UNIT-I1 Basic Structures, Sets, Functions, Sequences, Sums, Matrices and Relations Sets, Functions, Sequences & Summations, Cardinality of Sets and Matrices Relations, Relations and Their Properties, nary Relations and Their Applications, Representing Relations, Closures of Relations, Equivalence Relations, Partial Orderings. SETS Set: A set is an unordered collection of distinct objects, called elements or members of the set. A set is said to contain its elements. The sets are denoted by uppercase letters and elements are denoted by lowercase letters. Empty Set or Null Set: The null set (s denoted by'g'or {_ }.e.the set has no elements. Singleton Set: A set with one element is called a singleton set.t.e.A = {1} Subsets: The set A is a subset of B and B is a super set of A.if and only if every element of A is also an element of B. It is denoted by A & B read as “A is a subset of the set B” Proper Subset: If A is a proper subset of B if and only if x(x € A> x EB) A ax(x € BA x A)istrue. Size of a set: The number of ‘n’ distinct elements in a set A is called the size of a set is denoted bylAl =n. Finite Set: The number of elements in A are finite then we say that A is called finite set. Infinite Set: A set is said to be infinite if it is not finite Power Set: The set of all subsets of set S is called.a power set and is denoted by P(S) =2 ‘Where nis the distinct elements of S. 1. What is the power set of the set {0,1,2}. Solution: P {0, 1, 2} (9, {0}, {1}, {2}, €0,1}, {0,2}, (1.2},{0,1,2}} Cartesian product: Let A and B be sets.The Cartesian product of A and B is denoted by AB Is the set of all ordered pairs (a, b), where a € Aandb € B. Hence A x B = {(a,b)|a € A and b € BY [Page By S.Krishna reddy2. What is the Cartesian product of A= {1,2}and B = {a,b,c}. Solution: x B = {(1,a), (1,6), (1,c), (2,4), (2,6), (2,c)} = 6Lemxn=2x3=6 Equal Sets: If A and Bare sets, then A and B are equal if and only if vx(x€ AS XE B).we write A = B. Universal Set (U): In Venn diagrams the universal set. Le. we draw a rectangle to indicate the universal set U. Set Notation with Quantifiers:vx € SP(x)is short hand for Vx(xeS > P(x) 3xeSP(x)is short hand for 3x(xeS and P(x) 1. xeR(x? 2 0) = forevery real number x,x? = 0. The sequence of every real number is non-negative. 2. VxeZ(x? = 1)means “There is an integer whose square is 1°. ‘Truth Set: The truth set of P(x) is denoted by {xeD|P(x)} 1. The set of integers and P(x) is |x| = 1. Then the truth set of P(x) is (1,-1}. 2. The set of integers and Q(x)is x? = 2.Then the truth set of Q(x) is @ 3. The set of integers and R(x)is |x] = x-Then the truth set of R(x) is N Cardinality Cardinality ofa set means size of a set. It is denoted by |A| 1. A set of all odd integers less than 10./.