobic respiration takes place in presence of Oxygen and Anaerobic
respiration takes place in absence of Oxygen.
3. The inner membrane of mitochondria is thrown into the inner cavity as finger like folds called
Cristae.
4. c, a, d, b
14.7
1. Stomata, lenticels, aerial roots 2. To get energy
3. Photosynthesis 4. (b) Plants carry out both photosynthesis and respiration.

14.9
1. Catabolic, anabolic
2. Photosynthesis takes place in cells having chloroplasts. Respiration : takes place in all living cells
having mitochondria.
3.
Photosynthesis Respiration
Stores energy as glucose −
Release energy from glucose −
Occurs in living cells
Occurs in plant cells
Occurs in animal cells −
Releases oxygen −
Releases carbon di oxide −

13. Refer to 14.3 14. Refer to 14.2
1. Count breath rate of 20 random samples of males and females while 1. At rest 2. After running.
3. Doing moderate exercise. Prepare a project report basing on its results.
2. Collect a stethoscope and a spirometer from a clinic, Observe heart beat and rate of breathing
in normal adults, patients and smokers / drunkards. Prepare a project report and find the relation
between respiration and heart beat.
15
Circulatory System
Different groups of animals have evolved various methods for transport of substances among the
body parts. Higher groups of animals have special circulatory fluids (e.g., blood) within their bodies
to transport such materials.
In plants, roots absorb water and minerals and are transported to all parts by xylem and the
food materials through phloem.
Objectives
O know the composition of blood
O understand the structure of the heart with main blood vessels entering and leaving heart
O know the functioning of heart (Cardiac cycle)
O know transportation of water and minerals in plants.
15.1 Transportation in animals

The human body consists of several organ systems. For proper functioning, each system requires
the involvement of circulating body fluids. There are three principal circulating fluids in our body,
namely, blood, tissue fluid and lymph.
(i) Blood : It is present in the heart, blood vessels (arteries, veins and capillaries) of the circulatory
system.
(ii) Tissue fluid (also called interstitial or intervascular fluid) : It is present in the intercellular spaces
of the tissues.
(iii) Lymph : Present in the lymph vessels and lymphatic organs.
15.2 Blood
A healthy man contain 5 to 6 litres of blood in the body and it forms 7 - 8% of the body weight.
The blood is saltish in taste and is slightly alkaline (PH of 7.2 to 7.6). The blood in arteries is bright
red and is dark red or bluish in veins. Blood contains three types of cells floating in a liquid matrix
called plasma.
1. Plasma : Plasma is the pale yellow alkaline fluid which forms about 55% of the blood. Main
constituent of plasma is water (90 – 92%). Dissolved in water of plasma there are organic
(7 – 8%) and inorganic (1-2%) substances. Glucose, amino acids etc. are organic components
of plasma. Chlorides, bicarbonates etc. of sodium or potassium are the major inorganic components.
Blood
Plasma Blood cells
Water Organic Inorganic RBC WBC Platelets

substances substances
Granulocytes Agranulocytes
Esinophils Basophils Neutrophils Monocytes Lymphocytes
2. Blood Cells : Floating in plasma three types of blood cells are present and they form 45% of
the blood.
Circulatory System 291
(a) Red Blood Cells (RBC) or erythrocytes.
(b) White Blood Cells (WBC) or leukocytes.
(c) Platelets or thrombocytes.
(a) RBC (Red Blood Cells) / Erythrocytes : In man, RBC are minute, circular, biconcave and
enucleated. Cytoplasm contains a red pigment called haemoglobin. It has an affinity for oxygen
and readily combines with it and form an unstable compound, oxyhaemoglobin which readily
dissociate and releases oxygen in tissues. Healthy man contains about 5.5 million RBC’s
in each cubic mm of blood. A red blood cell works for about 120 days, after which is
disintegrated in the spleen and liver.
(b) WBC (White Blood Cells) / Leucocytes : These are colourless, larger, nucleated ameboid
cells and are few in number. Each cubic millimeter of blood contains 7000 to 10000 WBC.
The number of WBCs increases in infections like pneumonia, in inflammation and blood
cancer. The chief function is to defend the body against infections. WBC are classified in
to two types based on the presence or absence of granules in the cytoplasm.
(a) Granulocytes
In these WBC, cytoplasm contain granules. Nucleus has two, three or many lobes.
These are of three types.
Character Eosinophils Basophils Neutrophils

Number 2.3 % 0.4% 62%
Shape of nucleus Bilobed 2 or 3 lobed Multilobed ribbon
like
Strained with Acid dyes Basic dyes Neutral dyes
(b) Agranulocytes : In these WBC cytoplasm is clear and without granules. They are of two
types as shown below.
Character Lymphocytes Monocytes
Number range 30% 5.3%
Shape of the nucleus Round Kidney shaped
(c) Platelets : Platelets are colourless and non-nucleated irregular fragments of cells with a very
short life span. The blood of healthy man contain healthy 2,50,000 to 4,50,000 platelets
cu.mm. Platelets help in the clotting of blood.
Activity
Visit a health centre or clinical laboratory in a hospital and observe the blood report of some
patients. Make a note of number of various blood cells.
15.3 Functions of the blood

1. Transportation of oxygen from lungs to tissues and CO2 from tissues to lungs.
2. Distribution of digested food to all parts of the body.
3. Transportation of nitrogenous wastes to excretory organs such as kidneys.
4. Transportation of hormones to target organs / cells.
5. Distribution of heat uniformly to all parts of the body to maintain constant temperature.
6. Protection of the body from infections.
15.4 Blood groups

Based on the presence or absence of antigens on the RBC and antibodies in plasma, Karl
Landsteiner invented four blood groups in man. They are A, B, AB and O.
S. No. Blood group Antigens on Antibodies

the RBC Plasma
1 A A Anti B
2 B B Anti A
3. AB A, B Nil
4. O Nil Anti A,
Anti B
While transfusing blood, the antigens of the donor and the antibodies of the receipient are taken
into consideration. Antibodies of donor and antigens of recipient have relatively less importance. Different
blood groups and their compatibility are shown in the following table.
Blood group of Recipient

S. No. Blood group of donor
A B AB O
1. A − ++ + ++
2. B ++ − + ++
3. AB ++ ++ − ++
4. O + + + −
− = No agglutination / matched / compatible.
+ = Mild agglutination / can be given.
++ = Heavy agglutination / not matched / incompatible.
Due to lack of antigens on the RBC of O group persons, their blood can be given to recipient
of any blood group. Hence O group persons are described as Universal donors. The plasma
of persons with AB group have no antibodies. Hence they can receive blood from persons of
any other group. So AB group persons are described as Universal recipients.
15.5 Blood clotting

When the blood is shed due to an injury, it clots in 3-6 minutes. When blood is exposed to air,
it becomes a semi-solid jelly like mass and then prevents further loss of blood and entry of harmful
microbes. Then blood is said to be clotted. For blood clotting 12 substances are required and are
called clotting factors or coagulating factors.
The entire clotting process can be divided into following 4 stages.

Stage - I : Formation of enzyme prothrombin activator by the injured tissue cells and the
platelets.
Stage - II : Prothrombin activator activates the prothrombin of plasma into active thrombin
in presence of Ca++ ions.
Stage - III : The enzyme thrombin converts soluble fibrinogen into insoluble fibrin threads.
These microscopic threads of fibrin are sticky and form a network at the
wound.
Stage - IV : The blood cells get entangled in the meshes and together settle down as a clot
or thrombin. Light yellow fluid settles on the blood clot, known as serum.

1. What are the main circulatory fluids of our body?
2. What is plasma in blood?
3. What is the major component in Blood?
4. What is the life span of RBC?
15.6 Structure of Human Heart
Heart is located in thoracic cavity between the lungs and is enclosed by a double layered sac
called pericardium. Pericardial fluid is present between the two layers of pericardium. Heart is a
muscular pumping organ of blood and its wall is formed by cardiac muscles. The human heart consists
of 4 chambers, namely, upper two atria (left and right) and lower two ventricles (left and right). Atria
and ventricles are separated by an atrio ventricular septum. The two atria are separated by an interatrial
septum. The two ventricles are separated by inter ventricular septum.The left atrium opens into left
ventricle by left atrio – ventricular aperture. The right atrium opens into right ventricle through right
atrio – ventricular aperture.
1. Valves present in heart
a. Tricuspid valve : Present at right atrioventricular aperture and allows the blood to flow into
right ventricle only.
b. Bicuspid valve : Present at the left atrioventricular aperture and allows the blood to flow into
left ventricle only.
c. Pulmonary valve : Present at the base of pulmonary arch. It allows the blood to flow into
pulmonary arch from right ventricle.
d. Systemic valve : Present at the base of systemic arch. It allows the blood to flow into the
systemic arch from left ventricle.
Fig. 15.1 Internal structure of Heart

2. Blood vessels entering the heat
a. Superior vena cavae : A pair of superior vena cavae transport deoxygenated blood from the
upper half of the body including head, chest and arms to the right atrium.
b. Inferior vena cava : An inferior vena cava transport deoxygenated blood from the lower part
of the body and opens into right atrium.
c. Pulmonary veins : Two pairs of pulmonary veins opens into the left atrium. They transport
oxygenated blood from lungs to left atrium.
3. Blood vessels leaving the Heart
a. Pulmonary arch arises from right ventricle and after coming out of heart, it splits into two
arteries and they transport deoxygenated blood to the lungs for oxygenation.
b. Systemic arch arises from left ventricle and transports oxygenated blood to all parts of the
body through different arteries.
c. Coronary arteries arise from the base of systemic arch. They divide into right coronary artery
and left coronary artery and supply blood to cardiac muscles of heart.
Activity
Observe the Heart of the goat or sheep in a mutton shop.

1. Which is the largest blood vessel in the body that supply oxygenated blood to all parts of the
body?
2. Which blood vessel carries blood for oxygenation ?
3. How many chambers present in the heart? What are they ?
4. The septum that divides two ventricles is ______________
5. The valve that is present between left atrium and left ventricle is ____________
15.8 Cardiac cycle / Functioning of heart

As long as the organism is alive, heart rhythmically contract and relax. Contraction of heart is
called systole and relaxation is called diastole. As systole and its following diastole constitutes a heart
beat. Heart of healthy man beats about 72 times per minute.
Systole originates in a place in the wall of right atrium called sinuatrial node (pace maker). It
can generate action potentials without external stimuli. From this part wave of contraction spreads
over the heart.
The cardiac events that occur from the beginning of one heart beat to the beginning of the next
constitute a cardiac cycle. It can be divided into atrial systole, ventricular systole, cardiac diastole.
1. Atrial systole : The sinu atrial node (pace marker) generate an action potential which stimulates
both the atria to contract simultaneously causing the atrial systole. It lasts about 0.1 sec. It
increases the flow of blood from atria to ventricles by about 30%. It means atrial systole accounts
for about 30% of the filling of the ventricles the remaining blood flows into the ventricles before
the atrial systole automatically.
2. Ventricular systole : The action potentials from the SAN reach the atrio ventricular node from
where they are conducted to the ventriular musulature through the bundle of His and the Purkinje
fibres. This causes the simultaneous ventricular systole. It lasts for about 0.3 sec. The atria
undergo relaxation coinciding with the ventricular systole. Ventricular systole increases the pressure
causing the closure of the AV valves preventing the backward flow of blood. It results in the
production of the first heart sound known as Lub. As the ventricular pressure increases further,
the valves guarding the pulmonary arch and systemic arch are forced to open. As a result the
blood flows into the aortic arches and enter the circulatory pathway.
3. Cardiac diastole : The ventricles now relax and the ventricular pressure falls causing the closure
of the pulmonary and aortic valves which prevent the back flow of blood. This results in the
production of the second heart sound it known as dub. As the ventricular pressure declines
further, the AV valves are pushed open by the pressure in the atria exerted by the blood, which
reached into them through the larger veins. The blood now once again flows freely into the
ventricles. All the heart chambers are in a relaxed state (joint diastole phase). Soon another
cardiac cycle sets in.
Activity
Keep your index and middle fingers on your wrist below the thumb. You feel something
pushing your fingers rhythmically up and down. Now stand up and jog for one minute.
Note the pulse rate for a minute. Take atleast two readings of your family members or
friends in the same manner and record the following table.
Pulse rate per minute
S.No. Name of the person
At rest After jogging
15.9 Transportation in Plants

Roots are extensively branched in plant ending in million of root hairs through which they absorb
water. Roots of plants has root cap, meristematic region of cell enlargement and root air zone.
Fig. 15.2 Root hair

Main functions of roots are
1. Roots are involved in fixing the plant in soil.
2. Roots absorb water and mineral nutrients from the soil.
3. Roots transport absorbed water and mineral nutrients to all parts of the plant through xylem.
The water absorbed by roots and food prepared by leaves are supplied to the remaining parts
of the plant by vascular bundles having xylem and phloem. In the root the xylem is situated towards
the exterior while in the stem it is placed towards centre in the vascular bundle.
Every living cell acts as an osmotic system and the plasmamembrane lining the cell wall acts as
a semipermeable membrane. Observe the given diagram and notice how do roots penetrate into the
soil. You will find that the root hairs grow out into the spaces among the soil particles and that the
hairs are surrounded by moisture.
The soil water is an extremely dilute than that of the cell sap in the root hair. Therefore, water
flows into the vacuole of the root hair by osmosis. The entry of water dilutes the contents of the root
hair vacuole so that it becomes more dilute than it’s neighbouring cell. So, water passes into the
neighbouring cell which in turn becomes diluted, finally water enters the xylem vessels. As there are
large number of root hairs and root cells involved, a pressure in the xylem vessels develops which
forces the water to move upwards. This total pressure is known as root pressure. Thus water from
soil reaches the required parts of the plant. The food materials synthesised in leaves are transported
to all parts through the phloem.
Summary
Y Blood is red coloured fluid containg plasma and blood cells.
Y Blood and lymph are the circulating fluids in the body.
Y Blood cells are classified into Red Blood Cells, White Blood Cells and Platelets.
Y Granulocytes are classified into eosinophils, basophils and neutrophils.
Y Agranulocytes are classified into lymphocytes and monocytes.
Y The blood groups are described on the basis of antibodies present in plasma and antigens
present on the RBC.
Y Heart has four chambers, two atria and two ventricles.

Y Atria are separated from each other by interatrial septum and ventricles by interventricular
septum.
Y The atrioventricular apertures are guarded by valves.
Y There are valves at bases of systemic arch and pulmonary arch.
Y One contraction and its following relaxation of heart is heart beat.
Y Plants absorb soil water through roots.
Y Water is transported through xylem vessels and food material through phloem tissues.
Terminal Questions
1. What are the functions of blood ?
2. What are three main veins in the body?
3. Describe the stages in blood clotting.
4. Draw neat labelled diagram human heart.
5. How many stages present in cardiac cycle? What are they?
6. What are the function of xylem and phloem in the plants?
15.5
1. Blood and Lymph
2. Plasma is liquid matrix
3. Water (90 – 92%)
4. 4 Months (120 Days)
5. Monocytes
15.6
1. Systemic arch
2. Pulmonary arch
3. Four (two atria and two ventricles)
4. Interventricular septum
5. Bicuspid valve/mitral valve
1. Refer to 15.2
2. Refer to 15.2
3. Refer to 15.5
4. Refer to 15.6
5. Refer to 15.7
6. Refer to 15.8
1. Make a model of human heart using clay and colours.
2. Gather information about the blood groups of your family members and write them in a table.
16
Excretion - Excretory Products and their Elimination
A factory manufactures a product besides generating one or more waste products. Similarly our
body is a cellular factory in which different products are generated during metabolic activities besides
some waste materials. These waste materials are harmful to the body. Hence they are to be removed.
In plants they are packed and stored in some other forms
Excretion is the elimination of wastes that are formed during various metabolic activities in the
body. The main substances excreted are nitrogenous wastes like ammonia, urea and uric acid. Along
with these materials excess water, certain salts and organic substances are also excreted.
The main purpose of excretion is to maintain water and salt balance in the body. If the metabolic
wastes are not discharged from the body, they become toxic and harms the body.
Objectives
O know the importance of excretion in the body.
O know the modes of excretion .
O understand the structure of human excretory system.
O know the formation of urine.
O Know the role of other organs in excretion.
O The diseases of the excretory system.
16.1 Excretory organs in Animals and man

All animals do not excrete the same type of nitrogenous wastes. Some animals, like crabs and
fish excrete ammonia, while frogs and man excrete urea; insects, reptiles and birds excrete uric acid.
The type of the product excreted may change during different stages of development and according
to the availability of water. Aquatic animals prefer to excrete ammonia while insects like Silver fish,
found in old books , beneath the photo frames and calendars do not drink water throughout their life
to whom water is very scarce. They do not excrete any nitrogenous wastes, instead they store them
in the form of uric acid crystals till their death.
In man, kidneys are the chief excretory organs. Lungs and skin also help in excretion. Liver
plays an important role in the elimination of toxic substances. Certain excretory substances are excreted
through faeces.
Name of the Phylum Excretory organs

Protozoa, Coelenterata, Porifera Diffusion from the body
Platyhelminths Flame cells

Annelida Nephridia
Mollusca Metanephridia
Echinodermata Water vascular sytem

1. What is excretion. Explain its importance.
2. Name the substances excreted from the body.
3. List out the other excretory organs in animals.
4. Name the excretory substances in silver fish.
Fill in the Blanks

5. In Platyhelminths ………….. are excretory organs.
6. In molluscans ………….. are excretory organs.
7. The excretory organs in man are……………
8. ………….. are the excretory organs of annelids.

Excretion - Excretory Products and their Elimination 303

9. The main function of excretion is
(a) to maintain ionic balance. (b) to discharge body fluids.
(c) to reduce minerals. (d) to increase ions concentration
10. Identify the nitrogenous excretory substances in animals
(a) Ammonia, water, urea. (b) Ammonia, urea, water.
(c) Nitrogen, water, uric acid. (d) Ammonia, urea, uric acid.
11. The chief excretory organ in man is
(a) liver (b) heart (c) kidney (d) lungs
12. Flame cells are the excretory organs of
(a) earth worm (b) cockroach (c) Planaria (d) sponges
13. Malpighian tubules are found in
(a) Cockroach (b) Earthworm (c) Starfish (d) Leech
16.2 Human Excretory System

In human beings, excretory system consists of a pair of kidneys, a pair of ureters, urinary bladder
and urethra. The nitrogenous end product in man is urea.
Lab Activity
Aim: studying the external and internal features of a kidney.
Materials required: Freshly collected specimen of kidney of sheep/goat or 3D model of a kidney.

Sharp blade/scalpel, tray and water.
Procedure : Before coming to the class wash the kidney thoroughly. So that, blood is completely
drained from it. Put the kidney in the tray and observe it carefully. Note your observations in the
observation book. With the help of sharp blade take a longitudinal section .Here you are advised
to do this activity under the guidance of your teacher and observe the internal structure. (Don’t
forget to wash your hands with antibacterial lotion after completing dissection).
Draw what you have observed and compare it with the figure given in the Text book.
1. What is the shape of kidney?
2. What is the colour of kidney?
3. Do you find any attachments on upper portion of kidney?

4. What is the colour of the outer part in L.S. of kidney ?
5. How many tubes are coming out from kidney fissure?
Now let us know the structure of human excretory system and its functions.
1. Kidneys : In human beings a pair of reddish, bean shaped kidneys is present in the abdominal
cavity, one on each side of the vertebral column. They are attached to the inner surface of
dorsal abdominal wall. Due to presence of liver on right side, right kidney is placed at a lower
level.
Do you know ! The average weight of kidney is 120-170 gms in man
The outer surface of the kidney is convex and the inner surface is concave .The deep notch
present on the concave surface is called hilus. Renal artery, which brings blood from heart,
enters the kidney through hilus. Renal vein, which carries blood from the kidney to the heart
and ureter come out of the kidney through hilus. Each ureter is a thin walled tube. The anterior
end of ureter is wide and called pelvis. The ureters open into the urinary bladder.
Urine is stored in the urinary bladder till it is filled and then is sent out through a canal called
urethra. On the upper part of each kidney, an adrenal gland is present. It is an endocrine gland.
Fig. 16.1 Human excretory system

Internal structure of the kidney
Fig. 16.2 LS of Kidney
A longitudinal section of the human kidney shows two distinct regions, namely, outer dark
coloured zone called the cortex and pale inner zone called medulla. The medulla is divided into
many cone shaped structures called renal pyramids. Adjacent pyramids are separated by the
projections of cortex called columns of Bertin. Each pyramid terminates in the renal papilla.
Renal pyramids project into cup like calyces formed in the edges of pelvis.
2. Ureters : These are slender whitish tubes which arises from the pelvis of the kidneys. The
ureters extend downwards and open into the urinary bladder.
3. Urinary Bladder : It is a median storage sac and situated in the lower abdominal cavity. It has
muscular, distensible wall. The neck of the bladder leads into the urethra which has an internal
urethral sphincter and external urethral sphincter .Urethra opens near the vaginal orifice in the
females and through penis in the males.
4. Nephron : Each kidney has nearly one million nephrons. A nephron is the structural and functional
unit of the kidney. These are responsible for urine formation.
Efferent arteriole Proximal convoluted tubule

Glomerulus
Distal convoluted
Glomerular Capsule tubule
Afferent
Renal cortex
arteriole
Venule
Artery
Peritubular Renal medulla

Descending limb
Vein Capillaries
Ascending limb
Fig. 16.3 Nephron
Each nephron has two portions – A cup like structure called Bowman’s capsule and a tubular
portion known as renal tubule. Bowman’s capsule is two layered . Inside the kidney, the renal artery
divides into a number of arterioles. Each renal arteriole enters a Bowman’s capsule as afferent arteriole,
forms a capillary network in it and leaves as an efferent arteriole. This net of capillaries is called
glomerulus.
The renal tubule of nephron has three parts namely, proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle
and distal convoluted tubule. The distal convoluted tubules of nephrons open into collecting tubule.
Efferent arteriole form a net around the renal tubule. A venule arises from it and all such venules unite
to form a renal vein.

1. Draw a labelled diagram of human excretory system.
2. write notes on external features of kidney.
3. Explain the structure of nephron with the help of neat labeled diagram.
4. Describe the internal structure of kidney of man.

5. Name the blood vessels that enter and exit the kidney.
6. Name the structural and functional units of kidney.
7. What are the two main parts in nephron ?
8. In which parts of nephron does reabsorption occur?
9. Draw the diagram of L.S of human kidney.
10. Multiple Choice Questions
A. The capillary net in Bowman’s capsule
(a) calyces (b) pyramids (c) pelvis (d) glomerulus
B. The blood vessel that supply blood to the kidney from heart is
(a) renal vein (b) renal artery
(c) Bowman’s capsule (d) ureter
C. The blood vessel that carries blood from the kidney to the heart is
(a) renal vein (b) renal artery (c) capillary (d) arteriole
D. Find the correct set of regions of kidney from outer region to inner region
(a) cortex & medulla (b) medulla & cortex
(c) cortex& calyces (d) medulla & calyces
E. The broad end of each pyramid in kidney gives the appearance of
(a) petals (b) sepals (c) calyx (d) ovule
F. Loop of Henle and convoluted tubes in the nephron reabsorbs
(a) water &salts (b) salts only (c) only water (d) minerals only
16.3 Formation of Urine

When the blood flows into the glomerulus, it gets filtered through the pores in the walls of the
glomerular capillaries. Blood pressure provides the required pressure for this filtration. All the water
soluble low, molecular weight substances such as salts, glucose, amino acids along with nitrogenous
wastes are filtered from blood. Blood cells and proteins are not filtered through these pores. This
filtration is called ultrafiltration. The resultant fluid is called glomerular filtrate or primary urine.
Approximately 120 ml of primary urine is formed in the kidney per minute. In 24 hours, about
175 litres of primary urine is formed. However, all this is not excreted. Only one to two litres of urine
is excreted and the rest of it is reabsorbed into the body.
The reabsorption of the essential substances and water from primary urine will takes place in the
renal tubule. When the filtrate reaches the proximal convoluted tubule, the epithelial cells of the tubule
reabsorb several substances in a selective manner and transport them back to blood. Reabsorption
of water and salts also occurs in the Loop of Henle and in distal convoluted tubule. Water, salts and
other substances reabsorbed by the tubule are transported into the blood. Unabsorbed substances
along with water enter the collecting tubule and pelvis and then into urinary bladder through ureters.
Urine is produced continuously and is concentrated continuously.
Urination is a reflex action. But in elders, it is voluntary. In children, urination is an involuntary
action. Normally, when about 200 to 300 ml of urine reaches the bladder, the muscles in its wall
contract and relax after urination.

