AGT 211

PASTURE AND FORAGE PRODUCTION

WEEK 1 PASTURE AND FORAGE PRODUCTION
Sustainable and profitable livestock production can be achieved through proper production,
utilization and management of pastures and forages worldwide. Pasture and forage crops
remained the primary sources of feed for different categories of livestock in Nigeria. Pasture is
defined as an area of land covered with grasses, herbaceous legumes, forbs, shrubs and trees
used for livestock feeding or environmental protection. This is usually referred to as grassland.
Forage refers to any aboveground plant material used for feeding livestock, but excluding
concentrates and other industrial by-products. Pastures and forages could be artificially sown or
occur naturally. Natural or native pastures are found in rangelands, river banks, road sides and
abandoned lands while sown pastures are found in commercial farms, universities, colleges of
agriculture and some research institutes in Nigeria.
Pastures, forage and fodder crops can play a great role in increasing supplemental feed in times
of drought and deficient rains. Which can help farmers in maintaining both quantity and quality
in production. Forage crops are grown specifically for grazing by livestock or harvested to help
make up seasonal shortfalls between feed demand and supply. There is a direct or indirect
relationship between pasture species and livestock performance depending on the
management. While ruminant livestock such as cattle, sheep and goats can graze or browse the
pasture, others such as pigs, poultry, rabbits and equines (donkeys and horses) have the ability
to ingest some amount of fibrous forages, which ferment in the caeca and provide the animals
with some energy for physiological activities.
The primary difference between hay and silage is that the former is grass that’s cut and dried to
use as animal fodder. Silage is fermented and stored in a silo before it is used as food for
animals.
Importance of Pasture and Forage Crop in Animal Production
It is imperative to note that pasture and forage crops have diverse advantages in the current
dynamic and highly challenged system of livestock production. The study of pasture and forage
production enable us to understand the linkage between the various ecosystems (biotic and a
biotic) within the grassland or rangeland. This will motivate us to come up with methods of
conserving and protecting our environment from destruction through poor management. It also
teaches us how to produce qualitative forage for sustainable livestock production. This will in
turn help to boost the income level of farmers and improvement of livelihoods. Similarly, study of
pasture and forage production will assist in providing employment and recreational opportunities
to a lot of people in Nigeria. Some industries such as pharmaceutical industries will be
encouraged to expand their economic base since most of these pasture and forage crops have
strong aesthetic values.
Pastures have the following advantages in Nigerian farming systems:
1. They help to provide feed for livestock especially during the rainy season period
2. They help to protect and conserve the soil thereby preventing damages
3. They are used as part of rotation system such as ley pastures
4. They are used for site stabilization in dams, under bridges and in lawns etc
 5. They serve as sources of income to many Nigerians through sales of conserved forage
6. They are used in recreational centers such as stadia, polo grounds, open spaces etc
7. They serve as sources of vitamins e.g. vitamins A and B which are needed for healthy
living
8. Products from pasture finished livestock are higher in omega-3 and conjugated linoleic
acids which help to decrease blood cholesterol level and decreases cancer risks
9. They serve as a source of employment to Nigerians especially in the area of forage
conservation and marketing
Constraints to Successful Pasture Production in Nigerian Agriculture
Although pasture production offer numerous advantages to Nigerian economy, but there are
some challenges facing the sector, which militates against its success since 1950’s to date.
These constraints include:
a. Climatic factors in Nigeria do not favour the production of some exotic pasture species
especially in Sahelian areas of the country
b. Presence of dense forests especially in southern parts of Nigeria hinder successful
pasture establishment
c. Lack of awareness by farmers about the importance of pasture production especially
during dry season periods in Nigeria
d. Lack of interest in pasture production by majority of farmers in Nigeria due to easy
access to our natural rangelands
e. Lack of good management of our natural rangelands
f. Traditional beliefs by farmers affect the success of pasture establishment in Nigeria
g. Inadequate lands due to high human population and competition with crops
h. Use of unproductive lands for pasture production by farmers rather than fertile soils
i. Lack of knowledge about pastures and their production procedures in Nigeria
WEEK 2: CLASSIFICATION OF THE COMMON PASTURE AND FORAGE CROPS
Pasture plants can be classified into the following:
a) Grasses: These belong to the family Gramineae. They are characterized by high energy, low
crude protein, fast growth rate, cylindrical stems and leaves. The leaves have parallel venation
pattern and stem is hollow. They have fibrous rooting system with light and small seeds. Other
related family members in this family include maize, millet sorghum and barley.
b) Legumes: These belong to three different families (Mimosoideae, Caesalpinoideae and
Papilionaceae) depending on the nature and shape of their flowers. They have broad leaves
with net venation pattern. They are herbaceous plants with flowers occurring mainly at the
terminal buds. However, it is also possible to have flowers in other parts of the plant such as
auxiliary branches. These flowers produce seeds in pods. Examples include Centrosema
pascourum, Alysicarpus varginalis and Mucuna pruriens.
c) Grazed Plants: These are short herbs that are consumed with both leaves and stems
together.
Examples include: Brachiaria ruziziensis, Sorghum almum (Columbus grass), Arachis pintoii
and Digitaria smutsii.
d) Browed Plants: These are woody plants whose leaves and twigs (soft stems and buds) are
eaten while the woody stem is left uneaten. e.g. Leucaena leucocephala, Gliricidia sepium and
Gmelina aborea.
e) Annuals: These are plants that complete their life cycle within one growing season and
survive the dry season as seeds. e.g. Chloris gayana, Brachiaria mulato II, Pennisetum
purpureum and Hypherrania rufa.
f) Biennials: These are plants that complete their life cycle in two seasons. First season is for
vegetative growth and second season for reproductive growth. e.g. Panicum maximum
(Elephant grass), Andropogon tectorum (Southern Gamba grass) and Cynodon dactylon
(Bermuda grass).
g) Perennials: These are plants that grow throughout the year for many years producing flowers
and seeds without dying such as Gmelina aborea tree, Ziziphus mauritiana tree, Ficus
thonningii tree and Acacia albida tree.
h) Weeds: These are non-planted plant species that invade an area by itself. e.g. Sorghum
bicolor, Amaranthus spinosis and Tridax procumbens.