¢.A = (1,3,5,7,9} « [A] =5 2. Cardinality of null set is “0” Operations Union: The union of the sets A and B, denoted byd UB, is the set that contains those elements that are either in A or in B, or both.i. e.4 UB = (x|xeA or xeB} 1. If A= (13,5), B= (1,2,3)thn d UB = (1,2,3,5] Intersection: The intersection of the sets A and B, denoted byA 1 B, is the set containing those elements in both A and B. ie. NB = (x|xeA and xeB} 1. If A= (13,5), B= (1,2,3)thn An B = (1,3) Disjoint: Two sets are called disjoint if their intersection ts the empty set. 1. If A={13,5,7,9}, B = (24,6,8,10}then ANB = @ = A,B are disjoint sets. 2|Page By S.Krishna reddyDifference: The difference of A and B, denoted by A— B,is the set containing those elements that are in A but not in B.'he dif ference of A and Bis called the complement of B with respect to A.i.e.A — B = {x|xeA and x € B} 1. If A= {1,35}, B = (1,2,3}then A —B = {5} 2. Let A= {xeZ*|x > 10}then A= (1,23,4,5,6,7,8,9,10} The compliment of Ais denoted by A or A‘ with respect toU = AS =U ~ Ai.e. {xeU|x € A} Note: A—B=ANB IDENTITY LAWS Aldentity law ; @ Domination law AUA=4,ANA =A idempotent law (A) =A complementation AU B=BUA,ANB = BN A commutative law AU (BUC) = (AUB)UGAN (BNC) = (ANB)n Cassoctative law AU (BNC) = (AUB)N(AUC),AN (BUC) = (ANB)U(AN C)Distributivelaw AUB=ANB,ANB =AUBDe~— morgan'slaw AU (ANB) = 4,AN (AUB) =A absorption law 10.AU A= U,An A= @ Complement law re ve PROBLEMS 1, Provethat AUB=ANB Solution: We know that AUBCANB LetxeA UB =x AUB =x¢Aandx€B =>xeAandxeB =xeAnB 3[Page By S.Krishna reddy,AnB -AD We know that Letx€ ANB =x eAandxeB =x eAandxeR From (1) and (2) = AUB=ANB 2. Prove that AN BC AUB. Solution: Suppose let x € ANB > xeAandxeB =>x€AorxeB =>xEAUB = ANBEAUB 3. Prove that A — (B.C) S (A—B) U (AC). Solution: Suppose x € 4 — (BNC) => x € Aandx € (BNC) =>x€AandxeBorxe€ > x €Aandx 8 orxe Aandxe C =x €Aandx ¢ Borx€Aandx €C 4|Page By S.Krishna reddy,=xe(A-B)U(A-C) «A-(BNC)S(A-B)U(A-C) 4.1fA & B then prove that (A— C) ¢ (B-C). Solution: Suppose x € A—C =>xeAandxéC + AGB> xe Ameansx€B =>x€BandxéC SxEB-C 2 (A-C)S(B-C) 5. Prove that (4U B) —C = (A—C) U(B-C). Solution: (A UB) —C = (AUB) € by complimentary = (ANC) U(BN C)by distributive law = (A-C€)U(B-C) since ANB =A-B 6. Using proof by contradiction show that if a and B are any sets A 10 (B— A) = . ‘Solution: Suppose AN(B-A)#9 AxcU|xeA 0 (B— A) =x e€AandxeB-A> x €Aandx€ (BNA) =x €Aandx€BandxeA =x eAandxeA = Which is a contradiction. 5|Page By S.Krishna reddyOR Let xeA 9 (B— A) = xeA and xe(B— A) = xeAand xeB and x @ A = (x Aand xeA)and xeB = eq and xeB = xe(BN—) > xe Hence AN (B= A) = 9 RELATIONS Relations are derived from Cartesian product. Let A and B be two non — empty sets, then a relation R from A to Bisa subset of AX Bie.R SAX B. 1. Let A = {1,2,3,45}and R = {(x,y)Ix yeA,y > x = {(1,0), (1.2), (1,3), (1.4), (1,5), (2,2), (2,3), (2,4), (2,5), (3,3), (3,4), (3,5), (4.4), (4,5), (5,5)} Note: Let n(4) = mand n(B) = nthen the number of relations = 2”. The number of non — empty relations = 2" — 1. FUNCTIONS Avtelation ‘f from a set A to a set B is called function: A > B if to each element aeA, we can assign unique element of B.The domain of “fis A and codomain of “fis B. Range: [f f:A— B is a fmotion then the range of “f is defined as Range= (f(a) |acA} Ex: If A= (1,2,3},B = {a,b}. Then range of ‘f = {f(1), f(2).f(3)) Every function is a relation, However, not every relation be a funetion, Tnjective (one to one) A function f:4 — B is said to be one to one function. If different elements have different images. (OR) 6|Page By S.Krishna reddyIf f(x) = f&a)then x, = x2 or If f(x,) # f(a)then x, # x then ‘fis said to be 1-1 1. Show