1. What do you know about filteration?
2. What do you know about re-absorption?
3. Explain the process of urine formation.
4. Draw a flow chart to explain the formation of urine.
Multiple Choice Questions.
5. Urine is formed in
(a) kidney (b) Nephron (c) ureter (d) urinary bladder
6. This is functional unit of kidney
(a) Nephron (b) cortex (c) Adrenal gland (d) medulla
7. The blood capillary that enters in to the Bowman’s capsule is
(a) efferent arteriole (b) Afferent arteriole
(c) renal vein (d) glomerulus
8. This is the first portion of tubular part of nephron
(a) Proximal convoluted tubule (b) Loop of Henle
(c) Distal convoluted tubule (d) collecting tubule
9. Find the part of nephron that is not associated with tubular part.
(a) proximal convoluted tubule (b) Distal convoluted tubule
(c) Loop of Henle (d) pyramid
10. Ravi says that urine is produced continuously .

Rama says urine is concentrated continuously.
Who is correct in respect of excretion.
(a) only Ravi is correct (b) only Rama is correct
(c) both Rama and Ravi are correct (d) both are wrong
16.4 Dialysis
In certain diseases nephrons of the kidneys fail to function normally. In such cases, blood is not
filtered and urine is not produced. As a result, waste products accumulate in the blood and they
become toxic substances. Such people may loose consciousness or may even die.
Doctors treat such patients by removing the waste

11 material from the blood artificially. The separation of
F wastes from blood by artificial method is called dialysis.
Dialysis machine is used for this purpose. Blood from
the artery is sent into the dialysis machine where it is
filtered and the filtered blood is sent into the body
through a vein. Persons whose kidneys do not function,
have to undergo dialysis once in three or four days
throughout their life or get a new kidney transplanted.
Fig. 16.4 Dialysis
1. What is dialysis?
2. Explain the process of dialysis.
3. The artificial kidney machine is called——————
16.5 Kidney transplantation

Kidney transplantation is the ultimate solution for acute kidney failure. A functional kidney is
used in transplantation from a donor, preferably a close relative ,to minimize its chances of rejection
by the immune system of the recipient.

1. What is need of Kidney tranplantation ?
2. How the Kidney is transplanted ?
16.6 Other Excretory Organs in Man

1. Lungs : Eliminate CO2 and water.
2. Liver : Eliminate bile pigments, cholesterol, degraded steroid hormones, vitamins, drugs etc.
through alimentary canal.
3. Skin : Sweat glands produce sweat to maintain constant temperature, sebaceous glands eliminate
waxes etc., as sebum.

1. Describe the role of liver, lungs and skin in excretion?
2. Name the nitrogenous compounds that are formed in the body when food components are
metabolised.
16.7 Excretion and Release of Substances in Plants

Plants do not have specific organs to excrete the wastes. As in animals, carbon dioxide, water,
ammonia and other nitrogenous wastes are formed in plants also . In the plants carbon dioxide released
during respiration is sent out through stomata of leaves. Plants discharge excess water in the form of
water vapour during transpiration by leaves to reduce heat .
The plants have the capacity to utilize the byproducts of the metabolic activity as raw materials
for another metabolic activity. For example, oxygen released during photosynthesis is utilised for respiration.
Carbon dioxide released during respiration is utilised for photosynthesis. Plants can convert nitrogen
and ammonia into nitrates. Some of the plants release attractants for other organisms that help the
plant in pollination, seed dispersal or even their nutrition. For example plants having root nodules,
secrete chemicals to attract Rhizobia and form a symbiotic relationship with the Rhizobium. These
compounds are called secondary metabolites.
The biochemical substances produced in plants are of two types. Primary , metabolites and secondary
metabolites. Food materials like carbohydrates and proteins are the primary metabolites. Alkaloids,
tannins, resins, gums, latex etc. are some of the secondary metabolites.
1. Alkaloids : As plants are immovable to protect themselves from herbivores plants stores different
types of chemicals in leaves, seeds, stems etc. These are nitrogenous by-products and poisonous.
These are stored in different parts of plants. Some of the alkaloids are used in medicines. Common
alkaloids, the giving plants and part in which they occur are given below.
Sl. No Alkaloid Plant Part

1. Quinine Cinchona officinalis Bark
2. Nicotine Nicotiana tobacum Leaf
3. Morphine Papaver somniferum Fruit
4. Reserpine Rauwolfia serpentina Fruit
5. Caffeine Coffea arabica Seed
6. Nimbin Azadirachta indica Seed, bark, leaves.
2. Tannins : Tannins are carbon compounds. These are stored in different parts of a plant and are
dark brown in colour. Tannins are used in tanning of leather and in medicines. eg. Cassia,
Acacia.
3. Resins : Occur mostly in gymnosperms in the passages called resin passages. These are used
in varnishes - e.g. Pinus.
4. Gums : Plants like Neem, Acacia secrete a sticky substance called gum when branches are cut.
The gum swell by absorbing water and help in the healing of damaged parts of plant. Economically,
gums are valuable being used in binding works, in the preparation of medicines, food, etc.
5. Latex : Latex is the milky white substance secreted by plants belonging to Euphorbiaceae,
Apocyanaceae, Asclepiadaceae and Pepaveraceae . Latex is stored in latex cells or latex vessels.
From the latex of Hevea brasialiensis (Rubber plant) rubber is prepared.
Nitrogenous substances are also found in the walls of pollen grains. These are protein substances
and when they enter our body , they cause allergy. Hence they are called allergins. They cause skin
allergy (urticaria) and asthma. Aromatic oils and scents occur in the leaves of lemon grass, Ocimum,
eucalyptus etc.

1. Mention the parts of plants where alkaloids are stored.
2. What are the excretory products formed in plants?
3. Mention the advantages of transpiration.
4. Describe Tannins and mention two uses of tannins.
5. What is latex? Mention the use of latex.
6. Fill in the Blanks
1. Carbon dioxide formed in plants is eliminated through———————.
2. Excess water is discharged by plants through leaves during ————.
3. Alkaloid present in tobacco leaf is …………

1. The alkaloid in the leaf of Neem
(a) Morphine (b) Nimbin (c) Quinine (d) Casein
2. The latex of Hevea brasialiensis gives
(a) Rubber (b) Alkaloids (c) Oil (d) Dyes
3. The alkaloid that is extracted from bark of Cinchona is
(a) Quinine (b) Nicotine (c) Reserpine (d) Nimbin
4. The extraction of this alkaloid from seeds of Neem plant is
(a) Morphine (b) Nicotine (c) Reserpine (d) Nimbin
Summary
Y Elimination of wastes formed during metabolism is called Excretion
· The aim of excretion is to maintain ionic balance andwater balance in the body
Y When carbohydrates, fats and proteins are oxidised in the body, water, carbon dioxide and
nitrogenous wastes are formed as end products.
Y Nitrogenous substances are the end products of amino acids and nuclic acid metabolism.
If they retained in the body. They become toxic so they are to be excreted.
Y Animals degrade amino acids and excrete them in the form of ammonia, urea,or uric acid.
Y All animals have excretory organs of except in protozoa, coelentarates and echinodermata.
Y In all vertebrates ,kidneys are the excretory organs.
Y Kidney are the chief excretory organs in man. A pair of kidneys,a pair of ureters and a
urinary bladder are the parts in excretory system. The kidneys are bean shaped.
Y On each kidney kidney adrenal gland is present which is an endocrine gland and has no role
in excretion.
Y On concave edge of kidney is a notch called hilus.Renal artery enters the kidney while the
renal vein and ureter leave the kidney through hilus.
Y Ureters open into urinary bladder.It is a muscular sack and communicates to outside through
urethra.
Y The outer region of kidney is cortex.Inner region of kidney is medulla in which there are
9-12 pyramids.
Y Kidney consists of several thousands of nephrons which are the basic structural and functional
units.
Y Nephron consists of Bowman’s cup and Renal tubule.
Y Renal tubule consists of proximal convoluted tubule,loop of henle and distal convoluted tubule.
The nephrons open into collecting ducts.
Y Wastes are filtered in Bowman’s capsule.

Y The Artificial kidney that filters wastes from blood is called dialysis machine.
Y Alkaloids, Tannins, resins, gums and latex are secondary metabolic products.
Y Alkaloids are nitrogenous compounds. They are poisonous.
Y Tannins are carbon compounds.
Y Resins are secretory substances formed in resin passages.These are found mainly in
gymnosperms.
Y Latex is a milky white or yellow liquid and is present in latex cells or passages in plants.
Terminal Questions
1. What is excretion and what is its importance?
2. What are the biochemical substances produced in plants? Explain with examples?
3. Write notes on excretory organs and excretory products of any five organisms?
4. Describe the structure of kidney of man.
5. Describe the structure of nephron and its role in the excretion.
6. Draw the diagram of L.S. of kidney and label the parts.
7. Write a notes on Kidney transplantation.
8. Write notes on secondary metabolites in plants.

16.1
1. Excretion is the elimination of wastes that are formed during metabolism of various substances
in the body. If the metabolic wastes are not discharges from the body, they may become
toxic and harmful to the body .hence these are removed from time to time.
2. The main nitrogenous substances excreted from the body are ammonia, urea, uric acid ,excess
water, salts, poisons and organic substances.
3. Name of the organism Excretory organ
Protozoans Diffusion from the body surface
Coelenterates, Poriferans Cells bathing in water
Planaria Flame cells
Annelids Nephridium
Molluscs Metanephridia
Human beings Kidneys, lungs, skin, large intestine, liver

4. The Silver fish do not excrete any nitrogenous wastes instead they store them in the form of uric
acid.
Fill in the blanks:
5. Flame
6. Meta nephridia
7. Kidneys
8. Nephridium
9. a 10. d 11. c
12. c 13. a.
16.2
1. Diagram of human excretory system.
2. Kidneys are bean shaped reddish brown structures in the abdominal cavity. The outer surface
of the kidney is convex and the inner surface is concave. The renal artery and nerves enter into
the Kidney through the hilus. The renal vein and ureter exit the kidney through hilus.
3. Each kidney has nearly one million nephrons. A nephron is the structural and functional unit of
the kidney. Each nephron has two portions.-A cup shaped Bowman’s capsule and a tubular
portion known as renal tubule. The capillary net formed in bowman’s capsule by afferent and
efferent arterioles is called glomerulus. These are responsible for urine formation.
4. The internal structure of kidney shows two distinct regions outer dark coloured cortex and pale
inner zone called medulla. Medulla divided into renal pyramids. Each pyramid terminates in the
renal papilla. Renal pyramids project into cup like calyces formed in the edges of pelvis.
5. The renal artery and nerves enter the renal vein and ureter exit the kidney at hilus.
6. The structural and functional units of the kidney are Nephrons.
7. The two porions of the nephrons are
a) Bowmans capsule. b) Renal tubule
8. In the renal tubule re-absorption occurs at proximal convoluted tubule,loop of Henle and in
distal convoluted tubule.
9. Digram of L.S of kidney
10. Multiple choice Questions
A) d B) b C) a
D) a E) b F) a
16.3
1. The capillary net formed in bowman’s capsule by afferent and efferent arterioles called glomerulus.
When blood flows in to the glomerulus,it gets filtered through the pores in the walls of the
capillaries. Small molecular weight substances such as salts, glucose, acids along with nitrogenous
wastes are filtered from blood. The blood cells and proteins are not filtered through the pores
in the walls of the capillaries.
2. Approximately 120 ml of urine is formed in the kidney per minute. In 24 hours, about 175 litres
of urine is formed. However, all this not excreted .Only one to two litres of urine is excreted
and the rest of it is reabsorbed in to the body. Re-absorption occurs at proximal convoluted
tubule, loop of henle and distal convoluted tubule.
3. Re-absorption of the substances from primary urine produced will takes place in the renal tubule.
When filtrate reaches the proximal convoluted tubule, the epithelial cells of the tubule re-absorb
water, salts and other substances re-absorbed by the tubule are transported into the blood.
Unabsorbed substances along with water enter the collecting duct and pelvis and then into urinary
bladder through ureters. Urine is produced continuously and is concentrated continuously.
4. Renal artery Afferent arteriole Bowmans capsule proximal convoluted tubule
loop of henle distal convoluted tubule collecting duct.
5. B 6. A 7. B 8. A 9. D 10. C
16.4
1. The separation of wastes from blood by artificial method is called dialysis.
2. In certain disease conditions, the kidneys fail to function normally. In such cases, blood is not
filtered and urine is not produced. As a result, waste products accumulate in the blood and they
become toxic to the body. Such patients are treated with dialysis .In dialysis blood from the
artery is sent into the dialysis machine where it is filtered and the filtered blood is sent ito the
body through a vein.
3. Dialysis Machine
16.5
1. Kidney transplantation is the ultimate solution for acute kidney failure.
2. A functional kidney is used in transplantation from a donar, preferably a close relative ,to minimize
its chances of rejection by the immune system of the receipient.
16.6
1. Liver eliminate bile pigments, cholesterol, degraded steroid hormones, vitamins, drugs etc. through
alimentary canal. Lungs eliminate cabon-di-oxide. Skin maintain constant temperature, sebaceous
glands eliminates waxes as sebum.
2. Ammonia, urea, uric acid are the nitrogenous compounds that are formed in the body when food
compounds are metabolised.
16.7
1. Bark, leaf, fruit, seeds are the parts of plants where alkaloids are stored.
2. Alaloids ,tannins, resins, gums, latex, allergines, aromatic oils and scents are the excretory products
formed in plants.
3. Transpiration reduce plant heat.
4. Tannins are deep brown in colour and are used in tanning of leather and in medicines .
5. Latex is the milky white substance secreted by plants belonging to Euphorbiaceae, Apocyanaceae,
Asclepiadaceae and pepavaraceae. From the latex of Hevea braziliensis rubber is prepared.
6. Fill in the blanks:
(1) Stomata
(2) Transpiration
(3) Nicotine
1. b 2. a 3. a 4. d

1. Refer to 16.1 2. Refer to 16.7 Table 3. Refer to 16.1

1. Collect the urine reports of 10 members from your near Kidney Protection center and make an
analysis report.
2. Visit the dialysis center and observe the Process of Dialysis. Write about Dialysis Process ?
17
Control and Coordination
Consider you are on a road, a vehicle is coming towards you, what makes you identify that?
Yes, your eyes and if horn was blown, your ears. The eyes, ears, nose, tongue and skin are our sense
organs that detect the changes happening around us. But how our body respond to those changes?
In the previous example, your eyes detected the vehicle by seeing and your ears detected the sound
of horn but to move aside, the muscles in your legs have to work. What brings the coordination among
these organs? When you eat food, digestive juices are secreted. But they are secreted only when there
is some food in the alimentary canal and so long as the food has to be digested. How is this happening?
Can you tell how various organs perform their functions accurately at the right time? Do you know
which organs are responsible for our thoughts, feelings, emotions and behavior? Do you know how
the growth and development in our body is happening in a systematic way? Do the plants show
response to the changes in the environment? You will get answers to such questions in this lesson.
Objectives
O explain the importance of nervous system in control and coordination of various activities of
the body
O recognise major components of the nervous system and enlist its functions
O describe the structure of nerve cell and its role in the transmission of nerve impulses
O identify the location and explain the functions of brain and spinal cord
O appreciate the role of reflex actions in protecting our body
O differentiate somatic nervous system from autonomic nervous system and sympathetic nervous
system from parasympathetic nervous system
O analyse the role of some of the endocrine glands in regulating our growth and behavior
O explain the role of phytohormones in growth and coordination of plants
17.1 Neural Coordination

The functions of the organs or organ systems in our body must be coordinated to maintain
homeostasis. Coordination is a process through which two or more organs interact and complement
the function of one another. In our body the neural system and endocrine system jointly coordinate
and integrate all the activities of the organs so that they function in a synchronized fashion.
The neural system provides an organized network of point-to-point connections for a quick
coordination. It can sense the changes in the internal and external environment through special cells
called receptors and show response to them.
The neural system is made up of two types of cells. They are Nerve cells and Glial cells. Nerve
cells are the functional units of nervous system. They receive the information, analyse that and produce
response. Glial cells are supporting cells. They provide nutrients and protection to the nerve cells.
Nerve cells (Neuron)

1. In general a nerve cell consists of three parts.
(i) Cell body ( Cyton or Perikarya) contains cytoplasm and a large
nucleus with one or two nucleoli. It has cell organelles like other
cells. Cytoplasm contain large granules called Nissil granules. Nissil
granules are groups of ribosomes made up of RNA and proteins.
Cell body is the center for all the synthetic activities of the nerve
cell. It transmit the impulse to the axon.
(ii) Dendrites are cytoplasmic processess formed from the cell body.
Their number varies from one to thousands. They are short, branched
structures. They lack Nissil granules. They transmit information
from other neurons or from sense organ to cyton.
Fig. 17.1 Nerve Cell

Control and Coordination 319
(iii) Axon (Nerve fiber) is a long process arising from the cell body. In most neurons it is covered
by a fatty layer called myelin sheath. This myelin sheath is absent at intervals and that parts are
called nodes of Ranvier. The terminal part of the axon is divided into branches called axon
terminals or teledendrites. Axons transmit impulses
from cyton to other neurons or effector organs.
The axon terminals are swollen and store

chemicals called neurotransmitters. Axon bulbs are
closely placed near the dendrites of next neuron. The
junction of two neurons is called synapse. The space
at the synapse separating the two neurons is called
synoptic cleft. Through the synapse information passes
from one neuron to the other, either in the form of
chemicals (neurotransmitters) or in the form of electrical
discharge (electrical impulse). Finally the information
is delivered from neurons to other cells, for example,
the muscle cells or glands to elicit the desired action. Fig. 17.2 Synapse
There are three types of neurons.
1. Sensory neurons transmit

impulses from sense organs
(receptors) to brain or
spinal cord.
2. Motor neurons transmit

the impulse from brain and
spinal cord to the effector
organ (muscle or gland).
3. Association neurons are

located in the brain and
spinal cord and
interconnect the sensory
and motor neurons.
Fig. 17.3 Types of neurons

Do you know?
When a stimuli is applied on the neuron at the junction of cyton with the axon, 0.055 volts
or 55 millivolts of electric current is produced. This is called action potential or nerve impulse.
In the form of nerve impulse information passes from one nerve cell to the other in our body.
Nerves
Nerves are bundles of axons and are covered by perineurium. Based on the function, nerves
are divided into the three types.
(i) Sensory nerves (Afferent nerves) contain sensory nerve fibers. They transmit impulses from
the sense organs to the brain or spinal cord.
(ii) Motor nerves (Efferent nerves) contain motor fibers. They transmit impulses from brain or
spinal cord to the effector organs like muscles or glands.
(iii) Mixed nerves contain both sensory and motor fibers and perform a mixed function.
Do you know?
Nerve cells do not have the ability to divide. They divide by mitosis, only during the
embryonic stage. They lose their ability to divide after differentiation. No new nerve cells are
formed to replace the dead or damaged ones. In diseases like polio, virus damage the motor
nerves. As a result muscles in the affected parts does not work properly.
Major divisions of the nervous system

Human nervous system has two main divisions. Central Nervous System (CNS) that includes
brain and spinal cord and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) which includes cranial nerves and spinal
nerves. The major divisions of the Nervous system are summarized in the chart given below.
Nervous System
Central nervous system (CNS) Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
Brain Spinal Cord Somatic nervous system Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
(ganglionated nerve chains & nerve
ganglia in visceral organs)
Cranial nerves Spinal nerves

(12 pairs) (31 pairs)
Sympathetic Parasympathetic
nervous system nervous system
Accelerate heart beat, dilates Restores normal
pupil, constricts blood vessels, body condition
releases sugar from liver.

1. The two types of cells present in the Nervous tissue are
(i) _________________ (ii) _________________
2. The three parts of a nerve cell are
(i) _________________ (ii) _________________
(iii) _______________
3. What is synapse?
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
4. What are the major divisions of nervous system? What do they consisting of?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
5. An axon is ( )
(a) A bundle of dendrites (b) A nerve fiber
(c) A bundle of nerve fibers (d) The sheath of a nerve fiber
6. The neurons that carry impulses from sense organs to brain or spinal cord are ( )
(a) Sensory neuron (b) Motor neuron
(c) Association neuron (d) Connecting neuron
17.2 Central Nervous System

The central nervous system
includes the brain and spinal cord.
Brain
Brain is the site of information
processing and control. It is a very
delicate organ. It is lodged and protected
in a bony box in skull called cranium. In
the cranium, brain is covered by three
membranes called meninges, namely,
outer dura matter, middle arachinoid
matter and inner pia matter. Among these
meninges cerebrospinal fluid is present.
It gives protection to the brain and spinal
cord from physical shocks and blows.
Fig. 17.4 Brain
The brain can be divided into three major parts called 1) Fore brain, 2) Mid brain
and 3) Hindbrain. The parts of the brain and their functions are summarised in the following table.
Major Part Part Description Function
Forebrain Olfactory bulb Club shaped bodies, Visible from sense of smell
the ventral surface
Cerebrum *Cerebrum it is the largest Seat of mental abilities,

portion of the brain. thinking, memory,
*Longitudinally divided into left reasoning, perception,

and right cerebral hemispheres. emotions and speech.
*The two hemispheres are Interprets sensations and

. internally connected by corpus responds to cold, heat,
callosum. pain and pressure.
* The neural cell bodies are

concentrated to form grey
matter from cerebral cortex.
* Cerebral cortex show many
convolutions (ridges/folds) called
gyri and grooves called sulci.
*Gyri and sulci increases the sur-
face area of the cerebral cortex.
*Cerebral medulla consists of
myelinated axons and
forms white matter.
*Each cerebral hemisphere is
divided into four lobes namely
frontal, parietal, temporal and
occipital lobes.
Diencephalon Epithalamus is the roof of
diencephalon. It is a non nervous
part. Epithelium of it forms a
pineal stalk and pineal body.
Thalamus lies above midbrain Major coordinating center

for sensory and motor
signaling
Hypothalamus lies at the base Integrates activities of
of the thalamus. Pituitary gland/ autonomic nervous system
attached to this through controls water balance,
infundibulum body temperature, sleep,
hunger, thirst, emotions
such as anger and satiety.
Midbrain Located between thalamus and Relay impulses between
hypothalamus of the forebrain forebrain to hindbrain and
and pons varolii of the hindbrain. optic lobes are centres of
It consists of four optic lobes. eye sight and hearing.
venturally midbrain contain nerve
tracts called crura cerebri.
Hindbrain Cerebellum Second largest part. Maintains equilibrium,
(Gyroscope posture, muscle tone
of the body)
Pons varolii In front of the cerebellum, below Relay station between
the midbrain and above the cerebellum, spinal cord
medulla oblongata and rest of the brain.
Control respiratory
movements.
Medulla Posterior part of brain. Posteriorly Controls cardiac,
oblongata continued as spinal cord. respiratory and vasomotor
activities. Coordinates
reflexes like swallowing,
vomiting, sneezing ,
coughing
Do you know?
Human brain is considered as the most complicated organ in the animal kingdom. It contain
hundred billions of neurons. It weighs approximately 1400 grams (1375 grams in male, 1275
grams in female). Though the brain comprises little more than 2% of the body weight, it uses
20% of the whole body energy. It consumes 20% of oxygen consumed by our body. It Depends
on glucose only for its energy requirements. Right cerebral hemisphere of our brain controls the
left parts of our body and vice versa.
The spinal cord

The spinal cord is located in the
neural canal of the vertebral column.
Like brain it is protected by three spinal
meninges called dura mater, arachnoid
mater and pia mater. The internal
anatomy of the spinal cord shows H
shaped or butterfly shaped central area
of gray meter surrounded by the outer
white matter. There is a narrow central
canal in the center which extends Fig. 17.5 Cross section of Spinal cord
through the entire length and continuous
with the cavities of the brain. It is filled
with cerebrospinal fluid.
Spinal cord is concerned with the following functions.

1. It control the reflexes below the neck.
2. It conducts sensory impulses from the skin and muscles to the brain. and
3. It conducts motor responses from the brain to muscles of the trunk and limbs.