Common Forage Crops used in Livestock Feeding
The most common forage crops used in livestock feeding in Nigeria include the followings:
a. Maize plant used in making silage
b. Sugar Beet used in making hay and silage
c. Sorghum almum (Columbus Grass)
d. Lablab (Lablab purpureus L. Sweet)
e. Andropogon gayanus (Northern Gamba Grass)
f. Andropogon tectorum (Southern Gamba Grass)
g. Hyparrhenia rufa (Shuchi Grass)
h. Brachiaria decumbens (Signal Grass)
i. Digitaria smutsii (Woolly Finger Grass)
j. Giliricidia sepium (Almond Blossom)
Pasture Weeds: When a pastureland is left unattended in terms of management practices for
years, there is a tendency for weeds to invade the pasture. These weeds could be controlled
manually by removing them with hand or through cutting with cutlasses. The farmer may decide
to use chemicals such as pre or post-emergence herbicides at the time of pasture
establishment, mainly for broad-leaved weeds. Weeds reduce the quality of pasture especially
when they invade large portion of land in the pasture. They also compete vigorously with the
pasture plants for space, nutrients, light intensity and moisture content. Examples of common
pasture weeds in Nigeria include: Amaranthus caudatus (waterleaf), Crinum ornatum (Lily),
Solanum incanum (Graden egg), Cyperus rotundus; Kyllinga sp.(Nut Grass), Cucurbita maxima-
C. pepo (Pumpkin) etc.
Types of Pastures Based on Duration
 Temporary Pastures
 Semi-permanent Pastures and
 Permanent Pastures
Temporal Pastures
Temporary pastures are pastures that are established with the intention of converting them into
farmlands after a few years. This will depends on the type of livestock enterprise the farmer
wants to establish and the resources available. Also, the number of animals in the farm will
influence farmer’s decision to choose the number of years these pastures will be used.
However, the farmer needs to be careful in choosing the right pasture species to establish to
avoid environmental damage.
These pastures are established as part of rotation system either to provide feed for livestock or
for other purposes such as control of erosion, pests and diseases or moisture conservation.
They could also serve as sources of nutrients to the soil, thereby improving the fertility of the
soil. Both annual and perennial species can be used but they have to be easily eradicated. They
are of high productivity because they are established on good soils. They last for a period of 3-
5years.
Establishment of Temporary Pastures
Temporary pastures are established on already fertile lands that are relatively plain and not
rocky. The site should be well prepared through ploughing, harrowing, leveling and ridging. The
right quantity of seeds should be purchased from a reliable source, before sowing. The
agronomic procedure is similar to that of establishing field crops. However, there is need for
prompt fertilization and weeding especially during the first year of establishment.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Establishing Temporary Pastures
Establishing temporary pastures has the following advantages:
a. The farmer could integrate livestock production into pastures
b. There is less use of chemicals to control insects, pests and diseases in the farm
c. The fertility of the soil improves
d. They can easily be eradicated
However, the following disadvantages affect the establishment of these pastures:
a. These pastures may not serve the purpose upon which they are established to achieve
b. Farmers may require additional expenses to purchase fertilizers especially in grass
species
c. They may not withstand heavy defoliation or grazing by livestock
Semi-permanent Pastures
Semi-permanent pastures are pastures that are established for a few years to cover soil and
provide feed for livestock. Such pastures are converted into cropping lands after a few years.
When there is a break in cropping phase, farmers find it difficult to allow the land to remain idle.
Therefore, semi-permanent pastures are normally established on such lands to assist farmers to
acquire more feed for livestock or receive extra income from the sale of forage.
These pastures are established as part of rotation system usually due to a break in cropping
phase. The cropping phase can be broken for several reasons such drastic decrease in prices
of crops, disease outbreak, low soil fertility or change in decision by the farmer. Therefore,
livestock production is integrated into these pastures for a short period of time, usually 5-
10years before the pastureland is re-converted into cropping land again.
Establishment of Semi-Permanent Pastures
Semi-permanent pastures are established on fertile soils that are not waterlogged and
undulating. The site should be well prepared following recommended agronomic procedures.
Leguminous forages such should carefully follow plots that were previously planted with cereal
crops such as Mucuna pruriens and vice versa.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Establishing Semi-Permanent Pastures
Establishing semi-permanent pastures has the following advantages:
1. The farmer has the liberty to revert back to crop cultivation any time he/she desires
2. The soil is adequately protected from direct heating by sunlight
3. The soil organisms are properly conserved thereby improving the soil health
4. The income level of farmers increases through sales of forage or other crops
However, the following disadvantages affect the establishment of these pastures:
1. Sometimes these pastures may serve as potential sources of pests in the farm
2. Some may be difficult to eradicate using local implements such as hoes
3. They may not established well especially when poorly managed due to competition with
other crops
Permanent Pastures
Permanent pastures are pastures that are established for many years (several decades) so as
to provide feed for livestock. These pastures could be native or sown depending on choice.
They are established in farms with large number of livestock to avoid depletion of feed during
periods of scarcity. They serve as the main source of feed for grazing by livestock that are
intensively managed.
Permanent pastures are mainly established for the purpose of feeding livestock. They can be
native or sown pastures. These pastures last for several decades. They consist of annual and
perennial species that have underground storage organs (rhizomes and stolons). These
structures help the pasture species to survive the dry season and other harsh conditions such
as fire incidence, intense defoliation and overgrazing. When pasture specie is not producing
viable seeds annually, such species can be used in permanent pastures. These pastures are
however very difficult to be eradicated. They are planted on fertile soils. These type of pastures
are usually common in highly profitable livestock enterprises such dairy and beef enterprises.
Characteristics and Establishment of Permanent Pastures
Permanent pastures are characterized by species that contain underground rhizomes and
stolons. These are storage organs that assist these pastures to survive harsh conditions. There
is no need of reseeding these pastures once they are well established. They could be single or
mixed species pastures. They are established on fertile soils that are not waterlogged and
rocky. The site should be well prepared following recommended agronomic procedures. Once
established, these pastures are difficult to be eradicated.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Establishing Permanent Pastures
Establishing permanent pastures has the following advantages:
a. These pastures help to retain the structure of soils due to the underground organs
b. They provide large quantity of forage to livestock
c. They resist natural and human hazards such as fire outbreaks and drought
d. They can easily cover a large area of land through rapid seed production
e. Farmers can get extra income from sales of harvested forage
However, the following disadvantages affect the establishment of these pastures:
i. They are very expensive to established and maintained
ii. Livestock may be forced to feed on only one pasture species without choice
iii. They can serve as potential hosts of some disease vectors such as snails etc.