f (x) = 3x — 2 Is injective Solution: f(x,) = fa) > x1 =a TE f(@) = fr) 3 3x, -2 = 3x, —2 9 34 = 3K SMS + f(x)is injective, ? injective or not? 2. Is f= Solution: If f(o) Fa) 2 af = 33 3 tx: =m + f(x)is not injective. Surjective (onto) Let f;X > Y.f is onto if and only if vyeY, xeX such that f(x) = y(codomain = range) L.f(x) = 5x + 2s onto for vxeR.What about VxeZ? ad Solution: y = f(x) >y =5x+2y-2=5e5x ¥ =Othenx= 2 f:R > Ris onto. 2 1 -gandy=1x=-Z y=7x=landy =5,x = 5+ f:Z > Zisnot onto. tales a y=7.x= Landy =5,x=2 + f:R>Zis onto. Bijective (one to one and onto) A function f:A > B is said to be bijective if ‘f’ is one to one and onto. (OR) For f:X + Y, each xeX maps to exactly one unique yeY. Identity Function: IE: B is said to be identity function if f(x) = xvx T|Page By S.Krishna reddyInverse Function: Given f:X > Y,we define the inverse as f~*:¥ + XLe.f(x) =y 9 f*Q) =x. ‘Composition of functions: Let f:4 > B bea function and g: B > C bea function then the composition of the function f and g denoted by gof:A > C and is defined as gof(a) = g[f(a)] PROBLEMS 1. Find the inverse of the function f(x) = x° +1. Solution: Let f(x) = y extisy exsy-1 S>x=(y-13 2 PQ) =(y- DE 2 f(x) = (x= 1) 2. Let A = {1,2,3,4}, B= (a,b, cland ¢ = {w,x,y,z}with f:A > Band g:B > C given by f = (1,4), (2,4), 3,5), (4,6)},9 = (a,x), (by), (6 2))find gof. Solution: Given A = {1,2,3,4},8 = {a,b,c}and C = (w,x,y,z} f= {G,2), (2,0), (3,6), (4,0},9 = (a,x), (by), (C2) gof() = off) = gla] =x gof (2) = glf(2) = gla] =x gof(3) = gl f(3)1 = gb = y gf (4) = g[f(4)] = gle] =z + gof = (1.x), (2,2), 3,y),4,2)} 8|Page By S.Krishna reddy3. Consider the functions ‘f” and ‘g” defined by f(x) = x°and g(x) = x? +1 find gof, fog, f?and g’. Solution: Given f(x) = x?and g(x) = x? +1 gof(x) = g[f(x)] = elx®] =)? +1 =x° +1 fog(x) = flg(x)] = fix? + 1] = (x? + 1)3 = x° + 3x* + 3x7 41 ° f? = fof (x) = fIF@)1 = fle] = @4)* 9? = gogx) = glo] = gk? + I= 0? +1)? +1 = x4 $2x7 42 4, Let“P and ‘g’ be two functions from R + R defined by f(x) = ax + b, g(x) =1-x4+2x2.If fog(x) = 9x? — 9x + 3. Find the values of ‘aand'b’. x? = Ox + 3 Solution: Given by f(x) = ax + b, g(x) x +x? and fog(x) = fog(x) = flg()] = fl —x +27] = a —x +27) +b sax+ax?+b Given fog(x) = 9x? —9x + Equating the coef ficients of constat, x,x®on both sides, we have a+b =3,a=9 implies b = ~6 5. Let the function f:N > N and g:Z + N be defined as follows, f(x) = 3x +2 and g(x) =x? + 1 specify the functions 6. Let f, g,h be the functions from Z to Z defined by f(x) = x — 1, g(x) = 3x. 0,xiseven RO = (axis odd Determine fo(goh)(x)and (fog)oh(x)and show that fo(goh)(x) = (fog)o(h(x). Solution: Given f(x) 1.g(%) = 3x.h(x) = 1, xis even fo(goh) (x) = flgh()] = fl3hx] = 3hx — 2,xis odd 9|Page By S.Krishna reddy,1, xis even (Fogyoh(x) = f[3hx) = 3hx~1= {OFS cad + fo(goh)(x) = (fog)oh(x) 7.Let A = {1,2,3, 4}and'f'and'g'befunctions from A to A given by f= {G,4), 2, 0, 3,2), 4,3)},9 = (C2), (2,3), 3,4), (4, D} prove that f, g are inverse of each other. Solution: gf (1) = [FQ] = 94) = 1 gof(2) = glf(2)] = g(1) =2 gof(3) = gif(3)] = g(2) =3 gof(4) = glf(4)] = a3) = 4 « gof = 1= {(1,1), (2,2), (3,3),(4,4)} and fog) = Flg(M) = F[2] =1 Fog(2) = fl9(2)] = f[3] =2 Fog(3) = Fl9(3)1 = f[4] = 3 fog) = fg) = /) = 4 (1.1), (2.2), (3,3), (4.4)} 8. Consider the function f:R > R defined by f(x) = 2x +S and 9:R = R be defined by g(x) = te —5).Prove that g isan inverse of f. Solution: Given f(x) = 2x + 5.and g(x) = 3(x~5) fou) = sual =s 5-9] = 25-9] +8 =~ 10/P as By S.Krishna reddy,gofG) = olf = alex +5) =2[5-)] +5 =x + fog=1 af=g? Properties of Relations Represent of Matrix relation: A relation can be represented in terms of a matrix. Let R:A B be a relation where A and B are finite sets containing elements A= {a4, a9, — — ay}, B = {by, ba, — — by} -Then R can be represented by m xn Lif (ajpbjeR if (ab €R iy = [m]where my = PROBLEMS 1. Find the matrix of a relation’R’ on a set A = (1,3, 4} where R = {(1,1), (4,3), (3,3).(4.4)}. 1jl 1 OF Solution: Mz,3 ap 1 ( 4l0 0 1 2. Find the relation R from the set A= {ay, @2, a3}, B = {by, ba, bs, bs} with the matrix 4/0 10 0 relation given byMy = @2 [: o 1 4). alto 1 0 Solution: R = {(a;,b2),(42,b4), (az, bs), (a2, b4), (as, by), (as-b3)} Graph of relation. A={a,b,c,d),R = {(a,b), (b,b), (b,d), (c,b), (¢, d),(d, a), (d,c)} Solution: u\P By S.Krishna reddy,3. Let A= {1,2,3,4} and R be the relation on A defined y xRy iff y = 2x. a. Write down R asa set of ordered pairs. b. Draw the graph of R. c. Determine the in degrees and out degrees of the vertices in the graph. Solution: a. Given A = {1,2,3, 4}andthe relation is y = 2x R={(1,2),(2,4)} b. Graph {1,2,3,4} and R be the relation on A defined by xRy iff “x divides y a, Write down R as a set of ordered pairs. b. Draw the graph of R. ¢. Determine the in degrees and out degrees of the vertices in the graph. d. Determine matrix of the relation. Solution: a. Given A = {1,2,3,4}andthe relation tsx divides y i.e. x|y Le.y = mx R= ((1),(12), (3), 14), (2,2), (2,4), (3,3),(4.4)} b.Graph By S.Krishna reddyVertices i 2 3 4 In degrees hi 2 2 3 ut degrees 4 2 1 1 atta dt tos fomie 8 é u | aloo 0 1 8. Let A= [1,2,3,4, 6) and R be the relation on A defined by xRy iff “x is a multiple of y. a, Write down R as a set of ordered pairs. b.Draw the graph of R. eDetermine matrix of the relation, Solution: Given A = (1,2,3,4,6}and the relation is “x is a multiple of y” R= ((11), (2.1), (3.1), 41), 61), (2.2), (3,3), (44), (6.6), (4.2), (6.2), (6.3)} TYPES OF RELATIONS Rellexive:¥eA implies (x,x)eR Symmetric:/f (x. y)eR implies (y,x)eR Transitive: If (x, y)eRand (y,z)eRimplies (x,z)eR ‘Equivalence Relation If the relation R satisfies reflexive, symmetry and transitive then R is called equivalence relation. PARTIAL ORDERING RELATION, A relation R is said to be a partial order relation if R is reflexive, anti-symmetry and transitive Totally Ordered Relation Let (p,<)ts a POSEt tf for every element a,beA.we have elther a < bor b )and (p,>)is a dual of (p,<). BP By S.Krishna reddyPOSET A set ‘A’ with partial ordering relation ‘R' defined on A is called POSET. Denoted by [A,R] Hasse Diagram ‘A graphical representation of a partial ordering relation in which all arrowhead are understood to be pointing upward is known as the Hasse Diagram. PROBLEMS 1. Let A={1,2,3,4} and R={(1,1),(1,2),(2,1),2,2),.4).4,3).G,3),(4.4)} verify that Ris an equivalence relation. Solution: Given A={1,2,3,4} and R={(1,1),(1,2),2.1)(22 3.4).