1. The central nervous system consists of ____________ and ______________.
2. Name the three meninges.
1 ._________________ 2. __________________ 3.____________________
3. What are the functions of midbrain?
_______________________________________________________________________
4. The outer and inner regions of the spinal cord are composed of _________________ and
_______________ matters respectively.
5. Which part of the brain controls the body temperature? ( )
(a) Cerebrum (b) Cerebellum
(c) Hypothalamus (d) Medulla oblongata
6. The spinal cord lies within the ( )
(a) Alimentary canal (b) Neural canal
(c) Spinal canal (d) Eustachian canal
7. Fill the empty boxes.
Olfactory bulbs
Forebrain
Diencephalon Thalamus
17.3 Reflex Action

When you touch a
hot pan accidentally, you
withdraw your hand
immediately. When strong
light fall on your eyes, you
blink your eyes
immediately. All these are
reflexes or reflex actions.
They protect our body
from dangerous and
harmful stimuli. Reflexes
are spontaneous,
immediate, automatic,
involuntary actions carried Fig. 17.6 Reflex arc
out by spinal cord often independent of brain. The path followed by impulse during reflex is called
reflex arc. The components of reflex arc and their functions were given in the table.
S.No Name of the component Function
1 Receptors/ Sense organ Receive the stimuli and produce the impulses
2 Sensory nerve/afferent nerve Transmit the impulse from sense organ to the spinal
cord
3 Inter neuron / association It process the information and produce the response
neuron
4 Motor nerve / efferent nerve Transmit the responses from the inter neuron of
the spinal cord to effector organ
5 Effector organ It work according to the response given

1. Define reflexes.
________________________________________________________________________
2. Given below are the different components of reflex arc. Arrange them in a correct sequence.
Effector organ, spinal cord, sensory nerve, receptor, motor nerve
________________________________________________________________________
17.4 Peripheral nervous system
Peripheral nervous system connect the central nervous system with the sense organs muscles
and glands of the body. The peripheral nervous system is formed by the nerves connected to the brain
(cranial nerves) and spinal cord (spinal nerves).
(i) Cranial nerves are the nerves that are connected to the brain. There are 12 pairs of cranial
nerves in our body. Functionally some of them are sensory, some are motor and remaining
are mixed nerves.
(ii) Spinal nerves are the nerves connected to the spinal cord. There are 31 pairs of spinal
nerves. All the spinal nerves are mixed nerves.
Somatic nervous system

The somatic nervous system includes both sensory and motor nerves. The sensory neurons conduct
sensory impulses from the different somatic receptors to central nervous system. All the sensations
normally are consciously perceived. Somatic motor neurons innervate the skeletal muscles and produce
voluntary movements. The action of a single somatic motor neuron extends from central nervous system
all the way to the skeletal muscle fibers. In the somantic nervous system the effect of somatic motor
neuron always in excitation.
Autonomic nervous system

This system controls the involuntary actions of the internal organs. The two parts of the autonomic
nervous system are sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems
Sympathetic nervous system
It originates in the thoracic and lumbar regions of the spinal cord. It becomes more active during
times of stress and prepare the body to face them. It accelerates the involuntary actions of the body
except digestion and reproduction. Its action during stress response comprise the fight or flight response
that is manifested largely under the influence of the hormone adrenaline. So it is also called as fight
or flight nervous system.
Parasympathetic nervous system

It originates in the cranial region of the brain and sacral region of the spinal cord. It becomes
active during relaxing time, restore the normal activity after stress. It slowdowns the involuntary actions
of the body except digestion and reproduction. So it is also called as rest and digest nervous system.
You can understand more about autonomic nervous system by studying the following diagram.
Fig. 17.7 Autonomic nervous System
Do you know?
Research in the past two decades has brought out an interesting fact other than central
nervous system and peripheral nervous system, there is a system of neurons present in our
digestive tract that can function even independently of either CNS or PNS. It has been
nicknamed as a second brain and the system is called as enteric nervous system.

1. Name the two types of nerves present in peripheral nervous system.
(i) _____________________ (ii) ______________________
2. What happens to the salivary glands when sympathetic nervous system is active?
________________________________________________________________________
3. Which nervous system is called rest and digest nervous system? Why?
________________________________________________________________________
17.5 Chemical coordination in human beings
The neural system provides a point to point rapid coordination among organs, which is rather
short lived when compared to the chemical coordinating system. As the nerve fibers do not innervate
all the cells of the body and the cellular functions need to be continuously regulated, special kind of
coordination and integration has to be provided. This function is performed by the endocrine glands
through their secretions called hormones. The endocrine system regulates the functions that do not
require instantaneous response and effects persists for a relatively longer period.
Endocrine system
Endocrine system consists of discreet tissues or organs called endocrine glands and their secretions.
These glands lack ducts to transport their secretions to site of action and hence called ductless glands.
The secretions of these glands are called hormones and are directly released into blood or lymph and
reach their target cells, tissues or organs. Hormones play an important role in the control, coordination
and regulation of the functioning of tissues, organs and systems in the body. Well harmonized mechanisms
regulate the release of very precise quantities of hormones to achieve optimal functioning of the human
body. The endocrine system is responsible for the chemical coordination in our body.
Study the following picture to learn about some important endocrine glands, the hormones they
secrete, the effect they have in the body.
Fig. 17.8 Endocrine System

Do you know?
Pancreas consists of both exocrine part and endocrine part. The exocrine part of the
pancreas secretes enzymes and helps in digestion. The endocrine part of the pancreas called
islets of Langerhans secretes the hormones, insulin and Glucagon that regulates the glucose level
in blood. Hence it is considered as mixed gland of the body.
Human hormonal disorders

When hormones are secreted in normal quantities dynamic effect is exerted in the maintenance
of homeostasis and regulation of biological processes. If the production of the hormones is imbalanced
by over production or under production, the biological process are disturbed and abnormality occur.
Some important disorders caused by hypo or hyper secretion of hormones were mentioned below.
Hypersecretion of growth stimulating hormone (GH) by pituitary gland during childhood leads
to gigantism. This is over growth of the skeleton resulting in abnormal height of the affected person.
Hyposecretion of GH during childhood retards growth resulting in a pituitary dwarf.
Do you know?
Pituitary gland is a small gland located on the ventral surface of the brain attached to
hypothalamus. It secretes several hormones like growth hormone, thyrotropin, gonadotropin,
follicle stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone. Adrenocortico tropic hormone etc. It can control
all other endocrine glands present in the body. So it is called master gland of the body. It acts
as link between nervous system and endocrine system.
Thyroid gland produces two major hormones namely thyroxin (tetraiodothyronine) and
triiodothyronine. They play important role in the regulation of the basal metabolic rate. Iodine is necessary
for the normal rate of hormone synthesis in the thyroid. Inadequate supply of iodine in the diet results
in hypothyroidism enlargement of thyroid gland. This condition is called simple goiter. During pregnancy
due to hypothyroidism defective development of the growing baby leads to a disorder called cretinism.
Physical and mental growth will be retarded due to untreated congenital hypothyroidism. Over activity
in the thyroid lead to hyperthyroidism which affects the physiology of the body.
Over activity of parathyroid gland (hyperparathyroidism) causes excess decalcification leading
to bone deformities and fractures. Under activity of parathyroid gland (hypoparathyroidism) leads to
tetany characterized by prolonged contraction of muscles.
Under secretion of insulin by the pancreas increases the level of glucose in blood (hyperglycemia).
Prolonged hyperglycemia leads to a disease called diabetes mellitus, associated with loss of glucose
through urine. Hypersecretion of insulin leads to decreased level of glucose in the blood (hypoglycemia)
resulting in insulin shock.
Do you know?
Vasopressin is a hormone synthesized by the hypothalamus, stored and released by the
pituitary gland. It stimulates the reabsorption of water and electrolytes from the urine and controls
the amount of urine to be excreted. Deficiency of this hormone causes a disease called diabetes
insipidus. It is not normal sugar disease. Excess urination without glucose in the urine is the
primary characteristic feature of this disease.

1. The secretions of endocrine glands are called ______________.
2. __________ carry the hormones from endocrine glands to the target tissue.
3. Why endocrine glands are called ductless glands?
______________________________________________________________________
4. Hyposecretion of insulin causes ( )
(a) Diabetes (b) Goiter (c) Cretinism (d) Gigantism
5. Which of the following hormone is secreted by the Thyroid gland ( )
(a) Prolactin (b) Thyroxin (c) Adrenaline (d) Insulin
17.6 Coordination in plants

So far you have studied how control mechanisms work in our body. Do plants also have control
systems? Do they respond to stimuli? When a seed germinates, the root goes down, the stem comes
up into the air. When you touch the leaves of touch me not plant, they begin to fold up and droop.
You might have observed the tendrils of plants growing towards a support. All these confirms that
there is control and coordination in plants. But the question is - how is it happening?
Plant growth regulators

Plants do not have well defined nervous system or endocrine system. But they do have some
mechanism of control by means of some chemicals or hormones. These hormones are called phyto-
hormones, control responses towards the stimuli. They coordinates the activities of the plant usually
by controlling one or other aspect of the growth of the plant. So they are called plant growth regulators
or growth substances. Some major plant hormones and their actions are given in the following table.
Type of Phyto- Name of Phyto- Uses

hormone hormone
Plant Auxins Cell elongation and differentiation of shoots and roots
Growth Gibberellins Germination of seeds and sprouting of buds, elongation
Promoters of stems, stimulation of flowering, development of fruit,
breaking the dormancy in seeds and buds, formation of
seedless fruits
Cytokines Promote cell division , promotion of sprouting of lateral
buds, delaying the ageing in leaves, opening of stomata
Plant Abscisic acid Closing of stomata, seed dormancy, shedding of leaves
Growth Ethylene Ripening of fruit
Inhibitors
Movements in plants
Activity
Fill a beaker with water cover the neck of the beaker with a wire mesh. Keep two or three
fleshly germinated bean seeds on the wire mesh. Take a cardboard box which is open from one
side. Keep the beaker in the box in such a manner that the open side of the box faces light
coming from a window. After 2-3 days, you will notice that the shoots bend towards light and
roots away from light. Now turn the beaker so that the shoots are away from light and roots
towards light. Leave it undisturbed in this condition for a few days. What will you observe? The
old parts of the shoot and root changed their direction.
Above activity shows that movement of individual parts of plants is possible when they are
subjected to external stimuli. This type of response is called tropism or tropic movement.
Observe a potted plant kept near the window in a room. What will you observe? You will
observe that the plant bend and growing towards the light. This is because more auxin collects on the
opposite side of the light, which induce cell growth. As a result cell on that side grow faster and make
the stem bend towards the light. Such type of response of a plant to light is called phototropism. Shoot
is positively phototropic and root is negatively phototropic.
You know that roots always grow downwards. It means plants respond for gravitational force.
This type of response to gravity is called geotropism. Shoot is negatively geotropic and root is positively
geotropic.
If you observe plant which grow near a rock, you will notice that all roots are growing away
from the rock where water is available in the soil. This type of response to water is called hydrotropism.
Creepers like cucumber, bitter gourd grow towards support and wind around them with the help
of tendrils. This type of response to make contact or touch is called thigmotropism.
Ripen stigma secretes a sugary substance. When pollen grains fall on them, this chemical substance
stimulates the pollen grains to produce pollen tube. This type of response to chemical is called chemotropism.
Do you know?
Sometimes the direction of movement may not be determined by direction of stimuli. This
type of response is called nastic movement. If you touch the leaves of touch me not plant,
irrespective of the direction of touch, leaves always folds in single direction. This is called thigmonasty.

1. ___________are the chemical substances that bring control and coordination in plants.
2. Showing response to touch is called ________________________.
3. What will happen if potted plant was kept near the window? Why?
_______________________________________________________________________
4. Which of the following phyto hormone is responsible for seed dormancy ( )
(a) Auxin (b) Cytokinins (c) Abscisic acid (d) Ethylene
(i) Auxins ( ) (a) Delaying the ageing of leaves
(ii) Gibberellins ( ) (b) Ripening of fruit
(iii) Cytokinins ( ) (c) Differentiation of shoots and roots
(iv) Abscisic acid ( ) (d) Elongation of stem
(v) Ethylene ( ) (e) Closing of stomata
Summary
Y Nervous system and endocrine system are the two systems that control and coordinate various
functions in the body.
Y The neuron is the basic unit of nervous system. There are three types of neurons- sensory,
motor and association neurons.
Y The functional junction of two neurons at the nerve terminal of the axon of one neuron with
the dendrite of other neuron is called a synapse.
Y The human nervous system is studied under two divisions. The central nervous system and
the peripheral nervous system.
Y The central nervous system consists of brain and spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system
is further divided into somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system.
Y The autonomous nervous system has two parts- sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous
systems, which cause physical reactions opposite to each other.
Y The reflex action is defined as a spontaneous, automatic and the mechanical response to a
stimulus controlled by the spinal cord without involvement of the brain.
Y The path followed by the impulse during reflex action is called reflex arc
Y Our body has a number of endocrine glands which produce chemical secretions called hormones
Y These hormones are carried by blood to the target organ situated elsewhere in the body to
achieve the desired effect.
Y If the production of the hormones is imbalanced by our production or under production, the
biological process are disturbed and abnormalities occur.
Y Coordination in plants is brought out by plant hormones called plant growth regulatory substances.
Some of the plant growth promoters are auxins, gibberellins, and cytokinins while plant growth
inhibitors are abscisic acid and ethylene.
Y When plants are subjected to external stimuli, they show movements in their individual parts.
Such movements are called tropic movements. Phototropism, Geotropism, Hydrotropism,
Thigmotropism and Chemotropism are some of the tropic movements.
Terminal Questions
1. Describe the structure of nerve cell?
2. What are nerves describe various types of nerves?

3. How brain is getting protection?
4. Write the functions performed by each of the following.

(a) Olfactory bulbs (b) Hypothalamus (c) Cerebellum
(d) Medulla oblongata (e) Midbrain.
5. Describe the structure and function of spinal cord.
6. When a barefoot person accidentally steps on a pin what will be his or her immediate response?
Explain how this reaction is processed by the nervous system?
7. Differentiate sympathetic nervous system from parasympathetic nervous system.
8. What is the need of having endocrine system in human body explain?
9. Raju said that the hormone levels should be maintained in balance. Do you support him explain
with example.
10. What are plant growth regulating substance? Explain their importance in the plant body.
11. Write a short notes on tropic movements in plants.
12. How can you demonstrate phototropism in plants?
13. Draw a neat labeled diagram of nerve cell.

17.1
1. (i) Nerve cell / neuron (ii) Glial cells
2. (i) Cell body / Cyton (ii) Dendrites (iii) Axon / Nerve fiber
3. The functional junction of two neurons at the nerve terminal of the axon of one neuron with the
dendrite of other neuron is called a synapse. Or The junction of two neurons is called synapse.
4. Human nervous system has two main divisions. Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral
Nervous System (PNS). Central Nervous System (CNS) includes brain and spinal cord and
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) includes cranial and spinal nerves.
5. B 6. A
17.2
1. Brain, Spinal cord
2. (i) Dura matter (ii) Arachnoid matter (iii) Pia matter
3. Relay impulses between forebrain and lower parts. Shows reflexes for sight and hearing
4. White, Gray
5. C 6. B
7. Cerebrum, Epithalamus, Hypothalamus
17.3
1. Reflexes are spontaneous, immediate, automatic, involuntary actions carried out by spinal cord
often independent of brain.
2. Receptor, Sensory nerve, Spinal cord, Motor nerve, Effector organ
17.4
1. (i) Cranial Nerves (ii) Spinal Nerves
2. Secretion of saliva will be inhibited.
3. Parasympathetic nervous system become active during relaxing time, restore the normal activity
after stress. It slowdown the involuntary actions of the body except digestion and reproduction.
So it is also called as rest and digest nervous system.
17.5
1. Hormones
2. Blood
3. Endocrine glands don’t have ducts (tubes) to carry their secretions out. So they are called Ductless
glands.
4. A
5. B
17.6
1. Phyto hormones / Plant Growth Regulatory Substances
2. Thigmotropism
3. If a potted plant was kept near the window in a room. The plant bend and grow towards the
light. This is because more auxin collects on the opposite side of the light, which induce cell
growth. As a result cell on that side grow faster and make the stem bend towards the light. This
type of response of a plant to light is called phototropism.
4. C
5. C, D, A, E, B

1. Refer to 17.1
2. Refer to 17.1
3. Refer to 17.2
4. Refer to 17.2
5. Refer to 17.2
6. Refer to 17.3
7. Refer to 17.4
8. Refer to 17.5
9. Refer to 17.5
10. Refer to 17.6
11. Refer to 17.6
12. Refer to 17.6
13. Refer to 17.1
O Find out what the Government of India recommend for prevention of iodine deficiency and
goiter.
O Find out how the farmers are using plant growth regulators in horticulture.
18
Reproduction
There are many living and nonliving things around us. The living organisms produce their identical
ones to sustain their population constantly. The process of producing their identical ones is known as
reproduction. Reproduction is one of the main features of living organisms. If any living community
cannot reproduce, it leads to extinction.
In this lesson let us study about the different modes of reproduction, the changes in adolescence
in human beings, reproduction, development, population growth, the birth controlling methods and
reproductive health. And also let us learn about the methods of reproduction in plants, modern techniques
and artificial growth in plants.
Objectives
O understand that the reproduction is one of the important features of living organisms.
O understand that the plants and animals differ in reproduction modes. Also understand the
advantages of artificial and vegetative propagation.
O understand the importance of adolescent age, sanitation and effects of child marriages.
O understand the structure of human sexual organs, fertilization, embryonic, development and
child birth.
O understand the sexually transmitted diseases, reproductive health and contribution towards
healthy society.
O understand the structure of flower, sexual reproduction, seed formation etc.
O differentiate the sexual and asexual reproduction.
18.1 Reproduction in Animals

There are two modes of reproduction in animals. They are 1. sexual reproduction and 2. asexual
reproduction. Sexual reproduction is the mode of reproduction in which union of gamets from male
and female organisms take place. It means that the zygote is formed from union of sperm with ovum
and it is developed into new organism. But asexual reproduction involves a single organism. Let us
learn about it in detail.
Asexual Reproduction
The microorganisms produce more organisms in a short period. For example, the bacteria in
curd reproduce drastically within a short period of time. But it involves single organism. This kind of
reproduction is known as asexual reproduction. It is of various types.
Asexual Reproduction
Fission Budding Spores Fragmentation Regeneration

1. Fission : Fission refers to divide. Usually the unicellular organisms reproduce by fission. It
involves processess.
1. Karyokinesis (Division of Nucleus)
2. Cytokinesis (Division of cytoplasm)
If an organism divides into two organisms, it is known as binary fission, whereas if an organism
divides into many organisms it is known as multiple fission.
(a) Binary fission: Let us learn the binary fission in Amoeba. Amoeba is a unicellular organism
surrounded by a cell membrane and lives in aquatic habitat. The nucleus exists at the center
of the body. The space between the nucleus and cell membrane contains the cytoplasm.
Amoeba Nuclevs enlarges Nuclevs divides

into two
Nuclevs
Constriction Separating the

vacuole in plasma two daughter
membrane amoebae
Separating
two daughter
psuedopodia amoebae
Amoeba Fig. 18.1 Binary fission in Amoeba
Reproduction 339
During the binary fission the nucleus elongates and divides into two and the process is known
as karyokinesis. The constriction appears in the middle, grow deep and divide the parent
Amoeba into two daughter Amoebae. This is known as cytokinesis. Even the bacteria undergo
binary fission as such.
(b) Multiple fission : During unfavorable conditions, the organisms like Amoeba forms a cyst
around it. At this stage Amoeba is in dormant stage. Nucleus divides into nearly 500 nuclei.
Each nucleus is surrounded by some cytoplasm and then plasma membrane is formed. In
favorable conditions the cysts ruptures and daughter Amoebae are released.
Many Amoebae
Parent Amoeba
Amoebae
Fig. 18.2 Multiple fission in Amoeba

Do you know?
The malarial parasite, Plasmodium, belongs to Protozoa, enters the human blood in the
form of sporozoite through the mosquito bite. It reaches the liver cells, red blood cells and
increase in number by multiple fission. As such an organism divides into many organisms
it is known as multiple fission.
2. Budding : This kind of reproduction is observed in yeast which is used in making of bread and
cakes. A bud arises from the body surface and enlarges. The nucleus of the parent cell divides
into two and one daughter nucleus enters into the bud. The buds are formed simultaneously one
after the other. Fully grown buds detach from the parent organism and leads independent life.
Fig. 18.3 Budding in Yeast

Even the multicellular organisms like sponges and Hydra reproduce by budding. In Hydra a
bud arises near the base, enlarges and develop tentacles. Later it detaches form the parent
Hydra and lead an independent life.
Fig. 18.4 Budding in Hydra Fig. 18.5 Spore formation in Rhizopus

3. Spore formation : The algae like Chlamydomonas and the fungi like Rhizopus reproduce by
spore formation. In Rhizopus there are three types of filaments. Some filaments grow horizontally
and some of the filaments protrude into the substrate. Whereas some of the filaments grow
aerially and develop round sporangia at the tips. The nucleus of sporangium divides into many
daughter nuclei. Each nucleus is surrounded by cytoplasm and form the spores. Then the sporangia
burst and release the spores. Under favourable conditions they develop into new individuals.
The Aspergillus produces the spores on
conidia and are known as conidiophores.
In Chlamydomonas the nucleus divides
mitotically and forms two to four nuclei.
Each nucleus is surrounded by cytoplasm
and form a spore.
In moss plant (Bryophytes) the spores are Fig. 18.6 Condiophore formation in Aspergillus
formed on the terminal of areal filaments.
In ferns (Pteridophytes) the spores are
produced underneath the leaf and are
known as sori.
Fig. 18.7 Sporophyllus in Fern

4. Fragmentation : During unfavorable conditions Spirogyra and Rhizopus are fragmented into
small pieces and dispersed by the wind. During favourable conditions they they develop into
new individuals.
Fig. 18.8 Fragmentation in Spirogyra

Reproduction 341
5. Regeneration : The platyhelminths like planarians have the ability to regenerate. When a planarian
is cut into many pieces, each piece will develop into complete organism. This process is known
as regeneration.
Parent planaria
Fragmentation
of planaria
Daughter planaria
Fig. 18.9 Regeneration in Planaria

12 1. How Amoeba reproduces?
F
2. In which method the Hydra reproduces?
3. Which organism reproduce by spore formation?
4. Which are called the sporangia in fern?
18.2 Sexual Reproduction

Sexual reproduction involves two organisms. Some lower organisms reproduce by asexually
and sexually. Due to asexual reproduction the organisms are produced continuously lose the
vigour and vitality. At that time the two organisms unite and exchange the nuclear material and
protoplasm and separate. Thus gain the vigour and sustain. Temporary union of two organisms for
the purpose of exchange of nuclear material is known as conjugation. This is observed in Spirogyra,
Paramecium etc. It is also a type of sexual reproduction.
Sexual dimorphism : Higher organisms are of two types, namely, bisexual and unisexual.
(a) If an organism contains both male and female sexual organs, it is known as bisexual organism,
e.g., Earthworm and Leech.
(b) If the organism contains either male or female sexual organs, it is known as unisexual organism,
e.g., Human beings, cows and birds.
If the organisms exhibit differences between male and female in their external features, it is
known as sexual dimorphism. For instance, we can differentiate man and woman as well as hen and
cock by the external features.
Gametes : The formation of gametes is important part in sexual reproduction. The male organisms
have a pair of testes and they produce the sperms or male gametes. The female organisms have a pair
of ovaries and they produce ova or female gametes.
Fertilization : The fusion of male and female gametes is known as fertilization. It is of two types.
(a) External fertilization : If the fusion of gametes takes place outside of the body it is known
as external fertilization. Usually it is common in aquatic animals. The male and female organisms
produce thousands of sperms and ova respectively into the water. The fertilization takes place
in the water, e.g. Fish and frog.
(b) Internal fertilization: If the fertilization takes place inside the body of female, it is known as
internal fertilization. The male organism ejaculates the sperms into the female genital tract. These
sperms fertilize the ova inside the genital duct of the female.
The sperms fertilize the ovum to form zygote or egg. It undergo divisions and develop into
embryo. In oviparous animals this embryo is released out as the egg is incubated. Whereas in viviparous
animals the embryo develops into young one inside the uterus of female and comes out.
The mode of reproduction in which fusion of male and female gametes occurs is
known as sexual reproduction. Zygote is formed by the union of male and female gamets.
This zygote develops inside eggs in some animals. For instance the hen, duck, crow lay
eggs. These are known as oviparous. The animals like cow buffalow, dog give birth to
youn gones directly. These are known as viviparous.
Do you Know ?
The male sea horse incubate young ones. Female sea horse releases the ova into
the broad pouch of the male. Sperm fertilize the ova and develop the embryos in the
broad pouch of male organism. The male sea horse incubate young ones fastely.