WEEK 3: NUTRITIONAL VALUE AND PRODUCTIVITY OF PASTURE

The nutritive value of forage refers to its composition, digestibility and the nature of digested
products. The amount of forage consumed by the animal is very important, as it affects total
nutrient intake. Its level of consumption and digestion as well as an estimation of the actual
need by the various classes of animals are the major factors that have to be considered while
determining the usefulness of the forage to the animal.
Many factors affect the value of pasture including the type of soil and level of fertilizer
application, the plant species selected and the stage of maturity of the plant and the intensity of
grazing. The chief benefit from applying fertilizer to pasture is an increase in yield. In grass
legume pastures, proper fertilizing can influence the proportion of legumes in turn this increases
the protein, calcium, phosphorus, and vitamin content of the mixture generally, require nitrogen
(N) fertilization. However, it’s important to maintain adequate of lime, phosphorus (P), and
potassium (K) in the soils of these pasture properly fertilized pasture plants begin growth earlier
in the spring and continue growth later in the fall, thus extending the grazing season
There are three primary factors affecting forage quality in most situations. These are forage
species, maturity stage and harvesting conditions. Secondary influences include temperature
and soil moisture during growth, soil fertility and cultivar. Many of these factors influence forage
quality because they affect plant anatomy and morphology. The quality of forages ingested by
grazing animals is determined by the quality of the pasture and the ability of the animal to select
its diet from the materials. The nutrients actually available to the animal will depend on digestion
and absorption in the rumen and intestine. A natural pasture is generally a complex mixture of
many species, all of which have their own nutrient profile. Sown pastures, on the other hand are
generally simple mixtures with components that have been selected as having higher nutrient
profile than those found in naturalized or native pasture species. Single species forage provides
even less variability and choice, particularly in situations where soil nutrients are limiting or
environmental pressure restrict optimum growth. A plant community will have plants at different
stage of maturity and these plants have different proportion of leaves, stems, and seed heads
which will also vary in their nutrient profile
Factors affecting nutritional value of pasture
 1. Plant species
Forage species differs significantly in forage quality. In general legumes are higher in quality
than grasses but exception occurs. Large difference occurs among grasses and among
legumes in forage quality. Plant spices affect the feeding value of pasture. Generally, legumes
contain a higher percentage of protein and calcium than non-legumes. The percentage of lignin
and fiber in plant influences both palatability and digestibility. Although inherent differences exist
among plant species as well as among plants of the same species, young plants and new
growth are always lower in fiber and lignin than mature plants.
2. Stage of Maturity
Differences exist between different finds of pasture plants as growth advances. Most pasture
legumes retain their palatability and nutritive value better as they mature compared to most
grasses, an exception is lespendeza serica, which becomes bitter and distasteful with maturity
due to the accumulation of tannin in the plants. However, plant breeders have developed
sericea that is low in tannin thereby overcoming this problem to some degree.
3. Intensity of Grazing
It is important to note that for most grasses and legumes forage yield increases as cutting
frequency decreases while forage quality declines. The digestibility of both grasses and
legumes decreases with maturity implying that forage should be fed at a younger stage for
maximum energy digestibility.
4. Type of Soil
Soil type especially soil origin, and the vegetation association it bears, can be reliable guides to
pasture establishment fertilizer needs. They are particularly useful as guides in pasture
development operations. The soil with poorly drained sites, a palm swamp indicates the most
fertile soil, this is characterized by Licuala with calamas in the understudy. Less fertile soil a
narrow leaf tee tree (Melaleuca) tall swamp forest develops whilst on the least fertile unit abroad
leaf tea tree low layered swamp forest occurs.
5. Fertilizer Application
The chief benefit from applying fertilizer to pasture is an increase in yield. In grass legumes
pastures proper fertilizing can influence the proportion of legumes, in turn, this increases the
protein, calcium, phosphorus and vitamin content of the mixture. Generally, legume grass
pastures with about 50 percent legumes do not require nitrogen (N) fertilization. However, it is
important to maintain adequate level of lime, phosphorus (P), and potassium (K), in the soils of
these pastures. Properly fertilized pasture plants begin growth earlier in the spring and continue
growth later in the fall, thus extending the grazing season.
6. Harvest and Storage Effects
The forage quality of hay and silage when fed is nearly always lower than that of the standing
crops from which they were produced. Physical losses that disproportionately impacts the leaf
component and respiration activity that utilizes nonstructural carbohydrates account for the
quality reduction under good honest conditions.
7. Environmental Effects and Diurnal Fluctuation
Forage grown under higher temperature condition is usually lower in quality that grown under
cooler temperatures. One reason is that lignin deposition is increased by higher temperatures.
Also, cooler growth temperatures lead to the accumulation of sugars and other nonstructural
carbohydrates. Cool season grass forage reaches readily digestible nonstructural carbohydrates
levels of more than 20% of Dry Matters under favorable growth conditions during fall.
8. Climate
Climatic factors such as temperature, humidity, precipitation, light intensity and altitude may be
dominant in controlling the nutritive value of plants. Although plants are dependent upon the soil
for their mineral nutrients, climatic factors affect respiration, assimilation, photosynthesis and
metabolism to the extent that the mineral and organic matter content of plants may be strongly
modified by climatic factors even though grown on the same soil.
9. Animal class
The various classes of livestock exhibit different behavior patterns when grazing. Sheep and
goats tend to be more selective in their grazing, eating plant parts more often than the whole.
Minor food preferences also exist among members of the same species. Non-ruminants such as
swine can make only limited use of forages due to their limited digestive capacity. Many
palatable plants are actually very low in nutritive value.
10. Range condition
Grazing intensity influences the ultimate nutrient quality of forage. Livestock normally consume
the leaves and more tender stems first and reject the fibrous plant parts. This reduces the
photosynthetic area of the plant and the root-shoot balance is disturbed.