(4,3),(3.3)(4.4)} aReflexive:vxeA implies (,x)eR + Risreflexive. bSymmetry: If (x, y)eR implies (y,x)eR « Ris symmetry. c.Transitive: If (x, y)eRand (y,z)eR implies (x,z)eR » Risreflexive + Ris equivalence relation. 2. Let A={1.2,3,4} and R={(1,1),(1,2),(2,1),2.2).3.1).(4,1),@.3),(4.4),(1.3)} verify that R is an equivalence relation or not. Solution: Given A~f1,2,3.4} and R={(1,1),(1.2),(2,0).(2.2).8,1).(4.).G,3).(4,4).(13)} aReflexive:Wxed implies (x,x)eR + Ris reflexive. bSymmetry: /f (x,y)eR implies (y,x)ER Since (4,1)eR implies (1,4) € R + Ris not symmetry. + Ris not equivalence relation, 14|P By S.Krishna reddy3. Let A=(1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12} on this set define the relation R by (x y)eRif f (x — y) is a multiple of Swerify that R is an equivalence relation. Solution: vxeA = (x — x) is a multiple of 5 3 (xxeR + Ris reflexive. vx, yea If Ge y)eR > (x—y) is a multiple of 5 = -(y-x)is a multiple of 5 > (y- x) isa multiple of 8 > (x)er + Ris symmetry. Wx, y,Z6A If (xy)eRand (y,z)eR = (x—y) and (y—z) are multiple of 5 2 x-z=(x—y) + (y—2) isa multiple of 5 > (x z)eR ~ Ris transtive. « Ris equivalence relation, ,Thand R = {(x,y)|(x — y) ts divisible by 3}in XShow ‘an equivalence relation. that Solution: Given X = {1,2,3,4,5, 6, 7jand R = {(x, y)|(x — y) is divisible by 3) R= (LD, (2,2), 3,3), (44), (5,5), (6,6), (7,7), 4), (4,1), (2,5), (5,2), (3,6), (6,3), (4,7), (7,4), (7), (7,.1)} vexed > (x —x)is divisibleby 3 15|P By S.Krishna reddy,= (x xeR « Ris reflexive. vx, yeA If Go y)eR 3 (xy) is divisibleby 3 > -(y— xis divisibleby 3 > (y— x)is divisibleby 3 > Oxer + Ris symmetry. vx, y,z6A If (x y)eRand (y,z)eR > (x-y) and (y - 2) are divistbleby 3 3x-2=(e-y) + (y-2) isdivistbleby 3 = (a 2eR + Ris transtive, + Ris equivalence relation, 5. Check whether the relation R defined on the set = (1,2,3,4,5,6} as R= {(a,b):b = a+ 1} isreflexive, symmetric or transit Solution: Given, the relation R defined on the set A = {1,2,3, 6} as R = {(a,b):b =a +1}. The relation is not reflexive asa #a+1, for anya eA. Also 3 =2+1 but2 +3 +1 Le. (2,3) € R but (3,2) R,so the relation ts not symmetric. Now, (2,3) € R, (3,4) € R but (2,4) ¢ Rsince 341 but4#241 2414 Therefore, the relation is not transitive also. 2y S.Krishna reddy6.Determine whether the Relation R in the set A= (1,2,3,4,5,6}asR = {(x,9): vis divisible by x} is reflexive, symmetric and transitive Solution: A= {1, 2,3, 4, 5, R= {(x,y):yis divisible by x} We know that any number (x) is divisible by itself. (x ER « Ris reflexive. Now, (2,4) € R [as 4is divisible by 2] But, (4,2) ¢ R. [as 2s not divisible by 4] = Ris not symmetric. Let (x,y),(y,2) € R.Then, yis divisible by xand zis divisible by y. «zis divisible by x. = (x2) ER +. Ris transitive. Hence, Ris reflexive and transitive but not symmetric. 7. For a fixed integer n > 1, prove that “congruent modulo n” Is an equivalence relation on the set of all intogers. Solution: Va, beZ “a congruent b modulo n” = (a— b)is amultiple of n WaeZ If (a,aeR > a-aisa multiple ofn > a =a (mod n) = (aa)eR + Ris reflexive. va, beZ If(a,b)eR > a = b(mod n) > a-—bisamultiple ofn > -(b—a)is.a multiple of n > b-a isamultipleofn By S.Krishna reddy,= b =a (modn) > (ba)eR + Ris symmetry. Va, b,ceZ If(a,b)eR and (b, c)eR = a =b (mod n)and b = c (modn) = a~ bisa multiple ofn and b ~cisa multiple of n 3 a-c=(a—b) + (b-o)isa multiple of n = ac isamultiple ofn > a= c(modn) = (aceR + Ris transitive. + Ris equivalence relation. 