1. What is fertilization?
2. Where does the fertilization occur in aquatic animals?
3. What type of sexual reproduction takes place in Paramecium?
4. What is sexual reproduction?
18.3 Reproduction In Human Beings

The reproductive organs in human beings are formed by birth itself but their development begins
at the age of 13 or 14. This stage is known as adolescent stage. The adolescent stage brings about
a lot of changes in boys and girls physically and mentally.
Reproduction 343
Changes in adolescent age:

(a) Physical changes:
O The widening of chest and shoulders in boys and development of breasts and pelvic bone
in girls.
O They reach maximum height.
O The hoarse sound production due to the growth of Adam’s apple in males.
O Development of hair in arm pits and on genital organs.
O Formation of pimples due to active sebaceous glands.
O Formation of mustache and beard in boys and growth of hair in girls.
O Beginning of menstrual cycle in girls. (First menstruation is called menarche)
(b) Psychological changes:

O Independent behavior, commitment and confidence.
O The mental stress and the eagerness to learn everything.
O Attraction towards opposite sex.
O Value the opinions of friendship more than parents.
O Try for identity and seek for appreciation.
Precautions to be taken during adolescence:

O Follow the hygienic habits like taking bath twice a day and wearing the washed cloths.
O Clear the hair that grow in arm pits and on genital organs.
O Be away from the drugs, alcohol and peer pressures.
O Use of use and throw napkins.
O Don’t bother about the pimples and should not prick them.
O Regular physical exercises and adopt the yoga and sports.
O Take the balanced diet and avoid the junk food.
Human Reproductive System

A) Male reproductive system: Observe the following diagram. Urinary bladder
The male reproductive system consists of
a pair of testes, a pair of epididymis, a
Seminal vesicle
pair of vasa deferentia, a pair of seminal
vesicles, a penis, an urethra, a prostate Vasdeferens
gland and a pair of Cowper glands. Let Prostate gland
us learn their organization and functions.
1. Testes : The testes are located outside Urethra
the abdominal cavity within a pouch
called scrotum. Each testis contains Penis
numerous highly coiled seminiferous
Epididymis
tubules. The sperms are produced in
these tubules in large numbers. Sperms Testis
are haploid. Male sex hormone
testosterone is also produced in testes.
Fig. 18.10 Male reproductive system
The scrotum helps in maintaining the temperature of the testis (2-2.50C) lower than
the body temperature which is necessary for the sperm formation.
2. Vasa efferentia : The seminiferous tubules open into vasa efferentia. They transport sperms
into epididymis.
3. Epididymis : The vasa efferentia open into epididymis. Epididymis is a highly coiled tube
located along the posterior side of testis. Sperms are stored in them.
4. Vasa deferentia : From each epididymis a vasa deferens arises which ascends into the
abdominal cavity looping around the ureter. Vasa deferentia receive ducts from seminal vesicles
and become ejaculatory ducts.
5. Urethra : It is an urinogenital duct and opens out at the tip of the penis.
6. Penis: It is the copulatory organ of males. It helps in elimination of urine and in release of
sperms in vagina of female.
7. Accessary glands
(a) Seminal vesicles: A pair of sac like seminal vesicles open into the vasa deferentia.
They produce seminal fluid. It is the source of nutrients for the sperms.
(b) Prostate gland: The prostate secretions are released into the urethra through several
ducts. These secretions activate sperms and provide nutrition.
(c) Cowper’s gland: The secretions of theses glands help in neutralizing the acidity of urethra
and in lubricating it.
The passage of spermatozoa :
Seminiferous tubules → vasa efferentia epididymis vasa deferentia ejaculatory ducts
Urethra.
Structure of a sperm: A sperm has three parts, namely head, middle piece and tail.
Head: The head of a sperm bears acrosome at the tip. It helps the sperm in penetrating into ovum.
There is a nucleus in the head.
Middle piece: It contains mitochondria which produce energy for the movement of the sperm.
Tail : The posterior part of the sperm is the tail. It helps the sperm to swim in the fluids of female
genital tract.
Fig. 18.11 Sperm

Reproduction 345
The fluid secreted from seminal vesicles and prostate gland is collectively called
seminal plasma. The seminal plasma along with sperms is called semen.
The ejection of semen by male is called ejaculation. Males produce sperms from the age of
about 13 or 14 years, and continuous up to old age. But number of sperms reduces gradually.
B) Female reproductive system :
The female reproductive system consists of a pair
each of ovaries, fallopian tubes, a uterus and a
vagina.
1. Ovaries : The ovaries are located on either side
of the uterus in the abdominal cavity. They contain
many follicles which appear like cellular bubbles
in the early stage. These follicles grow and mature Fig. 18.12 Female reproductive
to become graafian follicles. Each system
follicle has a cavity filled with fluid. The cell in this follicle undergoes meiotic division and form
the ovum. Each follicle produces a single haploid ovum. When the ovum is mature the follicle
ruptures and is flushed out from the follicle. The process of liberation of ovum from follicle
is called ovulation. The formation of ova begins with the adolescent age. From each ovary
an ovum is released at a time in each cycle alternatively. The release of ova in female sustains
up to 45 to 50 years. Later oogenesis is impaired. This is known as menopause.
2. Fallopian tubes : Each fallopian tube is a coiled structure with a funnel at the free end which
is close to the ovary on its side. The other end opens into the uterus.
3. Uterus : It is an inverted pear-shaped structure. The inner layer of uterus is called endometrium.
The thickness of endometrium increases gradually soon after menstruation. It will be ready
to receive the embryo. If ovum is not fertilized the endometrium disintegrates and flows out
as menstrual fluid. It is known as menstruation.
4. Vagina : It is muscular tube-like structure. It continuous from uterus up to vestibule and

opens out through vaginal orifice. This is surrounded by thin inner lips and thick outer lips.
There is clitoris at the upper junction of inner lips.
5. Associated glands :
1. Bartholin’s glands
2. Skene glands
3. Mammary glands.

1. Where sperms are produced?
2. At what age the menstruation begins in a female?
3. Name the inner layer of uterus.
4. What is the function of mitochondria in the sperm?
18.4 Fertilization – Embryonic Development

The sperms formed in the male are released into the vagina of female during copulation. The
ovum released from ovary enter into the fallopian tube through the funnel. The sperms reach the fallopian
tube and unite with the ovum. This is known as fertilization.
Fig. 18.13 Embryo Development

The fertilized ovum reaches the uterus and attaches to the soft tissues of it. This is known as
implantation. Embryo undergoes many divisions while moving towards uterus.
Embryonic membranes
After the implantation certain cells of the embryo
develop into membranous structures that helps to nourish,
protect and support the developing embryo.
(a) Chorion : It is the outer most embryonic layer.
Small finger like projections develop from its
surface. They protrude into the uterine wall,
where, they are dipped in the blood pools. Here
choric tissue and uterne tissue together form Fig. 18.14 Embryonic membranes
Reproduction 347
the placenta. Placenta is formed at the 12th week of the pregnancy. It is most essential for the
supply of nutrients, Normally maternal blood and foetal blood never mix. They are separated
by membrane barrier. Through this membrene oxygen, CO2, nutrients and excretory materials
are exchanged by diffusion between maternal and foetal blood.
(b) Amnion : Another embryonic membrane, the amnion, encloses the embryo. The cavity enclosed
by amnion is filled with amniotic fluid. It protects the embryo from desiccation, malformations
and mechanical injuries.
(c) Allantois : It is arises from the hind gut of the embryo and attached to the placenta on the other
end and form umbilical cord. It helps in the nourishment of the embryo by the mother.
(d) Yolk sac : It encloses a fluid filed cavity. It has no specific function in placental mammals.
Thus the embryo develops until it is born. From the third month of the pregnancy the embryo
is called foetus. Pregnancy lasts for about 9 months or 280 days. This period is called gestation
period.
Child birth :
As pregnancy progresses the foetus with additional characters grow and the uterus enlarges.
Usually at about the ninth month, the head of the foetus is turned down towards the opening of the
uterus. During the birth the head usually comes out first. Sometimes the feet come out first which
makes the delivery more complicated. Child birth begins when the muscle layers of the uterus starts
to contract and relax rhythmically. These actions are called labor pains. At first muscular activity of
the uterus is just strong enough to move the baby slowly towards the vagina. Generally, at this stage
the amnion present around the baby breaks and its fluid is released. These fluids help the baby to
come out easily. Then the contractions of the muscles become stronger and more frequent and the
baby is pushed out of the uterus through the vagina. The umbilical cord leading the baby to placenta
is tied off and cut by the doctor. The small piece of cord remained attached to the baby and falls off
within a few days. This is marked as navel. After the birth of the baby the muscular contractions of
the uterus continue until they push out the tissues of the placenta called decidua. During the end of
the pregnancy a watery yellowish lymph like fluid called colostrum accumulates in the mammary glands.
It is very essential to feed the newly born baby. It helps in developing the immunity in the baby. Later
normal milk is secreted. Until this process the menstrual cycle ceases. It again starts after the delivery
and the milk production is reduced.

1. Where does the fertilization take place in human beings?
2. What is the use of amniotic fluid?
3. What is the gestation period in human beings?
4. What is colostrum?
18.5 Reproductive health

The general body growth may not assure the growth and development of sexual maturation. As
well the children (at the age of adolescence) may not be able to handle the family responsibilities
physically and mentally. So it is harmful to get ready for the marriage at this age. There may
be pressure from friends or family members to get married and start having children. But it is
our common sense to make right choice. The Government has imposed laws to protect the rights
of the children. As per these laws there is age restriction to get married for boys and girls as
21 years and 18 years respectively. There are some voluntary organizations working against the child
marriages. In these situations, making right choice is our responsibility.
Sexually transmitted diseases
These diseases spread by sexual contact before attaining the age of marriage, unsafe sexual
contacts, illegal contacts etc are called sexually transmitted diseases. These diseases are transmitted
from one person to another.
1. Diseases transmitted by bacteria : Gonorrhoea, Syphilis.
2. Diseases transmitted by virus : AIDS
AIDS is also spread by using infected devises, infected blood transfusion, from infected mother
to child etc. AIDS is caused by HIV (Human immunodeficiency virus). The people infected with HIV
will suffer from AIDS. It is very sad to say both Andhra Pradesh and Telangana states have the highest
number of HIV positive patients. Illiteracy, poverty, health problems, unemployment, migration, non-
traditional practices, unethical contacts and trafficking are some of the factors contributing to the spread
of HIV patients.
The efforts of Government to control AIDS :
O Medical assistance to patients through centers of ART (Anti-Retroviral Therapy).
O Arranging the programs to create awareness about the AIDS prevention.
O Creating awareness on the symptoms, dangers and preventive measures of AIDS Through ASHA
(Accredited Social Health Activist) workers, red ribbon express, etc.
Our contribution towards the prevention of AIDS :
O Avoid sex with unknown and multiple partners.
O Follow ethical and healthy life practices even the contraceptives are available.
O In case of any doubt consult a qualified doctor for early detection and complete treatment of
the disease.
Reproduction 349
O Avoid the used syringes.

O Care should be taken during blood transfusion.
There is no medicine for AIDS. It can be prevented. It is not a communicable disease.

AIDS cannot spread by shaking hands, taking food, or working with victims. But it spreads
through sexual contact with the victim, blood transfusion of AIDS patient and infected
mother to child.
Let us show sympathy towards AIDS patients and let us give our moral support.
Birth control methods :

Population growth is the root cause for many problems. Small family is a comfortable family with
less problems. If the number increases in the family, it is not only a drawback to the development of
that family but also to the development of a nation. Hence it is necessary to have awareness on
population control.
The sexual act always has potential to lead to pregnancy which lead to child birth. There are
many ways have been devised to avoid pregnancy. These ways avoid the union of sperm with the
ovum.
O Males use condoms and caps (diaphragms).
O Copper-T and loops are used in females to avoid pregnancy.
O The oral pills stop the release of the ovum.
O Surgical methods are available for males in which a small portion of vas deferens is removed
and both the ends are tied properly. This is known as vasectomy.
O In females a small portion of fallopian duct is removed by surgical methods and cut ends are
tied. This is known as tubectomy.
Fight against the social evils and let us establish healthy society
O Pregnancy at young age leads to ill health of the mother as well as to the baby. So let us fight
against child marriages.
O Many of the people are trying to determine the sex of the foetus when it is in the uterus through
ultra sound scanning. Majority of people are not hesitating to do abortion, if the baby is female.
Hence the female population is decreasing and may lead to human extinction. Stopping the female
foeticide is our social responsibility.
1. Expand AIDS.
2. Name the operation to avoid the release of sperms in males?
3. What is the process of tubectomy?
4. How to identify the AIDS?
18.6 Reproduction in Plants

The plants reproduce both sexually and asexually. The asexual reproduction in plants is known
as vegetative reproduction.
Vegetative Reproduction
The propagation of vegetative parts such as roots, stem, leaves to produce the new plants is
known as vegetative propagation. It occurs naturally in some plants. But today we have developed
some artificial vegetative propagation methods to develop the high yielding varieties.
A. Natural vegetative propagation:
(a) Roots : Some plants reproduce by roots to give new plants. For instance, the tap root of
carrot, beetroot and radish give rise to new plants. As well as fibrous roots in sweet potato and
Dahlia give rise to new plants. We usually find the samplings of curry leaves on its roots.
Fig. 18.15 Vegetative propagation in carrot

(b) Leaves : The leaves like
Bryophyllum contains buds at its
edges. Each bud gives rise to new
plant, when it falls in the soils. In
fern plant the leaf apex that touches
the soil produces the new plant.
Fig. 18.16 Bryophyllum buds

Reproduction 351
(c) Suckers : In Chrysanthemum a branch arises from the underground stem and grow aerially.
The part of the branch inside the soil produces the roots. This branch can be grown
independently. This is known as sucker. It is also observed in Pistia.
Offset in Pistia
Fig. 18.17 Sucker in Chrysanthemum
(d) Areal stems : Two types of branches can be seen in weak stems.
i) Runners : You might have seen the grass plants. In grass plants some stems grow horizontally
on the earth. These stems produce small fibrous roots. Any part of the plant with roots system
can be separated and grow independently.
Fig. 18.18 Runner

ii) Stolon : The plants like jasmine contain
the weak arial stems. When these weak
stems they touch the soil produce roots
and establish that branch in the soil. It
can grow independently if it is separated
from the parent plant.
Fig. 18.19 Stolon

(e) Rhizomes and Tubers : In some plants the food is preserved in underground stem and hence
they are swollen. These are known as rhizomes or tubers. Let us see the different modes of
reproduction in tubers.
i) Eyes: The surface of the potato contains small scars. These are known as eyes. We can
observe the scaly leaves in these eyes. The part of the potato with eye can be cut and grown
into new plant.
(a) Eyes in potato (b) germenating eyes

Fig. 18.20
ii) Buds: The ginger and turmeric plants produce buds on the surface of the rhizomes. These
buds can be used to produce new plants.
Fig. 18.21a Rhizome Fig. 18.21b Bulb

iii) Bulb : You know that the onion gives out new plants when it is sown in the soil. We can
observe the roots arising from the knob like structure. It is known as bulb.
iv) Plants like Colacasia give rise to new plant from whole tuber.
B. Artificial vegetative propagation
This propagation helps to produce more number of plants in short time. These methods are used
in producing the horticulture plants and fruit plants.
Reproduction 353
(a) Cutting : Some plants like rose and

Hibiscus can grow individually when
a piece of the parent plant having bud
is cut off from the existing plant. Even
the neem plants can be grown in this
method. This is known as cutting.
Fig. 18.22 Cutting
(b) Layering : In the plants like jasmine a branch of the plant with at least one node is bent
towards the ground and a part of it is covered with moist soil leaving the tip of the branch
exposed above the ground. After a few days’ new roots develop from the part of the branch
buried in the soil. The buried branch is then cut off from the parent plant and the part which
has developed roots grows to become a new plant.
Fig. 18.23 Layering

(c) Gouty method : The plants like guava and lemon are grafted to produce more quality fruits.
A part of the bark is removed on the stem just beneath a node. A plastic cover along with
soil is placed around this cut and tied properly. It is moisturized regularly. After few days
it produces the roots and it can be separated to grow independently.
(d) Grafting : Two plants of the same species with desirable characters are tied together to give
rise to a new plant. This is known as grafting. In this method one which is attached to soil
is called stock and the cut stem of the another plant is without roots is known as scion. The
scion grows on stock. For instance, imagine two mango fruits in your garden. One plant gives
less fruits but they are very tasty. Whereas another plant gives more fruits but the fruits are
not tasty. The plant with tasty fruits can be taken as stock whereas the plant with tasteless
fruits are grown in the pot as scion. Now a part of bark is removed both on the stock and
the scion and grafted. This graft is separated from both the scion and grown independently.
This leads to the growth of the desirable plants. The plants like pine apple, orange and grapes
are produced in this method to get desirable qualities.
Fig. 18.24 Grafting

c. Tissue culture :
It is the propagation of plants extensively in minimum space with controlled atmosphere throughout
the year. It was implemented by Haberlandt in 1902. In this method a portion of tissue is separated
from either vegetative parts or embryo (2n) or gametes. This tissue is grown in a specialized
nutrient medium to produce new plants.
Fig. 18.25 Tissue Culture
Sexual reproduction in plants

The mode of reproduction
with the union of male and female
gametes is known as sexual
reproduction. The flower is the part
of a plant that involve in sexual
reproduction.
Structure of a flower: Observe the
longitudinal section of a flower in the given
picture. Fig. 18.26 Structure of flower
Reproduction 355
All the floral parts of a flower are located in four circles on the receptacle of the pedicel. They
are 1. Sepals, 2. Petals, 3. Stamens and 4. Stigma. Among these, the sepals and petals assist
the reproduction indirectly. Hence they are known as non-essential parts. Stamens and pistil
involve directly in reproduction and hence known as essential parts.
1. Sepals: They are green in colour
and protect the inner parts of the
flower from bud stage.
2. Petals: They are very attractive
and help in pollination.
Fig. 18.27 Structure of stamen
3. Stamens: Each stamen has the filament and anther. The anther produces thousands of pollen
grains and they are released out of it, by bursting of anther. They are male gametes.
4. Pistil: It is female reproductive part of the flower. It contains three parts. (Observe the given
diagram).
(a) Stigma: It secretes sticky honey like substance in which the pollen grains are trapped.
(b) Style: It is a long stalk like structure on the ovary through which the pollen tube travels
and reach the ovule.
(c) Ovary: It is located on the thalamus in which one or more ovules are present.
Types of flowers
If a flower contains all the above said parts
it is known as complete flower, whereas
if it lacks any one or more parts it is an
incomplete flower.
Bisexual flower: If a flower contains
both the stamens and pistil it is known
as bisexual flower.
Ex: Hibiscus, Datura.
Fig. 18.28 Structure of Carpel
Unisexual flower: If a flower contains either stamen or pistil, it is known as unisexual flower.
Ex: Pomegranate, Cucumber.
Pollination – Fertilization
Transfer of pollen grains of anther to the stigma of pistil is known as pollination. It is of two
types.
(a) Self-pollination: Transfer of pollen grains of a flower to the stigma of same flower is
known as self-pollination.
(b) Cross-pollination: Transfer of pollen grains of a flower to the stigma of another flower
is known as cross pollination.
Structure of pollen grain: Pollen
grain is covered by two layers in
which outer coat constitutes
rough surface whereas the inner
coat is smooth. Pollen grain
contains two haploid nuclei
formed by meiosis.
Fig. 18.29 Structure of pollen grain
Structure of embryo sac : The entire part of the ovule is known as embryo sac. The nucleus
of the embryo sac undergoes meiosis and form four haploid nuclei, out of which, three nuclei
disintegrate and only one nuclei, remains active. This nucleus undergo three mitotic divisions
and form eight nuclei.
Fig. 18.30 (a) Structure of Embryo Sac Fig. 18.30 (b) Mature Embryo Sac
Out of which three nuclei reach the upper part of the embryo sac and are known as antipodals.
Three nuclei reach another end of embryo sac to the opening of the ovule. Out of which the
middle one is the female gametophytic nucleus whereas the two other nuclei are called synergids.
The two nuclei of the center of embryo sac unite to form a diploid nucleus. It is known as
secondary nucleus. In general the embryo sac is in eight nuclei stage in almost all plants. Each
embryo sac is covered by two to three layers. But these layers do not cover the ovule and
leaves a gap at chalaza.
Reproduction 357
Fertilization : The pollen grain reach the stigma through the medium of wind, water, insects
etc. They are trapped in the honey like substance on the stigma. As it absorbs the moisture on
the stigma, the outer layer bursts. The inner layer starts elongating and form a tube like structure
known as pollen tube. Formation of pollen tube is known as germination of pollen grain.
Only the germinated pollen grains remain on the stigma and remaining pollen disintegrate.
Fig. 18.31 Fertilisation
This pollen tube travels through the style and reach the embryo sac. It enters into the embryo
sac through the chalaza. Pollen tube contain two nuclei. The end of the tube ruptures and release
the two male nuclei into the embryo sac. One of the two male nuclei fuses with the ovum to
form a zygote. The second nucleus unites with the secondary nucleus to form a triploid nucleus.
This is known as primary endosperm nucleus. Thus the union of male nuclei with female nuclei
and fusion nuclei is known as double fertilization. After fertilization the embryo sac changes
drastically. The endosperm is formed from PEN. Embryo develops to form cotyledons by using
endosperm. The cotyledons of some plants, completely utilise the endosperm and become seeds.
e.g., beans. As a consequence, the cotyledons become greatly enlarged because of stored food
and the endosperm disappears. But in many other flowering plants such as corn and castor, the
endosperm tissue continuous to grow as the ovule matures into seed. After fertilization, the zygote
divides several times to form an embryo within the ovule. The ovule develops a tough coat and
is generally converted into a seed. The ovary grows rapidly and ripens to form the fruit. Meanwhile
the other floral parts may shrivel and fall off.
Types of seeds : On the basis of cotyledons they can be classified as two types.
1. Monocots: Contain a single cotyledon. e.g: Paddy, Maize.
2. Dicotyledons: Contain two cotyledons. e.g: Ground nut, Tamarind.
Fig. 18.32 Embryo in Seed

Do like this:
Germination of seed : Soak few channa seeds overnight. Drain the excess water and cover
the seeds with wet cloth. Sprinkle the water at regular intervals. After two days it is observed
that the seeds start sprouting. Take one of the seeds and open it to observe the sprout in between
them. This is known as embryo. When the cotyledons of tamarind sprouts are observed it is
noted that sprout is attached to the cotyledons until it is capable enough to prepares its own
food. Thus the cotyledons help to provide nutrients to the germinating embryo.
Life cycle of a flowering plant:
Fig. 18.33 Lifecycle of a flowering plant

1. Which types of reproduction observed in plants?
2. Which part of the onion helps for reproduction?
3. How many cells are there in embryo sac?
4. How many nuclei are present in pollen grain?
Reproduction 359
Summary
Y Reproduction is a salient feature of living organisms. It helps to sustain its population.
Y Reproduction is of two types, sexual and asexual reproduction.
Y The asexual reproduction in plants is known as vegetative reproduction.
Y In asexual reproduction the progeny is identical to parents.
Y In sexual reproduction the progeny varies a little with parents and acquire new characters.
Y In human beings the sperms are produced by testes and ovum is released from ovary.
Y In human beings fertilization takes place in fallopian tube.
Y We have to be alert about the sexually transmitted diseases.
Y Teenage motherhood is not good.
Y We should have a conscious thought about the population growth.
Y Discourage the child marriages.
Y Motivate the society that sex determination of foetus is against to law.
Y We can get desirable varieties by grafting.
Y Vegetative propagation helps to get the same variety of plants in short time.
Y Tissue culture is the process of propagating plants in very less space and time throughout
the year.
Y The insects help for pollination in plants.
Y Embryo sac contains 7 cells with 8 nuclei.
Y Double fertilization is a special character in flowering plants.

Terminal Questions
I. Answer the following questions.
1. What are the different modes of asexual reproduction? Give examples.