WEEK 4: CONCEPT AND IMPORTANCE OF ESTABLISHMENT OF A NEW PASTURE OR
FORAGE CROP
Livestock producers know pastures are very important to their animals. Most farmers rely on
pastures to maintain high levels of productivity and to produce healthy food. Pastures are used
for feeding livestock, such as cattle, sheep, goats, grasscutters, rabbits, horses, and other
animals. A pasture can be a natural grassland, a cultivated field, or a mixture of both. These
plants contain the nutrients and energy that the animals need to grow healthy and productively.
Livestock feeders make use of these plants to help their animals produce milk and meat.
Importance of Establishing New Pasture/Forage Crops
1. To maintain a good environment. Pastures help to prevent erosion, improve soil quality,
and they reduce the need for fertilizers. They also help to maintain biodiversity, which is
important for the environment.
2. A well-managed pasture can provide livestock with a high-quality diet that will keep them
healthy. It also helps to reduce the use of feed supplements.
3. It’s the sustainable way of feeding animals.
4. It serves as a source of employment, especially in forage conservation and marketing
WEEK 5: METHODS OF PASTURES AND FORAGE CROPS ESTABLISHMENT
Some operational activities are done for successful pasture establishment. These activities are
necessary because they help the pasture species to survive in a new environment, full of
challenges (e.g. pests and diseases, nematodes etc). A well-managed pasture can easily adapt
to the new environment perhaps due to proper soil moisture, air, nutrients and the right soil
structure. However, there should be favourable climatic condition and good management
practices. Badly managed pastures will poorly establish regardless of whether they are native or
exotic species
Pre-Planting Operations in Pasture Establishment
The following operations are necessary before successful pasture establishment in Nigeria:
 Site selection-This will depend on the locality upon which the pasture is to be
established. However, the site should be good for cultivation of field crops, and it should
be plain and not rocky.
 Land clearing-This should be done either manually, chemically, mechanically or through
burning. However, cost: benefit ratio of such methods should be ascertained before
making decision.
 Seedbed preparation-Seed beds should be prepared through good land preparation.
This can be achieved through ploughing, harrowing, leveling and construction of ridges,
in case of large seeded legumes
 Seed treatment-Pasture seeds should be treated with fungicides and insecticides before
planting. Sometimes, seeds are treated using hot water to break their dormancy. This
process is known as scarification. Also, some pasture seeds such as Lablab purpureus
are inoculated with rhizobium strain of bacteria to facilitate germination and
establishment. However, the quantity of seeds (seed rate) to use has to be determined
on per hectare basis. The sowing depth has to be shallow for grass species (2cm) and
medium for legumes (5-7cm)
Planting/Sowing Methods
Pasture seeds can be planted or sown using three methods (planting, drilling and broadcasting).
Planting is done mainly for large seeded legumes such as Mucuna pruriens, Lablab purpureus
etc. These pasture seeds are planted using inter and intra-row spaces available (25cm×75cm)
for optimum plant population. In drilling, there is no intra-spacing, rather the seeds are drilled
evenly with a single and continuous hole. For broadcasting, the seeds are broadcasted in the
field. Drilling and broadcasting methods are done for small seeded legume and grass seeds.
Sometimes, it is advisable to use a carrier agent such as sand, fertilizer or sawdust during
planting to enable seeds to be placed in the intended location, especially on a windy day.
Post-Planting Operations
After an encouraging germination of the pasture species, some operations are expected for
better establishment, forage yield and quality. These operations include the followings:
 Weeding-This can be achieved manually, through the use of hand hoes, chemically
using herbicides or mechanically, using tractor coupled implements such as a weeder.
Weeding should be done at 2-3 weeks after planting depending on the intensity of
weeds and also the management. In commercial pasture production, weeding is done
mechanically for better results.
 Fertilizer application- Fertilizers should be applied after weeding for improved
performance. Some farmers apply fertilizers such phosphatic fertilizers e.g. Single Super
 Phosphate (SSP) during land preparation. However, other fertilizers such as nitrogenous
fertilizers have to be applied to the pasture especially if it is a sole grass pasture.
 Defoliation-This refers to the cutting of plant shoot with the aim of improving the growth
performance and getting high quality forage. The pasture species can be defoliated 2-3
times in a year depending on the species, environmental conditions and management.
WEEK 6: ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF PURE STANDS AND MIXED
PASTURES
Advantages of Pure Stands
1. Easy to manage
Advantages of Mixed Pasture
1. Improved productivity and nutritive value of mixed pastures
Crop mixtures can contribute to increased light capture over pure crop stands, which can
improve productivity and efficiency of the pastureland.
2. Cattle preference for forage legumes
Regardless of forage species, cattle display partial preference for legumes over grasses.
3. Longevity
A mixed stands will have more longevity than either a pure stand of grass or legume. For
example, a pure stand of alfalfa or orchardgrass will only have a lifespan of about four to five
years.
4. Climate compatibility
Mixed-species stands are more climate-compatible and more resilient to weather events than
pure forests.
WEEK 7: ASSESSMENT OF PASTURE LAND
to decide if renovation, improvement or reseeding is needed
Objectives of Renovating or Improving Pasture
WEEK 8: METHODS OF IMPROVING/RENOVATING OLD PASTURES OR FORAGE CROPS
Aims of Renovation
The aim of renovation is to do one or more of the following:
a. reduce soil surface roughness
b. increase plant density of improved species back to acceptable levels
c. repair soils by correcting compaction and restoring structure of pore spaces
Renovation methods
Possible pasture and soil renovation methods include:
i. natural regeneration (this depends on soil type and conditions)
 ii. smudging or harrowing
iii. rolling
iv. cultivation and resowing
v. direct drilling in seed
vi. sub-soiling or ripping
Natural regeneration
Pugging by cattle can severely damage pasture and soil structure, but some regeneration of
pasture and soil physical conditions does occur naturally. This natural regeneration is a result of
a number of processes, including the:

 wetting and drying cycles that cause the shrinking, swelling and cracking of a soil
(especially in clay and clayloam soils).
 growth and decay of plant roots leaving root channels, especially by grasses.
 burrowing action of earthworms promote root channels.