2. Write the differences between binary fission and multiple fission.
3. What is budding? Explain with an example.
4. What are the types of fertilisation ?
5. What are the features of the animals that fertilise externally?
6. Draw a neat labelled diagram of male reproductive system in human beings.
7. Draw a neat labelled diagram of female reproductive system in human beings.
8. Explain the structure of human sperm with the diagram.
9. What are the precautions to be taken in adolescent stage?
10. What are the harmful effects of child marriages?
11. How do you contribute towards a healthy society?
12. What are the layers that protect the human embryo?
13. Draw a labelled diagram of longitudinal section of a flower.
14. Explain the structure of embryo sac with a diagram.
II. Choose the right option.
1. The organism that reproduces by spore formation is ( )
A) Amoeba B) Hydra C) Yeast D) Rhizopus
2. The male reproductive part in the flower is ( )
A) Pistil B) Stamen C) Petals D) Sepals
3. Which of the following helps for pollination in plants? ( )
A) Air B) Insects
C) Water D) All the above
4. It helps to provide nutrition to foetus in the mother’s womb. ( )
A) Ejaculatory duct B) Fallopian tube
C) Umbilical cord D) Ovary
5. Which of the following are the sexually transmitted diseases? ( )
A) Paralysis B) Chicken pox C) Malaria D) AIDS

Reproduction 361
III. Match the following.
A B
1. Rose ( ) (a) Leaf buds
2. Chrysanthemum ( ) (b) Root
3. Bryophyllum ( ) (c) Bulb
4. Radish ( ) (d) Sucker
5. Onion ( ) (e) Cutting
Intext Questions to Answers

18.1
1. Binary fission.
2. By budding.
3. Rhizopus, Moss and Fern.
4. Sori.
18.2
1. Fusion of male and female gametes is known as fertilization.
2. In water.
3. Conjugation
4. Reproduction by fusion of male and female gametes.
18.3
1. In testis
2. From the age of 13 or 14.
3. Endometrium.
4. For the motility of sperms.
18.4
1. In Fallopian tube.
2. To provide moisture and protect it from the minor mechanical injury.
3. 280 days.
4. The secretions from the mammary glands immediately after the child birth.
18.5
1. AIDS – Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome.
2. Vasectomy.
3. In women, small portion of falloption tubes is removed by surgical method and cut ends are tied.
4. If it is HIV positive in blood test.
18.6
1. Asexual and sexual reproduction.
2. Eyes.
3. 7
4. 2
I. Answers to questions

1. Collect the Information and prepare on action plan to eradicate HIV disease (or) Collect the
Information about the Importance december 1st and prepare a Note.
2. Collect the information about how famers cultivate the Rose. Sugar cane, ginger, Turmeric
crops and prepare a report.
3. Collect different types of flowers and observe them. Identify the Male and femalre parts.
19
Living Cell
We observe various plants and animals in our surroundings. All these organisms differ in their
shape and size. Their size varies from microorganisms to gigantic blue whales. How these organisms
are made ? All these organisms are made up of the basic units called cells. The cells and tissues are
organized systematically and form the organs, organ systems and the organism. In this lesson let us
learn the structure of the cell, its functions, cell division etc.
Objectives
O learn the structure of a typical cell.
O identify the differences between plant cell and animal cell.
O understand the cell organelles and their functions.
O draw the diagrams and label the parts of different cell organelles.
O understand the process of mitosis and meiosis.
19.1 Cell
Before the invention of microscope, there was no awareness about the structure of cell or
microscopic organisms. In 1665, a British scientist, Robert Hook observed thin slices of soft bark
from oak tree under a simple microscope made by himself. He observed that the cells in cork resembled
the structure of a honey comb consisting of many empty spaces. He named these as cells. In latin the
word cell refers to a little room. Later in 1674 Anton Van Leuwenhock observed the microorganisms
such as bacteria, yeast, protozoans and red blood cells and other microbial organisms.
Cell Theory:
After Robert Hook observed the structure of a cell under microscope and identified that the
organisms are formed by the organization of cells. Many scientists started their research on cell structure
and revealed their views. The German Botanists, Schleiden and Schwann proposed cell theory. According
to this theory
1. All the living organisms are made of cells and their products. Hence it is called structural unit
of life.
2. The cells can never be created. New cells are forms from the pre-existing cells. i.e., the cells
divide and form the new cells.
3. All the life processes take place at the cellular level. Hence the cell is also known as functional
unit of life. Each cell is able to live independently.
Structure of a cell:
Let us do the following activity to learn about the plant and animal cell.
Activity - Do like this
Let us observe onion: Take an onion,
cut it into two pieces and separate the
slices. Peel the semi transparent layer from
the slice and place it on a slide and cover
with cover slip. Observe this slide under Fig. 19.1 Onion Cell
the microscope.
1. What is the shape of the cells in onion peel?

2. How are the cells arranged?
Activity - Do it like this.
Let us observe the cheek cell (animal cell). Wash
your mouth properly. Gently scratch the cheek
cell in your mouth with a clean plastic or wooden
spoon. Put two drops of water on the slide and
place the material scraped from the cheek. Then
cover it with the cover slip. Now observe the Fig. 19.2 Cheek cell
slide under microscope.
Living Cell 365
Answer the following questions
1. What is the shape of the cheek cells?
2. How are the cells arranged?
When you observed the above cells, You may also find many cell organelles. Let us learn about
them. Observe the following diagrams and fill in the following table.
Fig. 19.3(a) Plant cell Fig. 19.3(b) Animal cell
Cell organelle Animal Cell Plant Cell

(present/Absent) (present/Absent)
We observe that there are three parts in a cell. They are 1. Cell membrane, 2. Nucleus and
3. Cytoplasm and other organelles.
1. Cell membrane:
It is also known as plasma membrane. It is present in animal and plant cells. It can be clearly
seen under electron microscope. It surrounds the cell organelles as well as cytoplasm. It is made
up of proteins and lipids. Cell membrane decides the shape and size of the cell and protects the
internal parts of the cell. The entry and exit of the substances are regulated by this membrane.
Hence it is known as selectively permeable membrane. It maintains the equilibrium by controlling
the movement of substances between the cell and its surroundings.
2. Cell wall:
It is present only in plant cells. It lies around the plasma membrane. It is made up of cellulose.
It gives a definite shape to the cell and also protect the cell from external pressurs.
3. Nucleus:
The prominent structure in the centre of the cell is the nucleus. In 1831 Robert Brown identified
it and named as nucleus. Nucleus is most
important organelle in the cell. All the life
processes in a cell are regulated by the
nucleus. Hence it is known as controlling
centre of the cell. It contains the genetic
material. It determine the characters of the
organisms. Nucleus plays an important role
in cell division. Fig. 19.4 Nucleus
The nucleus is clearly visible only under electron microscope. It is surrounded by nuclear membrane
having minute pores. These pores are known as nucleopores. Nuclear membrane resembles the
plasma membrane. Genetic material is present in the nucleoplasm. The organisms are classified
into two types based on the presence of nuclear membrane. The organisms with nuclear membrane
are known as eukaryotes (e.g., Euglena). Whereas the organisms without nuclear membrane
are known as prokaryotes (Ex. Cyanobacteria).
Cytoplasm:
The jelly like substance surrounded by plasma membrane of the cell is cytoplasm. The cell
organelles float freely in the cytoplasm. Cytoplasm comprises of water, organic and inorganic substances.
Cell Organells:
Floating structures in the cytoplasm are the cell organelles. There are various cell organelles that
perform different functions.
(a) Mitochondria:
When the cell is observed under microscope the particles which are either round or cylindrical
scattered in the cytoplasm are mitochondria. Usually they are of 2-8 microns of length and 0.5
microns of width. When it is observed under electron microscope, mitochondrion has by two
membranes. Inner membrane protrudes into the inner cavity as finger like folds. These folds are
Living Cell 367
known as cristae. The material in the

inner cavity is known as matrix. Cellular
respiration takes place inside the
mitochondria. The energy required for
the cell is produced from mitochondria.
Hence mitochondria are known as
power houses of the cell.
(b) Plastids: Fig. 19.5 Mitochondria
These are pigmented organelles. These are absent in fungi, bacteria and animal cells. These are
of three types.
1. Chromoplasts : They are in different colours. Chromoplasts are responsible for colours of
the flowers. They synthesize pigments of different colours and preserve them.
2. Chloroplasts : These are green in

colour. They are either oval or spherical.
Their size varies from 4-10 microns in
width. Chloroplasts convert the light
energy to chemical energy during
photosynthesis. Fig. 19.6 Chloroplast
3. Leucoplasts : These are colourless plastids. They exist in the tissues which are not involved
in photosynthesis. e.g., Roots, bulbs etc. They store starch, lipids and proteins.
(c) Ribosomes :These are small granule like organells in the cytoplasm. They play an important
role in protein synthesis. They are formed by RNA and proteins.
(d) Endoplasmic Reticulum : The

tubular network like structure in
cytoplasm is the endoplasmic
reticulum. Endoplasmic reticulum is
of two types. The endoplasmic
reticulum to which the ribosomes are
attached is known as rough
endoplasmic reticulum. It is found
in cells that are active in protein Fig. 19.7 Endoplasmic Reticulum
synthesis. The endoplasmic reticulum which lack ribosomes is known as smooth endoplasmic reticulum.
It is found in cells that are involved in lipid synthesis. Endoplasmic reticulum transport materials from
one place to another within the cell.
(e) Golgi complex : It is made up of several

membranous flattened sac like structures. The
proteins synthesized in ribosomes reach the
Golgi body where they are slightly alterted.
Golgi complex store these substances before
they are transported to other parts of the cell.
These substances are either sent towards the
cell membrane or to lysosomes. After reaching
Fig. 19.8 Golgi Complex
the cell membrane these substances are
secreted from the cell.
(f) Lysosomes : These are very small cell organelles in the cytoplasm. They contain hydrolytic
enzymes. The food materials are digested in the lysosomes. In certain special conditions the
lysosomes burst and release the enzymes, which digest the cell. Hence these are known as
suicidal bags the cell.
(g) Vacuole : The large empty spaces present in the cell are called vacuoles. These are fluid filled
sac like structures. They maintain turgor pressure in the cell. They expel unwanted substances
from the cell. As the plant cell contains a big vacuoles the nucleus is pushed towards the cell
membrane. Due to presence of small vacuoles in the animal cell, the nucleus cell is at the center.

1. What are the main points of cell theory?
2. What are the differences between plant cell and animal cell?
3. What is the function of mitochondria?
4. How many types of plastids are there?
What are they?
19.2 Chromosomes
We have studied about the nucleus in the
cell. We have learnt that the nucleus contains
the genetic material and it is responsible for the
transmission of characters of the organisms to
the next generation. When the nucleus is observed
Fig. 19.9(a) Chromosomes
under electron microscope in interphase, a
Living Cell 369
net like structure is seen. It is called chromatin

reticulum. When the cell begins to divide chromatin
condenses into chromosomes. Each chromosome has
two arms attached at centromere. Each chromosome
contains double helical DNA strand. DNA strand
comprise the genes. These attribute the special characters
to the organisms. The chromosomes also play a key
role in cell division and transmit the characters from
parent to progeny.
19.3 Structure of DNA Fig. 19.9(b) DNA structure
The full form of DNA is Deoxyribo Nuclei Acid. It contains the genetic information. It contains
of four nitrogen bases. They are 1. Adenine, 2. Guanine, 3. Thymine and 4. Cytosine. The structure
of DNA was discovered by James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953. They were awarded Nobel
Prize for this discovery. As per their discovery DNA is a double helical structure resembling a twisted
ladder.

1. What are the four nitrogen bases in DNA?
2. Who discovered the structure of DNA?
3. Write about the chromosome structure.
19.4 Cell Division

As per the cell theory we have learnt that every cell is formed from its preexisting cell. The
division of a cell into two cells is known as cell division. Cell division helps in the growth of the
organism, curing the wounds, production of new cells and production of gametes. Cell division is of
two types, 1. Mitosis, 2. Meiosis
I. Mitosis : In this division each cell divides into two cells. The daughter cells resemble the parent
cell. Mitosis helps in growth, curing the wounds or producing the new tissues at damaged parts etc.
Mitosis occurs in somatic cells. There are four stages in mitosis, namely. 1. Prophase, 2. Metaphase,
3. Anaphase and 4. Telophase.
Fig. 19.10 Mitosis

1. Prophase: in this stage
O Chromosomes are condensed and prominently visible. The nucleolus begins to degenerate.
O Each chromosome split lengthwise and form two chromatids which are connected at centromere.
O The nuclear membrane disappears.
O Centrosome divides and form the spindle fibres.
2. Metaphase:
O The chromosomes move and radially arranged on equatorial plate. Spindle fibres are attached
to chromosomes at centromeres.
3. Anaphase:
O Centromere splits separating the chromosomes.
O Spindle fibres attached to centromere contract pulling the chromatids towards the opposite
poles.
4. Telophase:
O Chromatids elongate, become thread like and form chromation net.
O Nuclear membrane is formed around the chromatin net.
O Nuclear division is followed by the division of cytoplasm.
O As a result, two daughter cells are formed.
II. Meiosis:
Meiosis takes place during gametogenensis. In this division the number of chromosomes in
daughter cells is reduced to half. So the daughter cells are haploid. Hence the division is called
reduction division. The pollen mother cells and ovum mother cells divide meiotically to form pollen
grains and ovum. In animals it occurs in ovaries and testes. Meiosis can be divided into two phases.
1. Meiosis I : In this stage two daughter cells are formed from parent cell. But number of chromosomes
is reduced to half.
Living Cell 371
2. Meiosis II : In this stage the daughter cells of Meiosis I divide mitotically and form four daughter
cells.
Fig. 19.11 Meiosis

Differences between mitosis and meiosis.
Mitosis Meiosis
1. It occurs in somatic cells of an organism. 1. It occurs in germ cells of an organism.
2. Two daughter cells are formed. 2. Four daughter cells are formed.
3. Division takes place in one stage. 3. Division takes place in two stages.
4. The number of chromosomes in daughter 4. The number of chromosomes in daughter cells
cells is equal to that of parent cell. is reduced to half of the parent cell.
5. The daughter cells are diploid. 5. The daughter cells are haploid.

1. What are the uses of mitosis?
2. What are the different phases in mitosis?
3. How many daughter cells are formed in mitosis?
4. The number of daughter cells formed at the end of the meiosis is _________.
5. The daughter cells formed in meiosis are in____________ state.
6. The pollen mother cells divide __________ to form pollen grains.

Summary
Y The scientist Robert Hook observed the bark under microscope and named the empty spaces
in the bark as Cell.
Y Schleden and Shwan proposed the Cell theory.
Y Typical Plant cells are either square or rectangle shaped whereas the animal cells are round
in shape.
Y The plant cells have cell wall which is made up of cellulose. It gives the definite shape and
protection to the cell.
Y Activities in the cell are regulated by in the nucleus. Hence it is called controlling centre.
Y Mitochondria are the energy releasing cell organelles. Hence they are called power houses
of the cell.
Y Plastids are pigmented cell organalles. Chromoplasts are in different colours, chloroplasts
are green and leucoplasts are colourless.
Y When the harmful substances enter into the cell, they reach the lysosomes and are destroyed
by its enzymes.
Y Chromosomes not only take part in cell division but also in the inheritance of characters of
the parents to progeny.
Y The full form of DNA is De oxyribo nuclei acid. It is a double helical in structure.
Y The cell division in organisms is of two types, mitosis and meiosis.
Y Mitosis takes place in somatic cells and a cell divides into two cells.
Y Meiosis takes place in germ cells and results in four haploid cells.
Terminal Questions
1. What are the main points in cell theory?
2. What are the differences between plant cell and animal cell?
3. What are the functions of nucleus?
4. Why lysosomes are called suicidal bags?
5. Explain the different phases of mitosis.
6. What are the differences between the mitosis and meiosis?
7. The scientist who explained the structure of the cell is ___ ( )
(A) Robert Hook (B) Leeuwen hock
(C) Golgi (D) Schleden and Shwan
Living Cell 373
8. Which of the following does not exist in the animal cell? ( )
(A) Mitochondria (B) Cell membrane
(C) Nucleus D) Chloroplasts
9. Cell membrane is made up of ___________
10. Which of the cell organelles is called power house of the cell?
11. The plastids responsible for colours of flowers are __________.
12. The function of ribosome is ___________.
13. In __________ cell the nucleus is pushed to a side due to the presence of vacuole.
14. The cell division that occurs in somatic cells is _______.
15. The cell division in which the number of chromosomes is reduced to half is ________.
13 Answers to Intext Questions

F
19.1
1. The main points of cell theory are
O All the living organisms are made up of cells and their products.
O New cells are produced from the preexisting cells.
O All the life processes take place at the cellular level.
2. Plant Cell Animal Cell
- cell wall is present - cell wall is absent
- plastids are present - plastids are absent
- vacules are large - vacuoles are very small
3. Mitochondria are the sites for cellular respiration. They release energy. Hence they are called
as power houses of the cell.
4. Plastids are of three types. They are, 1. Chromoplasts (in different colours), 2. Chloroplasts (in
green colour), 3. Leucoplasts (colourless).
19.3
1. Four nitrogen bases of DNA are 1. Adenine(A), 2. Guanine(G), 3. Thymine(T), 4. Cytosine(C).
2. James Watson and Francis Crick discovered the structure of DNA in 1953.
3. Each chromosome has two chromatids attached to centromere. Each chromatid comprises double
helical DNA strand. DNA strand contain genes in units of nitrogen bases.
19.4
1. The advantages of mitosis:
O Helps in growth and healing wounds.
O Also helps to form new tissues in the place of damaged tissues.
2. Mitosis takes place in four phases. They are, 1. Prophase, 2. Metaphase, 3. Anaphase, 4.
Telophase.
3. Two daughter cells are formed in mitosis.
4. 4
5. Haploid
6. Meiosis.

1. Read 19.1.1
2. Read the table 19.1.2
3. Read the para about nucleus in 19.1.2
4. Read para of lysosomes.
5. Read mitosis para in 19.4.1
6. Read the table in 19.4.2

1. Observe the cells of onion slice and draw the diagrams.
20
Heredity and Evolution
Any one asked you that you look like your father or mother? In which characters you, resemble
your father or mother? How the parental characters are transmitted to their next generation? Now in
this chapter we discuss about this process known as heredity.
Objectives
After completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
O define the heredity and variations.
O understand the heredity process through the Mendelism
O understand the Mendel’s laws
O define the genes, factors and genetic terminology.
O understand the sex determination in human beings
O understand the evolution process
O know about the evolution theories of Lamark and Darwin.
O know the human evolution.
O understand the evidences of evolution.
20.1 Heredity and variations

Transmission of characters from one generation to the next generation is termed as heredity.
All the characters are not transmitted as exactly from parents to the progeny. They have some differences
known as variations. The differences present in

organisms of same species are known as variations.
Study of heredity and variations in related organisms
is known as genetics.
Ex. 1. Ear lobes : Some have lobed ears
and some one does not have lobes and
directly attached.
Ex.2. The variation is the respective to
the ability to rolling the tongue. Fig. 20.1(a)
Importance of Variations
1. They help the individuals to adapt the changing environment.
2. Variations make better fitted for the struggle for existence.
Fig. Rolled
3. They provide the raw material to produce new traits. Tongue
4. Variations allow breeders to improve races. Fig. 20.1(b)
5. Variation give each organism a distinct individuality. Rolled Tongue

1. What is heredity?
2. What are the variations?
3. Give two examples for variations.
20.2 Mendelism
In 19th century experimental evidences were provided by Mendel, the father of genetics . In
1857 John Gregor Mendel stared working on the problem how charecters were transmitted from one
generation to next generation.
Gregor Johan Mendel belongs to Austria and worked as a monk
in a monastery. He worked with garden pea plant (Pisum
sativum) and proposed basic laws of heredity. His experimental
work was published in 1865. But they were not recognised.
In 1900 his work was re-discovered by three European scientists
Hugo de vries, Carl Correns and Tschermak.
1822-1884
Why Mendel selected garden pea plant?
Y It is easy to cultivate and grow.
Y It has seven pairs of contrasting characters such as height (Tall, dwarf), flower colour (white,
purple) etc.
Heredity and Evolution 377
Y Easy to obtain pure breed plant through self fertilization.

Y Easy for cross pollination.
Y It is an annual plant.
Y Flowers are bisexual and are naturally self pollinated, if necessary, we can cross pollinate.
Contrasting characters in Garden Pea plant

A List of Contrasting Traits Studied by Mendel in Pea plant
S.No. Characters Contrasting Traits
Dominent Recessive
1. Stem height Tall Dwarf
2. Flower colour Violet White
3. Flower position Axial Terminal
4. Pod shape inflated Constricted
5. Pod colour Green Yellow
6. Seed shape Round Wrinkled
7. Seed colour Yellow Green
Flower colour
Purple (P)
white (t)
Fig. 20.2 (a) Contrasting traits in garden pea plants

Mendel’s Experiments: Mendel performed his experiments in three stages.
I. First, he made sure that his plants were pure breed. It means that the plants will always make
more offspring like itself when self-pollinated.
II. Second stage was to hybridise the plants of parental generation. He made several crosses by
dusting the pollen of one kind on stigmas of plants of another kind. After hybridisation the
resultant offspring were called F1 generation or first filial generation.
III. In third stage he allowed self pollination in F1 plants. The resultant offspring were called F2
generation or second filial generation.
Monohybrid Cross
1. Across between two individuals considering one pair of contrasting traits. Mendel crossed a
pure tall garden pea plant (TT) with a pure dwarf garden pea plant (tt)
2. In F1 generation, Mendel observed that all plants were tall.
3. F1 tall plants were self-pollinated. In F2 generation, Mendel observed that ¾ th of the plants
are tall and ¼ th are dwarf.
4. The character that is expressed in the F1 hybrids is called dominant trait and the suppressed
trait is called recessive trait.
MONOHYBRID CROSS
Tall
← F2 - gen
Fig. 20.2(b) Monohybrid Cross
Mendel’s conclusions on his experiments

Y He proposed that characters are transmitted from parents to offspring. The characters are controlled
by factors. These factors are now known as genes.
Y Genes are the units of inheritance.
Y The genes that are transmitted from the parents to off spring exist in pairs. Alternate form of a
gene is called allele. e.g., T is allelic to t. t is allelic to T.
Y When the two alleles are the same, they are called homozygous and both alleles are different
(dominant and recessive) they are called as heterozygous.
Y The character which is expressed in heterozygous condition is called as the dominant. These
are signified as capital letters.
Y The character which is suppressed in F1 hybrids is known as recessive. Which are signified by
small letters.
Y The physical appearance of an organism is known as the phenotype and the genetic constitution
is known as genotype.
Laws of Inheritance
Based on the experiments Mendel’s proposed three laws of inheritance. They are
1. Law of dominance
2. Law of segregation
3. Law of independent assortment
1. Law of dominance : This law states that when a pair of contrasting traits is crossed, one trait
dominates the expression of the other.
Example, in F1 generation all plants are tall although they have dwarf allele because tall is a
dominant trait.
2. Law of segregation : This law states that in F1 hybrids, the two contrasting factors never mix
with one another and are segregated from each other at the time of gamete formation. Hence
each gamete receives only one factor - either dominant or recessive. Thus gametes are pure.
3. Law of Independent assortment : It is proposed based on dihybrid cross. Mendel’s law of
independent assortment states that the alleles of two (or more) different genes get sorted into
gametes independent of each another. In other words, the allele a gamete receives for one gene
does not influence the allele received for another gene and at the time of fertilization they unite
in all possible ways and produce all possible combinations of traits.
YYRR
Fig. 20.2(c) Dihybrid cross


1. Mendel selected …………. plant for his experiment.
2. What is the phenotype of F1 generation?
3. What is the law of dominance?
4. What is the phenotype and genotype ratios in F2 generation in Monohybrid cross?
5. What are the laws of inheritance?
20.3 Sex determination in human beings

Each human cell contain 23 pairs (46) of chromosomes. Out of 23 pairs, 22 pairs are autosomes
which control the body characters and the other pair is known as allosoms or sex chromosomes which
determine the human sex.
The allosoms are XX in females and XY in males. All the ova formed in females have only X
chromosome. Males produce half of the sperms with X chromosome and remaining half with Y
chromosome. If the sperm carrying Y chromosome fertilizes the ovum (having X chromosome) then
the baby will have XY condition. So, that the baby will become a boy. If the sperm carrying X
chromosome fertilizes the ovum (having X chromosome), then the baby will have XX condition. So,
that the baby will be a girl.
Fig. 20.3 Human sex determination

Do you know?
Females does not have any role in sex determination. The sex of the baby is determined
by the chromosome of the sperm. It became a practice as a social evil to blame the
woman when giving birth to a girl child.

1. Number of chromosomes in human body cell is……………………
2. ………………. are the allosoms in the male.
3. Number of autosomes in female is ……………….
4. Who determines the sex of the baby?
20.4 Evolution
Evolution means unfolding. When you unfold a paper its size is increased. Like that small micro-
organisms gradually evoluted as big ones. Evolution is the branch of science that deals with the origin
of life and diversity of organisms on the earth through ages. Broadly speaking, evolution is a change
in the genetic makeup of a population over time. There are two types of evolution.
1. Micro evolution: refers to small scale changes within the species over short time.
2. Macro evolution: refers to large scale changes that occurs over extended time periods, such
as the formation of new species and groups. This is known as speciation.
Theories of evolution : Various theories have been proposed to explain the process of evolution,
such as Lamarckism, DeVries mutation theory, Darwinism and Modern synthetic theory.
Lamarckism
This theory was proposed by Jean Baptist
De Lamarck (1774- 1829) a French biologist.
He published his views in his book Philosophic
Zoologique. This theory was based on -
Influence of the environment on
organism
Use and disuse
Inheritance of acquired characters
Fig. 20.4 (a) Jean Baptist De Lamarck
According to Lamarck, as per the changes of the environment, orginisms live in it also undergo
certain changes. Environment forces the organism to use certain organs more and puts certain organs
to disuse. The organs that are used continuously will be better developed and those not used continuously
will degenerate and gradually disappear. These characters are called acquired characters and pass
from one generation to the other and leads to the origin of a new species.
Ex. Elongation of neck in giraffe (use)
Degeneration of limbs in snakes (disuse)
Fig. 20.4(b) Jiraffe
Objections: Lamarckism is opposed by August Weismann. He conducted breading experiments

then mice by cutting its tail for several generations and find tailed offsprings. Finally, he concluded
changes occurs in the somatoplasm will not be transmitted to the next generation. But any changes
occur in germ plasm will be inherited to the next generation. His theory was popularly called Germ
plasm theory.
Darwinism
Charles Robert Darwin (1809-1882), an
English naturalist proposed the theory, the natural
selection. He travelled on HMS Beagle and
explored of fauna and flora of the different parts of
the world. He was attracted by the Finches (birds)
in Galapagos islands.
Darwin’s theory of natural selection explains
how evolution might have occurred. He believed
that evolution is a continous and gradual process.
His theory is based on three facts and two inferences.
Fig. 20.4 (c) Charles Robert Darwin (1809-1882)
I. Over production: every organism tends to increase its population in large proportion.
For example, salmon fish produce 25 million of eggs each time.
II. Constancy in population: Even though the rate of production is high, the number of individuals
of each species remains more or less constant in each generation.
III. Struggle for existence: Darwin’s inference is that most of the members of the populations will
die in the struggle for existence. This is three types.
1. Intra specific struggle: the competition among the individuals of the same species for food,
shelter and mate.
2. Inter specific struggle: the competition found among the different species.
3. Struggle with environment: organisms struggle with environmental factors such as cyclones,
floods, and voloconic eruptions.
IV. Variations: Variations are the differences among the organisms of same species. They may be
harmful or useful or neutral. Useful variations help the species to survive in struggle for existence
and inherited to next generations.
V. Natural selection: the organisms which have useful variations will succeed in the struggle for
existance and reproduce more fertile offsprings. It means they are selected by nature. This process
is known as natural selection.
VI. Origin of species : Darwin stated that the useful variations accumulate and gradually a new
species will originate.

1. What is evolution?
2. Use and disuse theory was proposed by………………………….
3. Name the theory of evolution proposed by Darwin?
4. Who opposed the Lamarck theory?
20.5 Evidences for evolution

Many science branches provide the evidences to evolution. Those are
1. Evidences from Palaeontology
2. Evidences from Embryology
3. Evidences from Morphology
4. Evidences from Cell and Molecular biology
1. Evidences from Palaeontology: The study

of fossils known as palaeontology. Fossils
are the remnants of extinct organisms that
were preserved in the earth crust. Normally
hard parts like spines, spicules, chitinous
exoskeleton, scales, bones, feathers, teeth
and hair of prehistoric organisms were
preserved as fossils. By studying the fossils,
we are able to establish similarities among
the existing organisms to its ancient in the Fig. 20.5(a) fossil
past. e.g. Dinosaurs
Do you know?
If the entire earth is considered a book, the layers of earth were the pages and the
fossils were the letters with which the history of the earth was written. Hence fossils were
considered as written or documentary evidences for evolution.
The fossils having more age, have simple structure and complexity in structure increases towards
recent. It indicates that organisms with complex structure were evolved from simple forms in
course of time.
Think and discuss
How fossils dated? The age of fossils determined by carbon dating method. For this half
life period of isotope of carbon or potassium or uranium can be used.
2. Evidences from Embryology: The study of the early development of an organism is called
embryology. When the early embryos of different vertebrates are observed we find a fundamental
similarity which indicates that there is a relationship among the animals. There is remarkable
similarity in the embryos of different animals from fish to man indicates the common ancestry.
Ernst Haeckel proposed Biogenetic law, which states that the ontogeny repeats phylogeny
which means developmental history of an organism repeats the evolutionary history of it.
E.g. Tadpole larva of frog resembles a fish. It indicates that frogs evolved from fish like ancestors.
Fig. 20.5(b) Embryological evidences
3. Evidences from Morphology : When we compare structural of different animals, we find some
similarities among them. These relationships can be studied under (a) homologous organs (b)
analogous organs (c) vestigial organs (d) atavistic organs (e) connecting links.
(a) Homologous organs: The organs which have similar structure and origin but perform different
functions are called homologous organs.
E.g. Fore limb of whale – to swim

Wing of bat – to fly
Fore limbs of cheetah – to run
Hand of man– to grasp and catch
Homologous organs are formed
by adaptive radiation and they
are examples for divergent
evolution.
Fig. 20.5 (c) Homologous organs
(b) Analogous organs: The organs

having dissimilar structure but
perform the same function are called
analogous organs. They are
example for convergent evolution.
E.g., Wings of the butterfly and the
wings of bat. The leaves of plant
and stem of Opuntia.
Fig. 20.5 (d) Analogous organs
(c) Vestigial organs: The organs which were well developed and functional in ancestors but
are non functional and reduced in descendants are called vestigial organs. They support the
Lamarck’s concept of disuse. E.g., Muscles of pinna, hind limbs of Python.
There are 180 vestigial organs in the human
body and hence man is called moving
museum of Antiquities.
Fig. 20.5(e) Vestigial organs in human

(d) Atavistic organs : Sudden appearance of

vestigial organs in a better developed
condition is called atavism and such organ
is called atavistic organ. E.g., Tail in human
body.
Fig. 20.5(d) Atavistic organs

(e) Connecting links : The organisms which possess the characters of two unrelated groups
are called connecting links. They are intermediate forms between those two groups.
E.g., Archaeopteryx – reptiles and aves; Peripatus - Annelida and Arthropoda.
Fig. 20.5 (g) Archeopteryx
4. Evidences from cell and molecular biology: Bodies of all the organisms are made up of cells.
All the organisms are able to perform metabolism and generating energy to be able to live and
thrive.
The genetic code is made up of nitrogen bases. These base combinations are almost same
in the all organisms. It indicates that all organisms are descended from a common ancestor.

1. What is embryology?
2. Number of vestigial organs present in human body is……….
3. Example for the homologous organs are………………….
4. ………………… is the organism that has the characters of two different groups.
20.6 Human evolution

Homo sapiens is the most prominent species on earth. He is the result of over 7 million years
of evolution. The traces of human evolution have been obtained through fossil records, morphological,
physiological and embryological studies. The ancestors of humans are believed to have originated in
Africa, eventually migrated to Europe, Asia and the rest of the world. There are several stages in
human evolution process. They are
Dryopithecus : It is the earliest known ancestor of man. They were found in some parts of Africa,
Asia and Europe.
Australopithecus : These were 1.2 meter tall and could walk upright. They inhabited in African main
land. They had large jaws and human like teeth.
Homo habils : They lived between 1.6 and 2.5 million years ago. They were 5 feet tall and could
make use of tools. They are believed to have been able to speak.
Homo erectus : They lived between 1 and 1.8 million years ago. They were also upright and had
a large brain. They had a prominent speech. They invented fire and were carnivores.
Homo sapiens neanderthalensis : They lived between 1,00,000 - 40,000 years ago.
Homo sapiens : These are modern humans appeared about 15,000 and 10,000 years ago. They
developed the power of thinking, tools using, omnivores and produced art. Their brain size is about
1300 c.c.
Fig. 20.6 Human evolution


1. The human evolution started from ……………………
2. The first erected man is …………………………....…
3. Scientific name of modern human beings is …………
Summary
Y The transmission of characters from one generation to the next generation is termed as heredity.
Y Heredity is controlled by genes.
Y Differences among the organisms of same species are known as variations. These are also
known as individual differences.
Y Gregor Mendel proposed laws of inheritance, namely, 1. law of dominance 2. law of segregation
and 3. law of independent assortment.
Y Mendel used the term factors. Now we call them as genes.
Y Human beings have 23 pairs of chromosomes in which 22 pairs are known as autosomes and
the remaining pair is known as allosoms.
Y XX are the allosoms in female and XY are the allosoms in male.
Y Human sex determination is controlled by sperms.
Y Evolution is a slowly and gradual process of speciation.
Y Use and disuse, inheritance of acquired characters are main concepts in Lamarckism.
Y Lamarckism is mainly opposed by Weismann. He proposed germplasm theory.
Y Darwin proposed the theory of natural selection.
Y Fossils provide the documentary evidence for evolution.
Y Homologous and analogous organs are morphological evidence of evolution.
Y Homo sapiens is the scientific name of modern human beings.
Y Human evolution started from Dryopithecus and still continues to Homo sapiens.
Terminal Questions
1. Define heredity.
2. What is the use of variations?
3. Why do you look like your mother or father?
4. What characters are selected by Mendel in garden pea plant for his experiments?
5. Why Mendel selected garden pea plants for his experiments ?
6. Write about the law of dominance.
7. Explain the Mendel’s monohybrid cross.
8. What are the allosoms and what is their role?
9. Explain the process of sex determination in human beings.
10. Write about Lamarckism.
11. What are the examples cited by Lamarck to support his theory?
12. Explain the theory of Darwinism.
13. What do you understand about the natural selection?
14. What are the differences between homologous and analogous organs?
15. Briefly write about the human evolution.

20.1
1. The transmission of characters from one generation to next generation is termed as heredity.
2. Differences in characters present in organisms of same species are referred to as variations.
3. Ear lobes, rolling of tongue.
20.2
1. Garden pea plant
2. Tall
3. Expression of only one of the characters in heterozygous condition is called dominance.
4. Phenotypic ratio : 3:1 genotypic ratio : 1:2:1
5. 1. Law of dominance 2. Law of segregation 3. Law of independent assortment.
20.3
1. 46
2. XY
3. 44
4. Male
20.4
1. Evolution is the branch of science that deals with the origin of life and diversity of organisms on
the earth through ages.
2. Lamarck
3. Natural selection
4. Weismann
20.5
1. The study of the early development of an organism is called embryology.
2. 180
3. Wing of a bat, forelimb of whale
4. Connecting link
20.6
1. Africa
2. Homo erectus
3. Homo sapiens

1. Refer to 20.1
2. Refer to 20.1
3. Refer to Introduction
4. Refer to 20.2
5. Refer to 20.2
6. Refer to 20.2
7. Refer to 20.2
8. Refer to 20.3
9. Refer to 20.3
10. Refer to 20.4
11. Refer to 20.4
12. Refer to 20.4
13. Refer to 20.4
14. Refer to 20.5
15. Refer to 20.5

1. Collect the information about carbon dating method.
2. Prepare and album with the diagrams of connecting links.
21
Our environment – Our concern
The living world in our surroundings is diversified and complex. To understand the diversity and
complexity we need to observe and understand our environment continuously and comprehensively.
Our environment undergoes many changes continuously. The adverse effects of these changes in the
environment have tremendous impact on the living world. The environmental conservation is possible
with human involvement as the human being is only the responsible for these changes in environment.
Let us study the different aspects considering the conservation of environment in this lesson.
Objectives
O identify the relation between the biotic and abiotic factors in the habitat and environment.
O understand the feeding relations among the organisms in different trophic levels of a food
chain.
O prepare food web by identifying the different organisms in his/her surroundings.
O understand the ecological pyramids, number of organisms in each trophic level and the flow
of energy from one trophic level to another.
O Identify the human activities which lead to air pollution and follow the preventive measures.
O understand how indiseriminate use of pesticides leads to soil, water and air pollution and
propose the preventive measures.
O identify the adverse effects of water pollution on the aquatic life in water bodies. Undertake
the preventive measures to prevent water pollution.
O understand that the deforestation leads to soil erosion and identify the importance of social
forestry.
O identifies the effects of sound pollution on human health.
21.1 Ecology - Introduction

What is ecosystem?
Frequently you might have heard the words habitat and ecosystem. Are the habitat and ecosystem
same? You may have doubt which is the internal part of another? The dwelling place of living organisms
like plants and animals is known as habitat. Here we are discussing about only living place. The
terrestrial habitat is where we live. Some of the animals live in water and is known as aquatic habitat.
To learn about the ecosystem we need to go through the details.
The word ecosystem was first used in 1935 by a British Botanist and Ecologist, A. G. Tansley.
According to him ecosystem is the basic unit of nature. He coined the word as reduction of term
Ecological system. The habitat constitutes of biotic factors like plants, animals and microorganisms as
well as abiotic factors like air, water, soil etc.
Is there any relation between all these factors?
ECOSYSTEM
Biotic Factors Abiotic Factors

e.g., Plants, animals and micro organisms e.g., Soil, Rocks, Air, Water, Sunlight etc.
The living organisms need air, water, soil etc. to survive. They cannot synthesize food without
all these factors. It means there is an interdependence between biotic and abiotic factors. To understand
the inter relation between living and nonliving things the word ecosystem is used.
Is the ecosystem same in different regions?
Activity:
Visit different places like your house surroundings, school playground, crop land etc. select
a particular area of land for instance 1 square meter. Observe the plants, animals and any
other living things as well as nature of the soil. Use magnifying lens for your observation.
Record your observations and repeat the same observations an all your selected areas.
O Is the nature (texture) of soil uniform in all areas?

O Do you find the same organisms in all the places?
O What differences do you observe?
By this activity it is concluded that the biotic and abiotic factors differ in different ecosystems.
Our environment – Our concern 395
There are different varieties of ecosystems in our surroundings. The abiotic factors decide the
species of biotic factors. The ecosystem evolves on the basis of biotic and abiotic factors. It refers
that the ecosystems are formed as the interrelations between biotic and abiotic factors. On the basis
of human interventions and natural effects the ecosystem is classified as follows.
Ecosystem
Natural Artificial
Ecosystem Ecosystem
Ex: Aquarium, Terrainium
Sanctuaries
Terrestrial Aquatic
Ecosystem Ecosystem
Grassland Forest Deserts Fresh Water Marine

Ecosystem Ecosystem
Coordination between the factors of Ecosystem
Lakes
Observe the given picture. River pond stream seas oceans
O What do the arrows indicate in the picture?

O On which each organism depend for food?
O What are the producers of food?
From the given picture we can
conclude that there is a feeding
relationship between the plants and
animals as well as animals and
animals.
Fig. 21.1 Food web


1. What is habitat?
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2. What does an ecosystem indicate?
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21.2 Food Chain

Energy is essential for the organisms at any level in the ecosystem. They get energy from the
food they eat. But what is the main source of energy? How it changes? Let us see!
Sun is the only source of the energy for all living organisms. Because plants prepare their food
by photosynthesis in presence of sunlight. The food prepared by plants is eaten by the herbivores.
Energy reach the carnivores through herbevores.
Transfer of Energy
Sun → Plants Herbivores Carnivores
Scientists use the word food chain to explain the transfer of energy in an ecosystem.
Though there are decomposers in food chain, there is no fixed place is alloted to them. They
can decompose any organism in any level.
Food chain
There are mainly 2 levels in food chain. Those are 1. producers, 2. consumers.
1. Producers : The organisms that prepare food by using sunlight are called producers autotrophs.
They convert light energy into chemical energy. e.g., Green plants and green algae.
2. Consumers: All the herbivores that feed on plants and algae are known as consumers. These
are known as primary consumers. e.g., cow, goat, insects. The carnivores which feed on
herbivores are known as secondary consumers. As such the organisms which feed on secondary
consumers are known as tertiary consumers. Observe the food chain given below.
Grass Gross hopper Frog Snake Eagle

(Producers) (Primary (Secondary (Tertiary (Top level
Consumers) Consumers) Consumer) Consumers)
Decomposers: Decomposers can be placed at any level in food chain. They feed on excreta
debris of plants and animals or on their remains after they die. They return nutrients to the soil
for the use of plants. So they are called as recyclers. e.g., bacteria and fungi.
Activity :
Write down the list of producers and consumers in your surroundings. Draw the
food chain on this basis.
You will notice that as we move from the producers to consumers in a food chain the number
of organism decreases at each trophic level. Due to feeding relations the number decreases from
producers to consumers. The food chain indicates the energy flow from one organism to another. In
this process the energy is lost at each trophic level. Because the organisms at each trophic level utilize
a part of energy obtained from earlier trophic level for respiration, growth and other life processes.
Some amount of energy is also lost in the form of heat. Nearly 80 – 90% of energy is utilized and
lost. Only 10% of energy is made available for the next trophic level. You will learn in detail in further
classes.

1. What are the producers in a food chain?
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2. Why bacteria are called recyclers?
________________________________________________________________________
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21.3 Food Web

Observe the given picture.
If you observe the diagram which shows that there is a relationship between one food chain to
another. The food chains all together form the food web. The food relations among the organisms are
not so simple. Because it is observed that a trophic level may be the food for several organisms in
a food web. For instance the producers are eaten by the herbivores as well as some insects. As such
the rats are eaten by snakes as well as eagles. These food relations make all the food chains as a web.
So the term food web is the most appropriate word to use this inter connection.
You can see that the

animals occupy special position
within the food web. Each and
every organism has a
particular position in a food
web. This is described as its
niche. The term niche denotes
not only the animal’s position
but also its mode of life. It
also denotes what it eats and
what it is eaten by.
Fig. 21.2 Foodweb

1. What is the difference between food chain and food web?
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2. What is niche? What does it denote?
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21.4 Ecological Pyramids

Do you hear about the pyramids in Egypt. They are very tall structures. They have broad base
and at the top they pointed.
Fig. 21.3 Egypt Pyramid

What are the Ecological pyramids? What is the relation between ecosystem and pyramids?
Ecologists uses the word pyramid to show the relation among the organisms in a food chain.
In 1972 the British Ecologist Charles Elton introduced the ecological pyramids graphically. In a pyramid
the producers are arranged at the base and consumers are arranged above the producers at different
levels upto apex.
Teritiary
consumes
Secondary
consumes
Primary consumes
Producers
Ecological pyramid are three types. There are 1. Pyramid of numbers. 2. Pyramid of Biomass
3. Pyramid energy. In many ecosystems the pyramid of number, biomass period and energy pyramid
is erect because the producers are more in number. The number of herbivores or primary consumers
are less when compared with producers. The number of carnivores or tertiary consumers are less
when compared with Herbivores or secondary consumers. The availability of energy is high at base
level when compare to apex level. But when we see the food chain of parasites the pyramid will be
the reverse in position. You can also see when we take tree as a producer in a food chain all the
organisms like insects, Lizards, Squirrels which live on the tree. If we construct a pyramid with these
organisms the pyramid will appear in some other shape.
1. Pyramid of numbers
If the number of organisms at each
trophic level in food chain is represented
graphically in the form of a pyramid it is
known as pyramid of numbers. Hence the
pyramid of number represents the number
of individuals at each trophic level. There
is a decrease in number at each trophic
level from producers to tertiory and top
level consumers (i.e. from base to apex
of the pyramid). Fig. 21.4 Pyramid of number
You might have observed that the size of the organisms increases from producers at the base
to consumers at the apex.
Think and discuss:

O What happens if the number of organisms increase in number from base to apex of the
pyramid?
Look at the table
Number of organisms Size of organisms

Apex of the pyramid Less Big
Base of the pyramid More Small
You know that the size of the insects is smaller where as size of frog which feeds on insects is
distinctly large. The size of the snake which feeds on frogs is still larger.
In general most of the number pyramids are upright. But at some instances the number of consumers
is more than producers. The structure of pyramids changes. But whatever the structure of pyramid the
producers are located at the base and consumers at the apex of the pyramid.
2. Pyramid of biomass
Biomass is the organic material of living organisms. Usually the green plants synthesize the
carbohydrates by trapping the solar energy during the process of photosynthesis. This derivation
is biomass. The plants, animals and their excretions form the biomass. The combustion of the biomass
releases the heat energy. Ex: Heat energy is released when the wood is burnt.
Any type of plant or animal material that can be converted into energy is
called biomass.
When these materials are used for energy production they become biofuels.
The pyramid of biomass represents

the biomass at each trophic level as well
Human
as the relationships that exist between 1kg
Fish 10 Kgs
the quantities of living matter at different
Zooplankton
trophic levels. In terrestrial ecosystem the 100 Kgs
biomass progressively decreases from Phytoplankton
1000 Kgs
producers to top carnivores.
Think and discuss:

O Why does the biomass decrease from producers to top carnivores?
The biomass at each trophic level is always less than the next trophic level. This is because
during the energy flow from producers to top carnivores the energy is utilized for different metabolic
processes at each trophic level. Hence the energy is decreased due to the utility of energy obtained
from below trophic level for growth and development. And also most of the biomass obtained from
its food is excreted out and leads to loss of biomass.
Observe the pyramid of biomass in the above picture. At each level nearly 90% of biomass is
lost at each trophic level. It means that 1000 kg of phytoplankton is required to sustain 100 kg of
zooplankton. In turn 100 kg of zooplankton is required to sustain 10 kg of fish. 10 kg of fish is
required to sustain 1 kg of human life. If the less number of trophic levels in the food chain, more
energy is available for the species at the apex of pyramid.
3. Pyramid of energy
The pyramid which represents the flow of energy from one trophic level to another, that is from
producers to top carnivores is known as pyramid of energy. The energy is required for all the organisms
to grow and live. It is obtained from the food which is eaten. The green plants prepare the food by
trapping solar energy. Hence the Sun is the energy source on this earth. The light energy is converted
into chemical energy and preserved as static energy. This energy is utilized in many metabolic processes
like absorption of nutrients, photosynthesis, and transportation of materials inside the cells.
Let us see the flow of energy in different levels!
The food chain and food web help us understand the transfer of food and energy from producers
to various consumers. The energy produced in one trophic level is not completely (100%) transferred
to the next trophic level in an energy pyramid. This is because at each trophic level the organisms
utilize certain amount of energy for growth and other life processes such as respiration, excretion,
development of bones, muscles, etc.
Look at the following picture.
If death occurs.
Energy transfer from sun

Life process
Heat 90% Teritiary
ers
os
Life Process
mp
Heat 90% Secondary 10%

co
De
Life Process Primary 10%

Heat 90%
Life Process 10%
Heat 90% Producers
Fig. 21.5 Flow of energy

10% of energy only transferred from one tropic level to another. The remaining 90%
Energy is used for life processes. It is called Law Rule of 10% energy loss.
Intext Questions ( 21.4)

1. Write the order of trophic levels from base to apex of a pyramid.
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2. What happens if there are more number of organisms at the apex of number pyramid?
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3. The biomass decreases from one trophic level to next level trophic level. Why?
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The Effects of Human activities on Ecosystems

Are we destroying the environment ourselves?
The environment in our surroundings is evolved naturally. We know about the interdependence
and inter relations between biotic and abiotic factors. The ecosystem enables the existence of
human being and all other living organisms. The pollution of abiotic factors such as soil, air and water
disables the existence of living organisms on this earth. It is not an exaggeration to say that this due
to human interventions. Let us study the human activities lead to air, soil and water pollution. What
are the challenges before us?
21.5 Air pollution

Pollution is the word that disturbs all over the world. What is meant by pollution? The entry of
harmful substances into the air, soil and water is known as pollution. It refers that the undesirable
substances are accumulated and pollute the air, soil and water. The entry of the harmful substances
into the atmosphere is due to human activity. The greedy and indiscriminate nature of human being
leads to pollution throughout the world.
What is air pollution?