The rate of natural regeneration can vary considerably depending on the soil type and
conditions. On soil types that regenerate quickly or where minimal pugging occurs, natural
regeneration might be enough to repair soil. On some other soil types the natural processes
might be too slow to counter the effects of a serious or repeated pugging events, so some of the
following renovation methods can be used.
 Smudging or harrowing
A common method of levelling and reducing the soil surface roughness caused by pugging is by
smudging or heavy harrowing. These methods break off mounds of soil and help fill in the pug
marks.
 Seed the treated area
Harrowing usually rips out some plants from the pasture, further reducing plant density.
Spreading pasture seed on the treated area has been found to be beneficial.
Rolling
Rolling is another method used to level a pugged soil surface. It involves towing a heavy roller
over the paddock to flatten out the pugged marks caused by cows treading on wet soil. Rolling
is often more effective when the soil is still moist enough for the mounds to be pushed back into
the soil. Rolling usually results in less damage to pasture species. As with smudging and
harrowing, applying pasture seed by drilling or broadcasting will help restore adequate plant
density.
Cultivation and resowing
A full cultivation of the soil, together with re-sowing the pasture, will:
- level the soil surface
- increase the density of productive plants
- to some extent improve soil structure damaged by pugging
This is a time-consuming and expensive option but the most reliable to return pasture to a
productive state. This option would generally be selected in the case of severe damage.
Direct drilling in seed
Introducing seed into a damaged pasture by direct drilling can improve damaged pastures and
increase the density of the productive species. It can be difficult to oversow by direct drilling into
pugged ground that has a rough surface. The uneven surface makes it difficult to achieve good
seed placement and coverage. Direct drilling is often done after harrowing to level the paddock
and will improve the consistency of depth with which the seed is sown. Direct drilling can be
particularly effective when there is a large amount of bare ground for seedlings to establish.
Sub-soiling or ripping
In addition to causing a rough soil surface, pugging can also cause a compacted layer below the
pugging depth. This compacted zone can impede water infiltration and restrict subsequent
pasture growth. In some situations it has been beneficial to treat the compacted layer by ripping
or subsoiling. To remedy sub-soil compaction the soil must be loosened at the level of the
compacted layers.
Investigating the sub-soil
To identify where a compacted layer exists in the soil, dig several holes to 50cm depth. Examine
them for indications of a compacted layer, including:
- an accumulation of roots or water at a particular level in the soil profile
- soil that appears to be bluish-grey in colour (result of long term waterlogging), or
- poor root or earthworm activity
WEEK 9: PROBLEMS OF PASTURE MANAGEMENT AND IMPACT EVALUATION
There are many factors affecting pasture production in Nigeria, ranging from climatic, soil and
socio-economic factors. There is a positive correlation between the amount of vegetation cover
and soil moisture content. Also, the types of soil upon which pastures are grown affect their
productivity. Farmers in Nigeria have different socio-economic beliefs which play significant
roles in pasture establishment and utilization. Nigeria has different climatic zones with wide
variations in the amount and intensity of rainfall received, hence differences in vegetation cover.
Some of the problems facing pasture management include;

 Use of Native Pasture Species

 Climatic and Soil Factors
 Socio-Economic Factors
Use of Native Pasture Species in Nigerian Agriculture
In Nigeria, majority of farmers use native pasture species instead of improved species. This is
because of availability of forage in natural rangelands, riverbanks and roadsides e.g.
Amaranthus caudatus, Eragrostis ciliensis, Andropogon gayanus, Hyparrhenia rufa etc,
particularly during the rainy season period. Although these species are abundant all year round,
but their quality decreases progressively with advancing maturity. Therefore, they need to be
over sown with improved pasture species for improved livestock performance. However,
farmers have to be aware of this technology for easy acceptance and adoption.
Climatic and Soil Factors
Nigeria is endowed with different climatic zones, which support the growth of pasture species
based on location. The amount of rainfall received, relative humidity (amount of water vapour in
the atmosphere), environmental temperature and other weather elements such as sunshine and
wind, affect pasture production in Nigeria. The quantity and quality of forage produced depend
on these factors. Other factors are related to soil type, fertility and topography. Improved
pasture species established on fertile soils that are relatively plain for better yield and quality.
Socio-Economic Factors
The following factors affect pasture productivity in Nigerian agricultural system:
a. Overgrazing natural rangelands
b. Ignorance of farmers about the importance of pasture farming
c. Inadequate policies on pasture resources and improvement in Nigeria
d. Fluctuating demands and supply of livestock products due to fluctuating income
e. Inadequate and costly pasture seeds that are unaffordable by majority of farmers in
Nigeria
f. Poverty of farmers
g. Lack of farmers’ organizations on pasture production and marketing in Nigeria
h. Insecurity issues prevent farmers from expanding their enterprises
WEEK 10: PRINCIPLES OF PASTURE MAINTENANCE AND MANAGEMENT
Management and Maintenance of pastures
To grow well, pasture plants and fodder crops need adequate soil mineral nutrients, water and
light. Additionally, more are grazed or cut and expected to regrow without any additional
resource inputs during its growing season. Thus, good defoliation management is also required
in order for pasture and fodder crops to grow well. It is also important to select the appropriate
seeds and varieties that are adapted to local climatic and soil (edaphic) conditions. The longer
the growing season the greater the opportunity for mass production, thus earlier planting and
longer season cultivars can result in better yields.
Management of Native Pastures
Native pastures can be managed in different ways depending on farmer’s choice. However, in
Nigeria, these pastures are usually managed through various methods either directly or
indirectly based on location of the pastureland. Where livestock production is considered as a
serious business, management of these pasture include the following methods:
i. Grazing: This involves the use of livestock to reduce the amount of biomass
produced by these pastures within a given period of time. Livestock such as ruminant
animals (e.g. cattle, sheep, goats, alpacas etc) depend on pastures to acquire the
necessary energy for normal physiological activities. Therefore, grazing of native
pastures by livestock help to facilitate the pasture growth and reduce the amount of
water loss from the shoot. Moreover, grazing helps the pastures to utilize the sunlight
energy from the sun faster through the young and fresh re-growth as a result of
grazing.