Prior to study about the air pollution, let us study about the composition of air. Observe the
chart given below
other gases : 0.017%
Fig. 21.6 Atmospheric gases

Air is a mixture of gases. The main constituents of air are Nitrogen, Oxygen, Argan, Carbon
dioxide, water vapour and other gases. 20.947% of Oxygen in the air is the basic element for
existence of life. 0.033% of CO2 is utilized for food production during the process of photosynthesis.
The other gases in the air maintains the balance with their required quantities. When this balance
is disturbed due to natural changes or human activity, it leads to air pollution. So if there is any
interruption in this balance or any new substance is added it is considered as air pollution. The substances
which pollute the air are called air pollutants.
Shall we know what is in a air?
Do like this (Activity)

Take four white papers. Apply oil to all the papers. Hang the each paper with thread at road
side, infront of your home, in the garden and bus stand or industrial area. Observe the papers
after 4-5 hours. Can you observe any substances stick on the paper. How they enter into the
air?
Fill the table with your observations.
Paper hanged at
Substances Paper hanged on Paper hanged Paper hanged in Paper hanged in
Observed road side infront home garden bus stand or
industrial area
Discuss :
1. Do all the papers hanged at different places are alike ?
2. On which places the papers are highly sticked with pollutants ?
Reasons for Air pollution

We can say two major reasons for Air pollution. Those are 1. Natural calamities. 2. Human
interference. Look at the flow chart given below.
Air Pollution
Natural Calamities Human activities

Ex: 1. Volcanic eruption Ex: 1. Fuel combustion
2. Forest Fires 2. Waste from power stations
3. Sand storms and cyelones 3. Indescriminate use of
4. Floods and Tsunamis pesticides
5. Earthquakes 4. Population growth
5. Industrialization
6. Deforestation
Natural calamities
(a) Volcanic eruption: You might have heard about volcanic eruptions. The underground minerals
and other chemical reactions, tremendous pressure are responsible for volcanic eruption. The
underground chemicals and minerals dissolve and thrown out in the form of lava and pollute the
soil. It also releases the gases like CO2, SO2 and some poisonous gases and soot into the air.
All these lead to air pollution.
(b) Forest fires: During the forest fires all the flora and fauna are burnt extensively. These are of
carbon compounds and release gases like CO2, CO as well as fog, soot etc.
(c) Floods and Tsunamis: The suspended particulate matter is added to the air due to storms,
floods and tsunamis and lead to disturbance in atmospheric balance. After the floods, due to still
water the organics waste is degraded and release the gases like ammonia and methane into the
atmosphere.
Human activities
(a) Fuel combustion : The usage of fuel is tremendous in today’s world. The usage of fuel like
diesel, petrol, natural gas and firewood in transportation, electricity generation, industries and
domestic purposes by developed countries is well known to all. Fuel combustion releases the
gases like CO2, CO, SO2, fog, dust and soot into the atmosphere and leads to air pollution.
(b) Electric power stations : The power is generated various methods in our state. The thermal
power stations use the coal to generate electricity and release the soot, fog, CO2, CO etc.
Nitrogen oxides are produced during sparks in the power stations.
(c) Deforestation : The trees are the only source to maintain the constant status of CO2. The tress
absorb the CO2 from atmosphere and utilize in the process of photosynthesis. Hence the constant
CO2 percentage is maintained. Deforestation results in the increase of CO2 concentration in the
atmosphere which leads to global warming.
(d) Use of fertilizers and pesticides : The farmers are utilizing pesticides to control the harmful
insects and pests in the fields. The spraying of insecticides release particulate pollutants into the
air. As well as hand spraying of powdery fertilizers leads to air pollution. The excavations in the
mines of granite, coal and lime stone release dust and granular pollutants into the air and lead
to air pollution.
The harmful effects of air pollution

Air pollution leads to death in an average of 7 million people all over the world. The inhalation
of polluted air leads to respiratory diseases like asthma as well as heart diseases. The CO2 released
into the atmosphere results in global warming.
Do you know?
Have you ever head about Acid rains? How do they occurs?
SO2 is the most dangerous gas which is released during combustion of fuel and from industries.
14 When this gas is released into the atmosphere it reacts with the water vapour and forms sulphuric
F acid. This sulphuric acid precipitates towards the ground like small droplets. This is called acid
rain.
SO2 + H2O H2SO3 H 2SO4
Discuss : What are the effects of acid rains.
How to reduce air pollution?
It is very difficult to reduce air pollution completely as the industrialization and transportation
play the key role in economy of a Nation. However it can be controlled by controlling the human
activities. We can control the air pollution to some extent by following the given measures.
O Tall chimneys should be installed in all factories to reduce the release the pollutants like fog, soot
and harmful gases at the ground level. The arrangement of electrostatic precipitators in these
chimneys also prevent the release of harmful gases into the atmosphere.
O Utilization of quality fuels which are free of lead (Pb) in the vehicles.
O Using LPG for domestic use.
O Switch on to the utilisation of public transport system and reduce the usage of individual vehicles.
O Either the vehicle or any other gadgets in the home should ensure the complete fuel combustion.
Otherwise more carbon monoxide (CO) is released into the atmosphere.
O Make use of renewable or alternative energy resources like solar energy, wind energy, tidal
energy, hydro energy etc.
O Vehicles run with solar energy should be adopted.

O Growing of more and more plants in industrial areas, residential areas, on either side of the
roads etc.
By adopting these measures we can protect the human life from the Air pollution.

1. Fill the following table of composition of air.
Gases in the composition of air percentage
2. What are the natural calamities that lead to air pollution?

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3. What are the preventive measures that you undertake in your house to reduce air pollution?
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21.6 Water Pollution

Water is essential for our life. There is no life without water. We cannot lead our life without
water. Water is required for several life processes. We have to drink five liters of water every day.
Water is a universal solvent. Hence we use water in all our activities like washing clothes, bathing,
cleaning utensils etc. as is able to dissolve majority of substances. Normal water is colourless without
any smell. Thus water suitable for drinking is called potable water.
What is water pollution?
The contamination of water with unwanted substances is known as water pollution. These unwanted
substances are called water pollutants. The contamination of water is due to indiscriminate human
activities.
Water pollution - Different pollutants:
Water pollution is of different types. It depends on the water sources. Each water resource is
polluted differently. General water pollutants are :
1. Domestic sewage, Industrial effluents and agricultural wastes.
2. Contamination due to pathogenic microorganisms.

3. Nutritional wastes from Agricultural yards.
4. Salts, silt.
5. Thermal pollution
6. Radioactive substances.
7. Population growth.
8. Industrialisation.
In our state majority of rivers, lakes are polluted due to the wastes from industries. The pollutants
are mainly classified as (1) specific pollutants (2) non-specific pollutants.
1. Specific pollutants: The pollutants which are released from a single source are called specific
pollutants. For instance the wastes from a factory. It contains only a particular pollutants released
into water.
2. Non- specific pollutant: The release of more than one kind of pollutants into the water. The
quantity of the pollutant may be little but various pollutants contaminate the water body. Hence
it leads to diversified pollution and is more dangerous. e.g.,: Contamination of water by domestic
wastes, hospital wastes, pesticides and fertilizers from agricultural fields.
Harmful effects of water pollution

By drinking the polluted water human beings suffer from Typhoid, Cholera, Jaundice, Amoebiasis
etc. The usage of pesticides in agriculture results in death of aquatic animals. The water contaminated
with pesticides effect the human nervous system and causes chronic diseases like cancer due to carbonates
and organo phosphates.
Eutrophication: Chemical fertilizers like phosphates, nitrates from agricultural fields run off due to
rains and contaminate the water bodies. Enrichment of water body with nutrients is called eutrophication.
It results in the growth of algae, weeds and bacteria. It results in decreased quantities of oxygen. As
a result the organisms die due to lack of oxygen.
Biomagnification : The pesticides and industrial effluents contain many chemicals. Especially the pesticides
are rich in mercury, arsenic, lead are more harmful. These chemicals of pesticides enter into the plants
which grow in polluted water. When these plants are eaten by insects, in turn by fish and in turn by
human beings. The process of entry of harmful pollutants into the food chain is known as bioaccumulation.
The process of increase of concentration of pollutant in higher levels of food chain, is known as
biomagnification.
The DDT was used to prevent mosquitoes earlier. It is a non bio-degradable pollutant in soil
and water. It contaminates the water when it floods in rainy season. The water contaminated with
DDT enter the food chain of algae, fish and pelican. Hence it is highly concentrated in pelicans. As
a result the egg shells of pelicans become thin and fragile and lead to reduction of population.
WATER ALGAE FISH PELICAN

DDT
0.2ppm 77ppm 500-600ppm 1700ppm
Think and discuss:

Is it good to eat the fish in contaminated water? why ?
Control of Water Pollution
The water is polluted mainly due to human activities. It can be prevented by adopting following
measures.
O Toxic Industrial effluents should be treated chemically to neutralize the harmful substances present
in it before discharging into rivers and lakes.
O The sewage should not be dumped into the rivers directly. It should be treated at the sewage
treatment plant to remove the organic matter from it in the form of manure.
O Indiscreminate use of fertilizers and pesticides should be avoided.
O The plastic waste should not be dumped at the banks of lakes, ponds and rivers.
O The biodegradable detergents should be used for washing clothes and cleaning utensils.
O Waste substances and food materials should not be thrown into open drains.
Do you know?
80% of human diseases are caused by drinking of polluted water.

1. What are the harmful effects of water pollution?
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2. What are the problem faced by aquatic animals due to water pollution?
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3. What happens if the fish from contaminated water is eaten?

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21.7 Soil Pollution

Soil is also essential for life along with air and water. Soil fulfills the inter dependent functions
necessary for the life. The food we eat is harvested from the soil. The crop quality directly depends
on the quality of soil in which it is grown. The crops do not grow properly in polluted soil. Hence
the soil conservation is one of the most essential aspects.
The entry of pollutants in the soil is known as soil pollution. It shows negative effects
on soil quality and fertility.
O Which substances in retain soil as pollutants?

O Do all the substances degrade into the soil?
Activity
O Dig two pits near your house.
O Dump fruit and vegetable peels in one pit and cover with the soil
O Dump the plastic covers and water bottles in another pit and cover with the soil.
O Sprinkle water on both pits regularly.
O Observe the status of these substances for every 15 days.
Think and discuss:

Some substances are degradable and some are not. why ?
A) Biodegradable Wastes
The waste like leaves, dung, vegetable peels and agricultural waste like twigs and hay degrade
due to microbial action and release nutrients into the soil. Hence soil fertility increases.
B) Non Biodegradable Wastes
The chemical waste like plastic, glass, aluminum cans, DDT take a long time to decompose.
These are called non-biodegradable waste. They are also known as solid wastes.
Generally polluted water pollutes the soil. Soil is polluted due to plastic, glass, metals, organic
matter, sewage, sewage sludge, industrial wastes, fly ash, medical waste, fertilizers and pesticides used
in agriculture etc.
Human Activities- Soil Pollution

1. Indiscriminate use of fertilizers : Farmers generally use fertilizers containing Nitrogen, Phosphorous
and Potassium to get high yield. The over use of NPK fertilizers over the years damage the soil
nature and reduce the yield.
2. Deforestation : Deforestation leads to soil erosion, global warming, floods etc.
3. Dumping of solid waste : Plastic, Rubber, Glass, Metal waste, Aluminium cans, Medical waste
like syringes, needles, bandage waste etc. are the most harmful solid wastes.
Harmful Effects of Soil Pollution
O The agricultural yield is reduced due to soil pollution.
O The water flooding through the polluted soil in rainy seasons contaminate the water bodies and
results in death of aquatic animals. The drinking water is also polluted.
O Causes soil erosion.
O Disturbs the balance between the flora and fauna of terrestrial habitat.
O The clogging of drains results in public ill health
O Due to extinction of soil bacteria, the soil fertility is reduced.
Controlling Methods of Soil Pollution
The following steps help to control the soil pollution.
O Reduce the usage of chemical fertilizers and pesticides.
O Reusing the material and things by following the 4Rs’ principle which includes Reduce, Reuse,
Recycle and Recover.
O Control the soil erosion by afforestation.
O Disposal of domestic waste in proper manner.

1. Write the examples for following
Biodegradable waste Non - biodegradable waste
2. Indiscriminate use of fertilizers in crop land is dangerous. How do you support this statement?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
21.8 Sound Pollution

Sound pollution is another serious problem that shows an impact on human life. We are able
to hear 20Hz to 20KHz of intensity of sound. More than that we cannot tolerate. Sound intensity
is measured in decibels (dB). A normal human can hear even 0dB. But if the loudness exceeds beyond
85dB, our hearing capacity we be lost permanently.
Reasons for Sound Pollution
O Sounds and horns of traffic, aeroplanes, trains and vehicles.
O The sounds produced from the machineries of industries.
O The sound of drums and loud speakers in marriages, fairs, processions etc.
O The cracker’s sound during Diwali and processions etc.
O Thundering sounds and thunder bolts of natural calamities.
Adverse Effects of Sound Pollution

O The loud sounds damage the eardrum and results in hearing loss.
O It also leads to stress and hypertension. The sound pollution also leads to lack of concentration
in work.
O Sometimes it may have a negative impact on respiration, heartbeat and lead to death.
How to prevent Sound Pollution?
We can prevent sound pollution by following measures.
O By closing the rooms in which the sound producing machinery is placed in industries. Reduce
the loudness of machines by servicing or oiling the machines properly
O Reduce the volume of TV in house or office.
O Plant trees to reduce the loudness of sounds.
O By controlling the traffic vehicles, horn sounds can be reduced.
O Impose ban on the crackers producing loud sounds.
O Organizing the fairs by controlling the sounds with the permission of police department.
Pollution is the most dangerous to human life. Whatever the pollution it is harmful to human
existence. If it is not prevented, we will never see a healthy society. Pollution is harmful and dangerous.
Summary
Y The biotic and abiotic factors are interdependent in an ecosystem.
Y The food chain denotes the feeding relations between organisms in an ecosystem.
Y The food chain constitutes (i) producers, (ii) consumers.
Y In a food chain 90% of energy is utilized and enables only 10% of energy flow from one
trophic level to another.
Y Food web is a system of interlocked food chains. It denotes feeding relations in between the
organisms.
Y Charles Elton introduced Ecological pyramids to explain the inter relations between organisms
in food chain.
Y There are three types of ecological pyramids : (1) Pyramid of number, (2) Biomass Pyramid,
(3) Energy Pyramid.
Y Air pollution is caused due to the natural calamities like volcanic eruptions, forest fires, tsunami
and earthquakes as well as human activities like combustion of fuel, deforestation etc.
Y Air pollution causes asthma, respiratory diseases and heart diseases.
Y Increase in Carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere results in global warming.
Y Water is contaminated with waste and unwanted substances. Water pollution leads to the
diseases like Typhoid, Cholera, Jaundice, amoebiasis etc.
Y Contamination of water bodies with nutrient rich waste substances enables the over growth
of Algae, Bacteria and weeds. Which results in decreased in concentration of oxygen. This
leads to the death of aquatic animals. Enrichment of water body with nutrients is called
eutrophication.
Y The introduction of chemical pollutants and poisonous substances into the food chain through
the aquatic plants is known as bio accumulation.
Y Soil pollution is caused due to non-bio degradable wastes.
Y The agricultural production is reduced due to soil pollution which leads to imbalance between
flora and fauna.
Y We lose our hearing capacity loudness of sound increases beyond 85dB. Sound pollution
causes hypertension, headache, loss of sleep, mental stress and affects on heart beating.
Terminal Questions
1. Draw the flow chart of different types of ecosystems.
2. Explain food chain.
3. Explain the different pyramids in eco system.
4. Explain the energy flow in different trophic levels.
5. What is air pollution? What are the reasons for it?
6. What are the measures to prevent air pollution?
7. The nutrient rich waste substances are lead into a lake. What may be the effects?
8. What are the reasons for soil pollution and what are the harmful effects?
9. Sound pollution is a silent killer. How do you support this statement?
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22
Natural Resources – Our Concern
The development of any country depends on its resources. Natural resources are the basic need
of human life. The utilization of natural resources is proportional to population growth. Water, soil,
forest, flora and fauna are all the natural resources. Our earth is rich with all natural resources. They
have to be utilized in proper manner. Indiscriminate use of these natural resources leads to problem
in human existence. In this lesson. You will study about the conservation of natural resources, effects
of misuse of these resources, and our responsibility.
Objectives
O classify the different types of natural resources.
O identify the effects of using ground water.
O propose the ways to improve the ground water.
O understand the importance of forests and promote the social forestry.
O get aware of the renewable and non-renewable resources.
O understand the importance of alternative energy sources for development of the Nation and
for the needs of future generation.
O identify the relation between population growth and usage of energy resources.
22.1 Ground Water

Can you guess what is the most essential natural resource in our surroundings?
Water is the most essential natural resource for all the living organisms on this earth. There is
no life without water.
Thick and Discuss

What is the status of water availability in comparison with earlier days?
We face a lot of water scarcity. We usually read the news about the water scarcity as a major
problem in many Districts of Andhra Pradesh during summer. In fact how much water is available for
us? And how much is useful for drinking? To study about these aspects let us observe the given chart.
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Out of all the water on Earth salt water in the seas and oceans make up about 97%. It is neither
useful for drinking nor for agriculture. Only 3% of fresh water is available. Out of which 2% of water
in the form of is frozen in the glaciers at Polar Regions which is also not useful for us. Out of remaining
1% of water 0.0091% of fresh water is in rivers and lakes and 1/4th of water is underground water.
Hence only 0.005% of water is available for all the living organisms on this Earth. During summer the
ground water is the main source as the water in rivers and lakes is completely evaporated. Now let
us observe the table given to study about the status of ground water in our state.
Natural Resources – Our Concern 419
SN District Rain fall (mm) Depth of ground Difference in

water (m) rain fall%
Normal June June 2013-14 2014-15 June-13 June-14
rain fall 2013-14 2014-15
1 Srikakulam 135 168 68 6.09 6.00 24 -50
2 Vijayanagaram 128 178 70 4.95 5.48 39 -45
3 Vishakhapattanam 129 90 54 7.80 7.76 -30 -58
4 East Godavari 120 122 24 7.90 8.67 2 -80
5 West Godavari 112 128 22 14.37 15.05 14 -81
6 Krishna 98 138 28 8.70 9.42 41 -71
7 Guntur 86 107 13 6.87 6.66 24 -85
8 Praksham 58 69 12 12.09 10.81 19 -79
9 Nellore 57 35 34 7.27 8.04 -39 -41
10 Chittor 79 70 73 17.47 18.05 -12 -7
11 Kadapa 69 61 47 20.11 18.47 -12 -33
12 Anantapur 64 47 51 19.72 19.22 -26 -21
13 Kurnool 77 67 67 13.65 11.40 -13 -14
Average 93 98 43 11.31 11.16 5 -54
Observe the table and answer the following questions.

1. Which districts recorded high rain fall than the normal in 2013-14?
2. How is the rainfall in 2014-15 when compared to 2013-14?
3. What is the relation between rain fall and ground water?
4. What may be the ground water levels if the average rain fall reduces gradually?
5. Which of the districts have less ground water levels? What may be the reason?
Do you know?
As per the records of 2014-15 Chukkavanipalem of Vishakhapattanam district has
recorded the availability of ground water level at least depth and Madhudi of Anantapur
district has recorded the deepest level of ground water.
Check out the ground water levels in your village.
Due to the changes in monsoons the average rain fall is decreasing gradually for the last few
years. The water in the lakes, wells and rivers is not at all sufficient to agricultural purposes. Hence
ground water resources are getting depleted. By drilling and digging deep wells the ground water is
being utilized indiscriminately and lead to depletion of this precious resource. During 1998-2002 the
average water level is decreased for 3 meters. The ground water levels are decreasing drastically due
to disturbance in seasonal rains and also cultivating the kharif and rabi crops by using the ground
water.
Increasing Ground Water Level

It is observed in the table that the districts of Srikakulam, Vijayanagaram, Vishakhapattanam,
East Godavari, Krishna, Guntur and Nellore are rich in ground water. It is because they are near
the coastal area. Availability of ground water is more near the rivers, lakes, canals, etc. On this
basic principle our state Government has proposed many schemes to convert rain water to the
ground water. Let us study about them.
The initiation of youth under the leader ship of Anna Hazare at Ralegan Siddhi a village
in Maharashtra in constructing check dams across running of water has supported to overcome
the drought and famine conditions. It is adopted throughout the country. As a part of famine
prevention and drought response plan and watershed scheme the construction of check dams
across the small rivers and canals, construction of percolation pits at domestic places have been
initiated to improve the ground water levels.
Construction Percolation Tanks

It is a superficial pit dig at the places where the rain water drains off. 5-10mtr of pit is
boundaried with stones or
soil. Such pits are constructed
at the accumulation sites of
rain water. In general clay,
sand, stones, pebbles etc. are
layered one above the other.
Later it is lead to compact
tightly. A small pipe is fixed
in between the superficial
level to the base level which
helps for obtaining sufficient
water.
Fig. 22.1 Percolation Tank

Construction across the running water built with stones and soil is called as percolation
tank.
Construction of Check Dams

Check dam is a small dam constructed across the running water or water flow. Reducing the
runoff velocity and leading the water to sink
into the underground is the objective of
check dams. In general the check dams
are built across the small channels of water
with stones or concrete up to the height of
6 to 8 feet from ground level. Water is
preserved in check dams. The water
overflows when the check dams are
completely filled with water. As a result the
ground water level is increased which helps
for the cultivation of crops through bore
wells, etc.
Fig. 22.2 Check Dam
Construction of Percolation Pits
The pits constructed at the residential areas for the percolation of rain water are known as
percolation pits. These are rain fed pits. These are the pits to allow the rain water to percolate deep
into the soil. They help in recharging the ground water levels near houses, apartments, etc. How to
construct the percolation pit?
A pit is dug about 4ft length,
4ft breadth and 6ft depth. Fill theses
pits with 25mm-100mm stones about
1½ ft. 3 to 4½ft of porous pot made
of RCC is fit in this pit. Fill the
remaining place around the pot with
20mm stones. Arrange the pipes to
allow the rain water to sink into the
pit. When it rains the rain water enter
into the pit and percolate through the
pot and stones into the underground.
Thus the ground water is recharged.
Fig. 22.3 Percolation Pit

Farmer based Interventions

Field bunding with stones or soil around the boundaries of the field by farmers make the water
to percolate into the soil. Ploughing across the slope (Contour farming), constructing the bounds against
the slope (Contour bunding) and ditching the digs against the slope (contour trenching) do not allow
the water to runoff along the slope. As a result not only the water is percolated but also the soil
erosion is prevented. Drip irrigation and sprinkler irrigation reduce the water consumption and helps
in ground water conservation.

1. Ground water levels are reduced at a place. Write the reasons.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
22.2 Forest – Lungs of Environment

Forest is a natural resource which is rich habitat for plants and animals and serve as the pools
of biodiversity. The forest exist all over the earth except at Antarctic. They serve as bed of nutrients
and also provide Oxygen for all the living world. They absorb the CO2 which is harmful to environment.
Hence they serve as lungs of environment. As per the records of forest department the forest are
spread in 21.54% area in our state. The area of 24,424 sqkm of our state is occupied with forest
and only the area of 5,063 sqkm of forest is under conservation.
Do you know?
Madhya Pradesh has the largest forest cover with 77,522 sqkm of area in our country.
The greedy human activities are resulting in deforestation indiscriminately. The precious forest
are exploited indiscriminately for timber, precious stones, minerals like Bauxite, for establishment of
industries, etc. For conversion of forest into residential areas and development, the forest areas are
extensively targeted. Deforestation accounts for 36 million acres every year over the world.
Effects of Deforestation
O Deforestation affects the Biodiversity and through our lives in danger.
O The habitat for many organisms is destroyed and may lead to migration or extinction of these
organisms.
O The wild life enters our residential areas as their habitats are destroyed.
O Leads to soil erosion.
O Deforestation results in raise in CO2 concentration in the atmosphere which leads to global warming
and the rivers and lakes go dry up due to hot temperatures.
O Leads to drought conditions due to less or lack of rains. Disturbs the water cycle.
O Leads to loss in crop production.
O Disrupts the ecological balance.
Do you know?
The forest conservation activities taken up by Government of Andhra Pradesh has
regenerated 116sqkm area of forest. Vishakhapattanam district occupies the first place in
this.
Conservation of Forest
Each and every person should feel responsible for conservation of forest and to make the Government
schemes regarding conservation of forest successful. Sustainable forestry practices are critical for ensuring
the resources well into the future.
Success Story
The success story of Bishnoi’s of Rajasthan could be stand as ideal in conservation of forest.
As we recall brave Amrita Devi and her daughters, followed by villages who clung to trees in the forest
surrounding their village and laid down their lives to save them. We are faced with a realization about
how great a movement towards conservation can be. The king of Jodhpur wished to collect the timber
for the construction of a palace nearby Kejarly in 1730. But Amrita Devi and her three daughters,
Asu, Rathni and Bhaagu, followed by 363 bishnoi’s people clung the trees and sacrificed their lives
to protect the trees.
Chipko moment
The environmentalist, Sundarlal Bahuguna, was born on 9th January in 1927. He initiated Chipko
movement in 1970 as a part of conservation of forest. It inspired all over the country in conserving
environment and forest conservation.
Sustainable forestry practices are critical for ensuring the resources well into the future as
follows.
O Promote social forestry.
O Reduce cutting down the trees.
O Encourage the plantation and conservation in forest areas.
O Reduce the usage of paper.
O Reusing the things like paper and card board helps in conservation of forest.
O Recycling the paper also supports the conservation of forest.
O Instead of using the things made of timber, promote the use of bamboo.
Do you know?
To make one ton of paper 17 large tress are needed.

1. What are the advantages of forest?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. What are the disadvantages of deforestation?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3. How do you contribute yourself in forest conservation?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
4. Write any four slogans to create awareness about the forest conservation among people.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
22.3 Energy Sources

We need energy for all activities. We get energy from our food. But machines consume fuel
energy to run. Nature provides variant energy resources. Air, soil, water, minerals, fuels, plants and
animals are all natural resources on this Earth. Air, soil and water are the main useful resources for
our life. The fuel consumption is vast as per the needs of human being in present society. The needs
of population growth has lead to the high fuel consumption. Energy need is not uniform in all countries.
Highly developed countries require high energy resources. Whereas the developing countries need
moderate and poor countries need less energy resources. Whatever it may be fuels are essential to
fullfil the needs of humans 20th century. But the greedy and indiscriminate activities of human being
the energy resources are depleting day by day. There is a great need to conserve the energy resources.
Natural resources can be classified as two types.

Natural resources
Renewable resources Non-Renewable resources

e.g., Water, Air, Sunlight e.g., Coal, Petroleum, Natural gas
Renewable Resources
The renewable resources can never be depleted at any extended usage. They are available free
in vast range in nature. If possible we can also renovate these resources easily.
Water is a resource available in nature. Living organisms consume the water for energy metabolism.
Water is essential for food preparation
through photosynthesis by plants. The
plants also absorb the dissolved nutrients
from the soil through the water. Water is
an essential element for all the life
processes in living organisms. Other than
these the water also plays a major role
in energy production. In Hydroelectric
station the kinetic energy of water is
utilized to produce electricity by rotating
the turbines. As the water cycle explains
water is evaporated from rivers and
Fig. 22.4 The water Cycle
oceans into clouds. When these clouds come in contact with the cool breeze they condense into
rainwater which again reach the water bodies. Some amount of the water is percolated into underground.
Water resources like rivers, lakes, wells are filled with water due to rains. Human activities like
deforestation disturb the water cycle and lead to drought and famine conditions. Solar energy, wind
energy are also the renewable resources which can never be depleted.
Non Renewable Resources

A non-renewable resource is a resource which cannot be replaced by either natural or artificial
means on its consumption. Coal, Petroleum, Natural gas, Minerals and Raw metals are the examples
for non-renewable resources. These are found in the underground reservoirs. The extensive use of
these resources deplete them faster. They cannot be synthesized naturally. The availability is not uniform
throughout the world. Specific resource is confined to a particular place. For instance the petroleum
resources are vast only in Dubai and Saudi Arabia. They are supplied and utilized throughout the
world. As such Singareni in the state of Telangana, Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, West Bengal and
Madhya Pradesh states are rich in coal production. It is of 98.26% in Gross production.
Do you know?
The highest coal production state in our country is Jharkhand with 38%.
Coal, Petroleum and natural gas are highly essential consumable resources. These are utilized
as fuel in industries and transportation. Observe the following pie chart that shows the consumption
of fossil fuels in our country.
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Fig. 22.5 Pie chart of the consumption of fossil fuels

The trade is efficiently growing in our country as per the needs of the society. Hence transport
system plays key role in our national development. The fuel consumption is extensive even in industries
as well as electricity generation. The consumption of petroleum is more in transport whereas the consumption
of coal is in power generation and industries. Even today the most useful energy source is coal.
Think and discuss:

What is the impact of indiscriminate use of non-renewable resources on future generation?
If the consumption of fuel is in the range of todays’ need, the oil is depleted in 53 years,
whereas natural gas in 54 years and coal in 110 years. So fuel consumption should be disciplinary and
discriminately. High consumption of fuel results in depletion and pollution of environment. Usually the
combustion of fuel results in the release of CO2 and CO gases and lead to greenhouse effect. The
contaminated air with CO and Pb lead to respiratory diseases and cancer. Pollution of air with these
gases results in acid rains which effect the plants, animals, human being and historical monuments. Let
us observe the fuel consumption in India.
Fuel consumption in India
1. In which year fuel

consumption is less?
2. What is your observation
about fuel consumption in
India?
Fig. 22.6 Bar graph showing fuel Consumption in India
How to Conserve the Fossil Fuels?

The usage of fossil fuels continuous as today, they will be depleted soon in 50-100years. The
coal and petroleum products lack and lead to energy crisis. To overcome this, the alternative energy
resources have brought into limelight by scientists.
The features of alternative resources are

O Should be naturally available and nonrenewable.
O Low cost and be available anywhere vastly.
O Should be Pollution free.
1. Solar energy: The energy from Sun is known as solar energy. Due to the nuclear fusion reactions
extensive heat and light are emitted from Sun which serves as the energy resource. Today we
find many appliances using the solar energy which is converted into heat and electric energy.
Solar cookers, solar water heaters, Solar
lamps, solar inverters are some of the
examples. Solar energy plants are being
established extensively in government and
privates sectors in India. India has developed
to produce nearly 28.18 Giga watts electricity
by solar energy plants by March 2019.
Fig. 22.7 Solar Plates
Do you know?
The highest solar electricity produced state in India is Karnataka. 12.3 GWatts
electricity is produced. Tamil Nadu occupies the next place.
Advantages of solar energy :
O Solar energy is low cost.
O No wastes are produced.
O No pollution is caused.
O Maintenance is very feasible.
2. Wind energy: In earlier days the wind

mills were used to uplift the water from
wells. But today these wind mills are
used for power generation by rotating
the turbines along with the fans. Hence
it is called wind energy. The mechanical
energy generated by wind is converted Fig. 22.8 Wind mills
into electric energy. The wind mills are located on the uphill and mountains. Muppandal in Tamil
Nadu is known for its largest wind farm. In our state wind mills are found in Anantapur and
Kurnool districts.
3. Wave energy: We know about the

waves in sea shores. The waves hit
the seashore with high velocity.
Scientist have explored to convert
this wave energy into electric
energy. The kinetic energy of
waves is used to rotate the turbines
to produce electricity.
Fig. 22.9 Wave energy
4. Nuclear energy: Nuclear energy is produced in nuclear reactions of radioactive substances like
uranium, plutonium, etc. The process of nuclear energy production is known as atomic fusion.
In this process the nucleus of two atoms are united which results in the release of extensive
energy. In India 6.7 Gwatts electricity is produced from nuclear energy. Kudankulam and Kalpakkam
nuclear power plants in Tamil Nadu, Tarapur nuclear power plant in Maharashtra, Kaiga nuclear
power plant in Karnataka, Narora nuclear power plant in Uttar Pradesh, Kakarapar nuclear
power plant in Gujarat are major nuclear power plants in India.
The alternative energy sources reduce the consumption of fossil fuels. The nonrenewable resources
like solar energy, wind energy, wave energy and nuclear energy play a major role in energy consumption.

1. What are the effects of indiscriminate use of fuels?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. How can you conserve fossil fuels ?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3. What are the features of alternative resources?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
4. Use of solar energy B advantitious, why ?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
5. What would you suggest to reduce the usage of fossil fuels ?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Summary
Y 97% of water is in the form of seas and oceans and only 3% of fresh water is available.
Out of which only 1% is useful for drinking.
Y Ground water levels depend on rainfall.
Y Ground water depletes if there is no proper rain fall.
Y Construction of Recharge pits, Check dams, and Percolation pits improves the ground water
levels.
Y The farmer based interventions like contour farming, contour bunding, and contour walls in
slope areas help in increasing the ground water levels.
Y Forest are natural resources which serves as the lungs of environment.
Y Deforestation causes harm to biodiversity, causes soil erosion, leads to global warming, disrupts
the water cycle and leads to drought conditions.
Y Natural resources are of two types, Renewable resources and Nonrenewable resources.
Y Coal, Petroleum and Natural gas are the nonrenewable resources which cannot be regenerated
easily. If they are not conserved we cannot assure for the future.
Y Solar energy, wind energy, wave energy and nuclear energy are the alternative resources
which help to conserve the fossil fuels.
Terminal Questions
1. What are the reasons for depletion of ground water level?
2. What are the measures to be taken to improve the ground water levels?
3. Forest serves as lungs of environment. How do you support this statement?
4. What measures do you propose to forest conservation?

5. What are the effects if the water cycle is disrupted?
6. What are the alternative resources? What are the advantages?
Choose the right option.
7. _____ of water is available for drinking. ( )
A) 2% B) 97% C) 1% D) 0.0091%
8. Reason for depletion of ground water is ( )
A) Lack of rains B) Irrigation from bore well
C) Deforestation D) All the above
9. What to do improve the ground water? ( )
A) Drilling bore wells more B) Water flow through canals
C) Constructing recharge pits D) Cement roads
10. The farming in slope areas is ( )
A) Contour farming B) Micro farming
C) Nature farming D) Artificial farming
11. The reason for global warming is ( )
A) Deforestation B) Hunting of wild animals
C) Lack of rains D) Cultivation
12. The movement for environmental conservation and forest conservation ( )
A) Chipko B) Green revolution
C) Blue revolution D) White revolution
13. To conserve the forest you have to do ______ ( )
A) Reduce paper use B) Promote social forestry
C) Recycle the paper D) All the above
14. Which of the following is renewable resource? ( )
A) Coal B) Water C) Diesel D) Natural gas
15. Which of the following is non renewable resource? ( )
A) Natural gas B) Water C) Soil D) All the above
16. Which of the following area is known for extensive use of fuel? ( )
A) Power generation B) Industries
C) Transport D) Household
17. The gas responsible for greenhouse effect is ______ ( )
A) Oxygen B) Nitrogen C) CO2 D) All the above
18. The energy transformation in wind energy is from _____ ( )

A) Mechanical energy to Electricity B) Electricity to Chemical energy
C) Chemical energy to Electricity D) Solar energy to Electricity
19. Conversion of light energy to electricity is ____ ( )
A) Wind energy B) Thermal electricity
C) Wave energy D) Solar energy
20. The state which is at first place in producing wind energy in India is __ ( )
A) Andhra Pradesh B) Karnataka
C) Tamilnadu D) Goa
22.1
1. Srikakulam, Vijayanagaram, East Godavari, West Godavari, Krishna, Guntur and Praksham districts
have recorded the highest rainfall than normal in 2013-14
2. There is decline in rainfall when compare to 2013-14.
3. The ground water increased in the years recorded high rainfall.
4. Lack of rains there is decrease in ground water levels. The bore wells dry up and arise lack
of water for cultivating crops by farmers.
5. In Srikakulam, Vijayanagaram, Vishakhapattanam, East Godavari, Krishna, Guntur and Nellore
the ground water is available in little depth as these districts are near to the coastal area.
6. The following are the reasons for decline in ground water.
O Less rainfall
O No construction of either check dams or recharge pits.
O Cultivation of crops depending on bore wells extensively.
22.2
1. The following area the advantages of forest.
O Availability of timber and minerals.
O Habitat for many plants and animals and serves as pools of biodiversity.
O Provide Food and Oxygen to all the wild animals.
O Promotes rainfall.
O Avoid soil erosion.
2. The following are the harmful effects of deforestation.
O Results in soil erosion.

O Increase the CO2 concentration and leads to global warming.
O Reduce the rain fall and results in droughts.
O Wild animals enter our residential areas and cause harm.
O Crop production declines and results in famine conditions.
O Disrupts the balance in nature.
3. I adopt the following measures to conserve the forest.
O Promote the social forestry.
O Use the dry twigs as fire wood.
O Reduce the use of paper.
O Recycle the things like paper, wood, etc.
O Use the things made of bamboo instead of timber.
O Use alternative materials in house construction.
4. The slogans for forest conservation.
O Forest conservation – Social responsibility.
O Plant a tree – Protect the environment.
O Forest – Pools of biodiversity.
O Social forestry – Gift for environment.
22.3
1. Indiscriminate use of fossil fuels deplete them and will not be available for future needs. Combustion
of fossil fuels causes respiratory diseases and also lead to global warming.
2. Conservation of fossil fuels can be achieved by following methods.
O Use alternate energy sources such as solar energy, wave energy, wind energy and nuclear
energy.
O Reduce the use of electricity.
O Reduce the use of fossil fuels like natural gas and kerosene.
O Adopt public transport instead of using individual vehicles.
O Adopt the cycling or walking for small distances.
3. The features of alternative resources.
O Should be naturally available in low cost.
O Should be available extensively everywhere.

O Should be renewable very easily after use.
O Nature’s friendly.
4. Use of Solar energy is advantageous. Because
O It is of no cost.
O Does not release waste.
O One time investment on plant and maintenance is very easy and of low cost.
O Ensures no pollution.
· We can charge the batteries with solar energy and use if necessary.
5. I propose the following measures to reduce the consumption of fossil fuels.
O Use solar energy extensively.
O Use the vehicles run with solar energy.
O Power generation by using solar energy or wind or wave energy instead of coal or nuclear
fissions.
O Use pressure cookers for cooking with fossil fuel in domestic kitchens.
O Encourage public transport system.
O Use LED bulbs to reduce the domestic consumption of fuel.

1. Read 22.1 para 2. Read 22.1 para
3. Read 22.2 para 4. Read 22.2 Para
5. Read 22.3 Para 6. Read 22.3 Para

1. Observe water conservation methods following in your Village or near by and make a report.
23
Common human parasites and diseases
An intimate association between two organisms of different species, in which one species is
benefited (parasite) and the other is harmed (host) is called parasitism. Parasites depend on the host
for their nutrition and shelter. Hence, host suffer from certain amount of harm, known as disease.
Objectives
After studying this lesson, you are able to know
O understand the meaning of health
O types of diseases
O common parasites, the diseases caused by them in human beings.
O common diseases caused by microbes.
23.1 Health
A state of complete physical, mental and social well being and not merely absence of any disease
or absence of physical fitness is known as health.
Health may be affected by
1. Genetic defects
2. Infections and
3. Life style
23.2 Disease
Any change from the normal state of health that causes discomfort or disability is called disease.
Diseases are broadly divided into two types, namely, infections and non-infections.
1. Infectious diseases : The diseases which are easily transmitted from one person to the other
are called infectious diseases. They are caused by pathogens, such as harmful microbes, parasites.
E.g., Amoebiasis, Malaria, Typhoid.
2. Non-infectious diseases : The diseases which are not transmitted from one person to the other
are called non-infectious diseases. They are not caused by pathogens.
E.g., Genetic disorders, heart problems
Intext Questions (23.1 & 23.2)

1. Define parasitism.
2. What is meant by health ?
3. Name the types of diseases.
23.3 Common human parasites and diseases caused
S.No Name of the Lives in Primary Intermediate Disease

parasite ..... part of host host caused
human
1. Trypanosoma gambiense Blood Man Tsetse fly Sleeping

(Confined to Africa) sickness
2. Leishmania donovani Leucocytes, Man Sand fly Kala

cells of liver, azar
bone narrow etc.
3. Leishmania tropica Cells of skin Man Sand fly Oriental

sores
4. Entamoeba histolytica Mucosa and sub Man - Amoe-
mucosa of colon biases
5. Plasmodium spp. Liver cells and Female Man Malaria
(Malarial parasite) red blood cells Anopheles
Common human parasites and Diseases 437
6. Taenia solium Intestine Man Pig Taeniasis

(pork tape worm)
7. Ascaris lumbricoides Intestine Man - Ascariasis
(common round worm)
8. Wuchereria bancrofti Lymph vessels Man Female Filaria
(Filarial worm) Lymph glands Culex mosquito

1. What is the parasite that causes amoebiosis in human being?
2. What is the disease caused by plasmodium?
23.4 Common diseases caused by microbes

S.No Disease Name of the pathogen Mode of infection
1. Typhoid Salmonella typhi Contamination through
(Bacterium) food and water
2. Pneumonia Streptococcus Contamination by inhaling
pneumonia inhaling droplets released by an
(Bacterium) infected person or sharing
utensils of an infected person
3. Common cold Rhinovirus Contamination by inhaling
droplets released by an infected
person or sharing utensils of an
infected person
4. Ring worm Microsporum Contamination by using
Trichophyton towels clothes, combs etc.
(Fungi) of an infected person.

1. Name the pathogen that cause, common cold.
2. Which diseases are spread from utensils of infected persons ?
3. Name the disease caused by fungi.
Terminal Questions
1. Define the word health
2. What is meant by parasitism ?
3. Define the word disease.
4. Write names of any four parasites and diseases caused by them in man.

23.3 1 & 23.2
1. An intimate association between two organisms of different species in which one species in
benefited and the other is harmed is called parasitism.
2. A state of complete physical, mental and social well being is known as health.
3. (a) Infectious diseases. (b) Non-infectious diseases.
23.3
1. Entamoeba histolytica 2. Malaria
23.4
1. Virus 2. Pneumonia, common cold 3. Ring worm
1. Refer to 23.1
2. Refer to Introduction
3. Refer to 23.2
4. Refer to 23.3 & 23.4
1. Visit near by health center or chemical laboratory, collect the information of disease causing
organisms, diseases caused by these organisms and preventive measures and prepare a project
report.
APOSS – SSC Public Examinations
Time : 3 hours Model Paper - Science and Technology Max.Marks : 100
(Part - A & B)
Instructions:
1. Part-A consist of 5 sections consist of short answer questions (3 marks) and Essay
answer questions (5 marks).
2. Part-B consist of 3 sections consist of Multiple-choice questions, Fill in the blanks
and Matching type questions. Each Question carries 1 mark.
3. Answers to the Part-A answers should be written on a separate answer sheet provided
in the Examination hall and Part-B answers should be written in the question paper
itself in the space provided.
4. Write the answers neatly and legibly and avoid over writing.
Part - A (75 Marks)

Section - I
Answer any 5 from 7 questions. Each question carry 3 marks. 5 × 3 = 15 marks
1. Give 3 examples for Newton’s third Lasw of motion?

2. While the change of state, termparature is constant why ?
3. Why do we apply paint on iron articles?
4. Why do solutions of acids and bases conduct electricty?
5. What is presbyopia? How this defect can be removed?
6. Write the properties of Ionic substances?
7. Why do we use tungsten filament in bulb?
Section-II
Answer any 4 questions. Each question carry 5 marks. 5 5 = 20 marks
8. A 10 kg ball is dropped from a hight of 10 m. Find (a) The initial potential energy of the ball.
(b) The kinetic energy just before it reaches the ground.
9. State the postulates of Bohr’s model? What are the defects in it?
10. Why zero group elements called nobel gases or inert gases?
11. Explain the working of electric motor with neat diagram?
12. Write the differences between diamond of graphite?

13. Define the following terms related to mirrors (i) pole (ii) center of curvature (iii) radius of curvature
(iv) focus (v) focal length.
Section - III
14. Write a brief note about the structure of a sperm cell.
15. What is the importance of mitosis?
16. Write the short notes about the nucleus.
17. What is the difference between food chain and food web?
18. Write some slogans to protect our environment.
19. What are the consequences of deforestation?
20. What are renewable resources? Give some examples.
Section-IV
21. How do you prove that Oxygen is released in photosynthesis?
22. Describe the structure of mitochondria with the help of a diagram.
23. Write about the blood clotting process.
24. Write any 5 alkaloids it’s available plant name and plant part in a tabular form.
25. Write the differences between sympathetic and para sympathetic nervous system?
26. Write about sex determination in humanbeings.
Section - V
Answer any one questions 1 5 = 5 marks
27. Draw the shape of d orbitals.
28. Draw the diagram of L.S of flower and label the parts.
Model Paper 441
Part - B (25 marks)

Instructions : 1. Answer all the questions.
2. Each question carries 1 mark.
I. Answer all the questions.Choose the correct answer from the four alternatives given
against each question and write the corresponding alphabet i.e., A, B, C or D in the
brackets. 7 1=7
1. Units for S.I system for momentum is ( )

A) m/sec B) kg/m C) kgm/sec D) None
2. ................. is used as coolent ( )

A) Petrol B) Water C) Alchohal D) None
3. Formula for Calcium oxide is ( )

A) Ca(OH)2 B) Ca2O C) CaO D) None
4. In modern periodic table number of periods are ( )

A) 7 B) 8 C) 9 D) 10
5. Alkynes has ................ Bond ( )

A) Single B) Double bond C) Trible bond D) None
6. The blood cells that are responsible for the blood clotting. ( )
A) RBC B) WBC C) blood platelets D) leucocytes
7. Flame cells are the excretory organs that found in…… ( )

A) earthworm B) planaria C) cockroach D) fish
II. Fill in the blanks. 14 1 = 14 marks

8. In v2 − u2 = 2as ‘s’ represents _______
9. _____________ energy is in stretched rubber band.
10. The latent heat of fusion of ice ________
11. Example for alloy is _____________
12. The reaction between acid and bases called _____________

13. Images which can not cast on a screen are called _____________
14. Transfer of electron from one atom to the other leads to ________ bond
15. _____________ Lens is diverging lense
16. In respiration the gaseous exchange in humans takes place in……………
17. The red pigment that present in the Red blood cells………………
18. The structural and functional unit of kidney…………………….
19. The theory of Natural selection proposed by………………….
20. Expand AIDS……………………
21. Sleeping sickness is caused by …………………………………….
III. Match the following : 4 1 = 4 marks

Group - A Group - B
22. Thiamine ( ) (a) cell division
23. Ascorbic Acid ( ) (b) closing of stomata
24. Abscisic acid ( ) (c) vitamin B1
25. Cytokinin ( ) (d) Vitamin C
The End

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1

Andhra Pradesh Open School Society

First Published - 2020

All rights reserved

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in

My best wishes to learners ……

Dr. K.V. SRINIVASULU REDDY

Sri Y. Guru Prasad, S.A(P.S) Sri G.K. Shamsheer Khan, S.A.(P.S)

Sri V. Yekambareswara Rao, S.A(P.S) Sri S. Brahmanandha Reddy, SA(P.S)

Physical Science Co-Ordinator

Design & Printing

Sri V. Srinivasulu, S.A(B.S),

Bio Science Co-Ordinator

Coordinators, Scicence and Technology

S. No. Name of the Chapter Page No.

2. Work and Energy 21 - 36

4. Chemical Reactions and Equations 55 - 72

5. Acids, Bases and Salts 73 - 92

6. Atomic Structure 93 - 110

7. Reflection of Light 111 - 132

8. Refraction of Light 133 - 154

9. Classification of Elements - Periodic Table 155 - 176

10. Chemical Bonding 177 - 198

11. Electricity and Magnetism 199 - 230

12. Chemistry of Carbon Compounds 231 - 256

S. No. Name of the Chapter Page No.

13. Nutrition – Food Supply System 257 - 274

14. Respiration - The energy Generating System 275 - 288

15. Circulatory System 289 - 300

16. Excretion - Excretory Products and their Elimination 301 - 316

17. Control and Coordination 317 - 336

18. Reproduction 337 - 362

19. Living Cell 363 - 374

20. Heredity and Evolution 375 - 392

21. Our environment – Our concern 393 - 416

22. Natural Resources – Our Concern 417 - 434

23. Common human parasites and Diseases 435 - 438

Model Question Paper 439 - 442

S. No. Name of the Chapter P.C.P No.

2. Work and Energy 3

4. Chemical Reactions and Equations 7

5. Acids, Bases and Salts 9

9. Classification of Elements - Periodic Table 17, 18

10. Chemical Bonding 20

11. Electricity & Magnetism 23, 24

12. Chemistry of Carbon Compounds 26

S. No. Name of the Chapter P.C.P No.

13. Nutrition – Food Supply System 2

14. Respiration-The Energy Generating System 4

15. Circulatory System 6

16. Excretion - Excretory Products and their Elimination 8

17. Control and Coordination 10

19. Living Cell 16

20. Heredity and Evolution 19

21. Our environment – Our concern 21, 22

22. Natural Resources – Our Concern 25

23. Common human parasites and Diseases 27

Revision of Syllabus and

Public Model Paper Explanation 29, 30

define the distance, displacement, speed, velocity, and acceleration.

Its SI unit is meter / second which is written as ms 1.

N m is equal to Joule so that SI unit of work is “Joule”.