ii. Burning: This is mainly done in order to eliminate the dead and lignified leaves and
stems/branches that fall on top of the soil in the natural rangelands. The pasture
growing in such locations are completely burnt to ashes. Thereafter, a new
 vegetative material comes up immediately after the first rain. Pastures will not be
eliminated due to burning because they have underground stolons and rhizomes,
which help them to survive such fires and also, the ash generated from the process
serves as a good source of mineral nutrients to the pastures.
iii. Slashing with cutlasses or mower: This can be done either manually using cutlasses
or mechanically using a mowing machine. The main idea here is that when these
pastures are cut at certain height, the biomass density of the shoot reduces thereby
creating more spaces for sunlight to penetrate the remaining portions left. This will
make them to phosynthesized faster and deposit more carbohydrates and nitrogen
for good livestock performance. Also, the livestock mainly in the form of conserved
forage utilizes the pastures better. This will also help to improve farmers’ income.
iv. Division into paddocks or large fences demarcated with barb wires and angle irons:
This is a situation whereby the native pastures are completely demarcated with barb
wires and angle irons in order to improve the grazing efficiency of the pastures by
livestock. Certain number of livestock is allowed to graze a paddock without
over/under-stocking the pastures. In Nigerian situation, the fencing can be cheaply
done using other materials such as Jatropha curcas or Gliricidia sepium plants.
However, these plants are less effective than the barbwire fencing, although
barbwires and angle irons are expensive to purchase.
v. Sod seeding: This refers to the process of planting seeds of improved pastures in an
existing native pastures. This can be done by some artistic designs to be decided by
the manager of the rangeland or pastures. Sod seeding of native pastures is hardly
done in Nigeria because the rangelands are under the jurisdiction of the government
rather than individuals or communities. Sod seeding helps to improve the productivity
of pastures.
vi. Fertilization: This involves applying organic or in-organic fertilizers to native pastures
for improved biomass production and quality. Grasses require nitrogen fertilization
more than legumes. This helps them to accumulate more carbohydrates and energy
thereby making them better forage materials for livestock.
vii. Frequent defoliation: This refers to the systematic cutting of pasture species in the
field through the use of a mowing machine or cutlasses. The defoliation is done
frequently at fixed intervals, such as two weeks intervals etc. This will help to
facilitate re-growth of the existing native pastures thereby improving their
productivity.
Management of Improved Pastures
Improved pastures are managed in the same way other crops are managed in the farm. The
management of these pastures starts at establishment phase. The following steps are important
for successful establishment and high quality biomass in these pastures:
i. Selection of a fertile land for establishment
ii. Good and timely land preparation
iii. Choice of the right pasture specie
iv. Use of correct seed rate depending on the cost of the seeds and availability
v. Use of the recommended seeding depth during planting
vi. Proper control of weeds
vii. Timely fertilization
 viii. Defoliation/removal of shoots for forage conservation or livestock feeding
Pasture Harvesting and Processing Methods
Pastures are harvested at certain stages of their growth for conservation and subsequent
utilization during periods of feed scarcity. Pasture harvesting is necessary for better supply of
high quality feed, because forage dry matter progressively decreased with advancing maturity.
The quality of conserved forage depends on harvesting method and the moisture content at the
time of harvest and storage. Different machineries are used in harvesting pasture species in
Nigeria, due to their high efficiency compared to manual methods such as using cutlasses etc.
Growth Stages of Cutting Pasture
There are three growth stages of cutting pasture species in Nigeria:
 Pre-Flowering Stage: This is a stage in pasture growth in which the pasture specie has
more vegetative growth before setting flowers for seed production. This period starts
from early stage of growth (3weeks after planting), up to 8 or 9 weeks post planting
period in grass species. However, in legume species, the period depends on the specie
and management practices applied. During this stage, there are more leaves in the
shoot and the stems are not hard (lignified). The moisture content of forage at this stage
is usually high with little dry matter content. Therefore, more material needs to be
harvested before conserving for future use.
 Flowering Stage: At this stage, the pasture specie produces flowers for seed production.
Fertilized ova result into immature seeds, which can be grazed by livestock or even
defoliated for conservation. This stage is known as the bloom stage. The amount of dry
matter at this stage supersedes the moisture content, and therefore farmers normally
harvest their pastures at this stage depending on the type of enterprise.
 Post-Flowering Stage: During this stage, seeds are set by the pasture specie. However,
the moisture content of the seeds is still high compared to dry seeds. This stage is
sometimes known as the dough stage in maize plant for silage. The forage at this stage
contains high level of fibre for structural support. Livestock feed very little quantity of the
forage material at this stage, even though the moisture content is very low.
Moisture Reduction Techniques in Pastures
Forages are made up of water and dry matter components. The amount of these components
depends on stage of growth of the forage. However, moisture remains the most important factor
to be considered before using or storing any material for future use. Therefore, moisture content
can be reduced from the forage by wilting the material for some few days after cutting.
Thereafter, the wilted forage can be further sliced into fine, smaller cuts to facilitate moisture
loss. Also, there has to be frequent turning of the forage material while in the field depending on
the dimension, density and structure of the swath.
Preservation Methods in Pastures
Pastures can be preserved in many forms based on interest of the farmer. These preservation
techniques include the followings:
 Hay- This refers to conserved forage that is in dried stage. Spreading the forage in the
sun or inside barn can do the drying process either. However, sun cured hay is cheaper
 to make than the barn cured hay, but barn cured hay is more qualitative than sun cured
hay. This is because of less leaf losses in the barn compared to the field. Hays are
stored as rectangular or round bales, cubical bales or as stacks. The quality of hay
depends on the stage of cutting the forage and climatic condition.
 Silage- Silage is conserved forage that has undergone complete anaerobic fermentation
for a period of 3 weeks. Fresh forage material is harvested at appropriate stage of
pasture growth. The material may be allowed to wilt or used directly to make silage while
the moisture content is still high. The forage has to be cut into smaller pieces before
transporting into silo. A silo is a structure for making silage. After uploading the forage in
the silo, it has to be well consolidated. Some additives are added in the material to
facilitate intake. Finally, a polythene material is used to cover the silo completely for a
period of three weeks. Silage is more acceptable to livestock than hay because of its
quality. However, it is more expensive to make than hay.
 Pellets: Pastures can also be preserved in form of pellets. This is possible by using
pelletized machine after drying the forage into hay. This will facilitate packaging, easy
handling and transportation of the forage from one place to the other. Also, its
acceptability to livestock is higher compared to hay.
WEEK 11: METHODS OF FORAGE CROP MANAGEMENT AND ASSOCIATED FACTORS
Forage conservation is one of the methods of pasture management in Nigeria. Excess forage is
conserved during the period of abundance to be used during period of scarcity. In order to avoid
excessive spending on purchase of expensive concentrate feeds, farmers harvest forages
during peak period of growth and preserve in form of hay, silage or stacks. Although the quality
of these conserved forages vary greatly, but they are reliable methods used in Nigerian
livestock industry to address the issue of feed scarcity.
Hay
Hay is dry forage formed after wilting, sun drying, turning and packaging of the dry forage
material. The packaging process can be done either with a baling machine or manually using
hand. Hay is the most common method of forage conservation in Nigeria. It has the following
advantages over silage:
a. It is easier and faster to make compared to silage
b. It has high dry matter content
c. It requires less labour than silage
d. It is cheaper than silage
e. It can be done anywhere provided the farmer is experienced
f. It provides bulkiness in the rumen which aid the rumen micro-organisms
Silage
Silage is fermented forage used for supplementing livestock either throughout the year or during
the period of feed scarcity. It requires high technical man power and is more expensive than
hay, especially in intensively managed farms. However, it has the following advantages:
1. It is more qualitative than hay
2. It has high acceptability by livestock than hay provided it is well prepared
3. It is independent of weather
 4. It can be integrated with other farm operations such as mowing and grazing
5. It can smoother weed seeds
6. It can easily be degraded by rumen microbes
Stacked Hay
This refers to dry forage prepared by reducing moisture content while the forage is in the field.
The difference between stack hay and hay is that stack hay is normally kept for temporary use
whereas hay can be stored for years without spoiling. This type of hay is commonly seen in rural
areas where farmers store hay from their crops such cowpea and groundnut haulms. It is mostly
seen on top of trees and rooftops in villages and along the road. Stacked hay has the following
advantages:
i. It is most suitable for smallholder livestock enterprises in Nigeria
ii. It does not require much labour to prepare
iii. It requires less space than hay and silage
iv. It supplies livestock with the much required energy and protein during critical periods
v. It is free from fire outbreak which may ravage the livestock industry

WEEK 12: NEED FOR FODDER CONSERVATION, TYPES AND MERITS

Availability of nutritious fodder throughout the year is very essential for profitable dairy farming.
But it varies from season to season. Therefore, every dairy farm must preserve the surplus
fodder in the form of silage or hay. The surplus forages of the two glut seasons i.e. rainy
season (and winter season could easily be carried over to the succeeding lean periods of fodder
supply. During the lean periods of May and mid July and November -December the hay or
silage can supplement the dry fodder and limited quantity of green fodder available to overcome
the scarcity of fodder.
With judicious selection of crops, their rotations and the conservation of seasonal surplus either
as silage or hay, it is not only possible but also practical to maintain all the year round supply of
quality roughages for milch and drought animals. The practice of fodder conservation is
inseparable from a good herd management programme. Fodder conserved in a season of
plenty is an insurance against under feeding and economic losses during scarcity period.
WEEK 13: HAY MAKING, PROCESSES, CHARACTERISTICS OF QUALITY HAY, TYPES
OF HAY, METHODS OF PREPARING AND CURING HAY AND BENEFITS.
Hay Making Process
Crops for Hay Making:
Crops which are suitable for hay making are both leguminous and non leguminous crops.
Mostly lucern (alfalfa), Rhode grass, Barseem, Oat, and Sudan grasses are considered best
suitable for hay making. Alfalfa hay is considered the best hay. The crops with stem and more
leaves should be selected because leaves are more nutritious
Crop should be harvested at flowering stage (when flowering is initiated) because when crop
matures, its lignin content increases and nutritive value decreases. As far as time is concerned,
crop should be harvested early in the morning because at this time the dew has dried off.
Grasses should be cut at pre flowering stage.
  There should be minimum loss of green coloring matter during the process of drying.
 The hay should be dried as early as possible. It helps in preservation of nutrients.
 For proper curing crop should be tilted occasionally.
 For storage the hay should not contain more than 15% moisture
Methods of Hay Making:
There are a number of processes for hay making which may be applicable or suitable under
certain sets of conditions with different advantages and disadvantages
Ground or Field Curing Method:
In this method crop after harvesting is left in the field for drying under sunlight. The frequent
turning is needed until the moisture in fodder remains 15%. Care should be taken that there
may be minimum loss of leaves during drying. Advantages of this method are less involvement
of cost, no need of any specific equipment, and convenience of preparing hay at the site of
production. On the other hand it is not possible to make hay during humid condition through this
method.
Farm Fences Method:
In this method the forage after harvesting is spread over wire fencing or boundary wall of the
farm. It is tilted once or twice before storage for proper curing.
Tripod or Pyramid Method Drying:
The tripod is made of three wooden or iron pieces. The average height of this stand may be 2 to
3 meters. The network of ordinary rope or wire may be made over this frame work. Grass is
spread over the frame and is occasionally tilted by long stick or bamboo for even drying. In this
method drying action is accelerated by increasing the total area of exposure to sun. There is
minimum action of microbes in this method as there is no direct contact to soil.
Gable shaped structure:
The gable shaped structures is made by using galvanized woven-wire fencing material of
desired width and angle iron poles. The fencing material is fixed in such a way as to provide a
slopping support and good ventilation for quick drying. This system also permits the excessive
shedding of leafy material with less handling unlike the ordinary ground method. The structure
can be made economical further by using netted ropes of medium diameter and wooden poles.
Hay curing shades:
Hay curing shades of convenient size of 18 m × 9 m × 3 m with a slanting rod supported by
pillars are constructed with corrugated asbestos. Chain like fencing of 5 cm × 5 cm mesh and
1–1.2 m in width is arranged length wise in a 4 or 5 tier system. These types of sheds are good
for making hay during the monsoon and summer. The cost is further reduced by thatching the
roof and by using wooden poles for support.
Hay curing structures:
Haymaking can also be done in hay barns, which are specially designed structures in which hot
air is circulated for drying the material quickly.
Advantages of Hay Making:
i. There is availability of nutritious feed to the animal during the scarcity of fodder.
ii. Fodder can be preserved for longer period of time because due to lack of moisture
content enzyme and microbial activities are stopped.
iii. The good quality legume hay may replace certain amount of concentrate in the ration,
thus reducing the cost of production
iv. The fodders can be harvested at the stage when there is maximum accumulation of
nutrient in the plant.
Quality of Hay:
a. It should have a typical aroma of the of fodder from which it has been prepared
b. It should be free from foreign material like dust etc.
c. This should possess reasonable green colour, which gives a rough idea or the quantity
of the precursor of vitamin A, the carotene
d. It should maintain leafiness of original fodder. The loss of leaves during the process will
produce a poor quality product.
e. This should be palatable to animals. The poorly prepared hay generally is not readily
accepted by the animals
Storage of Hay:
In open environment hay can be stored in the following ways.
 Hay stack on ground
 The chopped hay – In some places hay is chopped before use. The limitation of
chopped hay is that this cannot be stored in the open environment because of the heavy
losses by wind and rains.
 The baled hay – The baling process makes the compact cubical bundles of the forages.
This reduces the requirement of space in comparison to loose or chopped hay. The
bales may be stored in open environment or in the barn
 The wafers – For the preparation of wafers or compressed cubical form of hay the long
hay is chopped in to 3-5 cm length and then compressed it in the wafering machine
 The pallets – The compressed product of hay after grinding is known as pallets. They
are cylindrical compact masses of hay which are very palatable. Palleting reduces
feeding loss and storage space.
Following are important points for making hay (dry fodder):
- The fodder should be dried in the field for about 3 days.
- Chop 5-8 cm in size of green fodder crop.
- Spread chop fodder on a pucca floor and dry it in the sunlight in a set of 10-15 cm
thickness.
- Stir the drying forage every 2-3 hours during the day to speed up the drying process
under exposure to the sun and the air.
- By repeatedly stirring the fodder, it dries in 3-4 days.
- When completely dry (usually) after 3-4 days, depending on the frequency of stirring, the
intensity of the sun light and air movement of the air, gather the mixture of dried stems
 and leaves to store or market. When the leaves become cramped, carry the dry fodder
up and store it.
- If dry fodder is easily broken, the amount of moisture is correct and it is ready to store.
Dried fods can be stored in a chap or strawed room. Normally drying green fodder
reduces to 15-20% weight and 10-12% quality.
- Feeding of 10 kg of dry fodder on the basis of 85% dry matter is equivalent to feeding
35-40 kg green fodder. Feeding of animals with non-leguminous fodder, feeding with
leguminous dry fodder, reduces the normal distribution of food.
Examination for good hay:
Good hay color remains green and leaves and branches stay connected. This can be assessed
by taking the material in the hands, if feels dry, then hay is ready for feed and high nutrients are
available in the hay. But in some cases moisture content in the leaves as well as branches is
too high then there is need of more drying for producing good quality hay.
Thus, the green fodder crop can be utilized during the shortage of green fodder. At the time of
shortage of green fodder, there is excessive use of feed/ration which increases the cost of milk.
Hay making is great step of conserving green fodder which further contributes to the success of
dairy business. Hope the article gives an idea to the dairy entrepreneurs to conserve the
leguminous crop as hay and utilize the nutritious product during the lean period. This can
reduce the cost of milk production and increase net profit of dairy farming. Hay making also
reduces the daily labour cost of harvesting and chopping which is a labour saving device in our
commercial/high tech dairy units.
Additives and Preservatives used in Storing Hay
Types of hay preservatives
Four main categories of hay preservatives are available; organic acids and their salts, bacterial
inoculants, sulphur-based preservatives (HayGuard) and ammonia-based additives. Some
products may also include enzymes, antioxidants and nutrients.
1. Organic acids and their salts
When applied, organic acids act as fungicides by producing an acid environment which is not
conducive to mould, yeast or bacterial growth. Two of the main acids used are propionic and
acetic and being naturally occurring acids in the rumen, are safe for all types of livestock,
including horses. These products are liquid and require spraying equipment to apply the
preservative at the hay pick-up area.
2. Bacterial inoculants
Some silage inoculants developed as fermentation enhancers are also sold as being effective
for hay preservation. Most contain lactic acid producing bacteria that compete with yeasts and
mould forming organisms aiming to maintain forage quality. Commonly used lactic acid bacteria
are Lactobacillus, Pediococcus, Streptococcus and Bacillus.
3. Sulphur based preservatives (HayGuard)
Sulphur based preservatives are another product type that offers control of microbial
proliferation. Sulphur compounds are widely used in human and animal food sectors as
preservatives and work essentially the same way in hay through their oxygen scavenging mode
of action. In fodder, they create an environment within the hay bale that is unconducive to
microbial growth stemming mould and yeast development.
4. Ammonia-based preservatives
Although not commonly used in some country, anhydrous ammonia, when applied at 1 per cent
(dry matter basis) to hay containing up to 30 per cent moisture, has been shown to reduce dry
matter losses and prevent heating and moulding. The rate is crucial. Applying, say 0.8 per cent
(dry matter basis), is much less effective than the 1 per cent rate.
Benefits of using hay preservatives are that they:

 allow the safe baling of hay from slightly above target moisture levels up to 25% (or
30%) moisture depending on preservative type
 allow baling after a shorter curing period which reduces risk of rain damage and sun
bleaching. It may also allow baling earlier in a season in certain areas, when fodder is
less mature and nutritive value higher
 reduce dry matter and nutrient loss caused by leaf loss and shatter, microbial activity
and moulds
 enable baling over a longer period each day, resulting in more effective machinery and
efficiency of labour usage
 maintain hay colour (due to increased leaf retention) and often smells better
 prevent dry matter and quality loss in storage due to bacterial, yeast and mould activity
 reduce risk of spontaneous combustion
 may increase animal intake
 Animal and human health not affected due to lack of mould spores.
WEEK 14: PROCEDURES OF SILAGE MAKING, THE BIOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY OF
SILAGE FERMENTATION AND THE CHARACTERISTICS OF QUALITY SILAGE.
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WEEK 15: FACTORS AFFECTING THE SUPPLY OF HAY AND SILAGE.
The Problems of Marketing Hay and Silage.