8, Show that the relation ‘2 ’ is a partial ordering relation ona set of integers. Solution: (i) YaeR implies a ‘is a partial ordering relation on a set of integers 2y S.Krishna reddy9, In the set of real numbers, the relation < is a partial ordering relation. Solution: @)— WaeR implies a> a + Ris reflexive. Gi) Va, beR ifazbandbéa + Ris anti symmetry. (iii) Va,b,ceR Ifazbandb2cthenazc + Ris transitive. « The relation ‘ >’ isa partial ordering relation ona set of realnumbers. 10. Show that A = {1, 2, 3}and relation R = {(1,1), (2,2), (3,3), (1,2), (2,3), (1, 3)} isa partial ordering relation. 11. Draw the Hasse Diagram for [{1,2, 3, 4,6,9}, divisible]. Solution: Given A{1,2,3,4,6,9} and R = divisible R {(1.1), (1.2), 1,3), (1.4), (1.6). (1.9), (2.2), (2.4), (2.6), 3,3), (3,6), (3.9), (44), (6.6), (9,9)} Hasse Diagram bh 12. Let X = (2,3,6,12,24,36]and < be such that x < y of'x\y’. Draw the Hasse diagram. 19 |? By S.Krishna reddySolution: Given X = (2,3,6,12,24,36} and R= x p(k +1) is true for all positive intrgers k. ‘Strong Induction Strong induction is a variant of standard induction. However, there is a different in the inductive hypothesis. In strong induction, we assume that all of p(1),p (2), p(3),-~---p(K) are true to prove p(ke + 1). Proof: 1. This is where you verify that p(k,) is true.In most cases, ko 2Inductive step. This is where you assume that all of D(k;), p(k) .».-p(Kare true. Then show that p(k + 1)is true. Ex. Let a, be the sequnce defined by a, = 1,4, = 8 and Ay = ayy + 2.a-zfor n 2 2 prove that ay = 3.28 + 2(—1)yneN. Solution: We will prove by strong induction that for allneN oy, = 3.2" + +2(-1)"——- (1) Base step: when n = 1 implies a, = 3.2°+2(-1) =3-2=1 When n = 2 implies a, = 3.24 2(-1)? =6+2=8 Induction step:Let keN with k 2 Zand (1)is true for n =1,2,3, ,k. Then we have to prove forn=k+1. pgs = Ay 2. y—y = 3.2" + 2(-1)* + 2[B.2"? + 2(-1) 4], = 3214 2(-1k +324 44(-1t = 6.21 + 2[(-1)¥ + 2(-1)* (4) = 3.2% 4 2{(-1)(-1)*] 22 |P By S.Krishna reddy= 3.2% + 2(-1)k* « The statement is true by strong induction. PROBLEMS 1. Using induction principle prove that n° + 2n is divisible by 3 Solution: Let p(n):n? + 2nis divisible by 3. Now p(0):0 is divisible by 3. Let assume for any k,p(k) is true. i.e.k? + 2k is divisible by 3. Now (k +1)? + 2(k+ 1) =k? 43k? + 3k+1+2k+2 =k? +2k+3(k62+k+1) Since k3 + 2k is divisible by 3 and 3(k? +k + 1)is also divisible by 3 = (kK+1)° + 2(k + Dis divisible by 3ie p(k+ Dis true. Hence p(n)is true V positive integers 2. Prove by Mathematical induction that 7"*? + 82"*1 js divisible by 57 for each positive integer n. Solution: Let p(n):7"*? + 82"+4 Is divisible by 57. Now p(0):49 + 8 = 57 is divisible by 57. Let assume for any k,p(k) is true.i.e.7? + 8?" is divisible by 57. Now 7Et#2 4 riety = 7eH 4 greta = 7.7842 4 92, geet = 7.78? 4 64,9742 = 7(7H2 4 gPkHly 4 57,074 By S.Krishna reddy,Since7(7**? + 8?*+1) is divisible by 57 and 57.8?**tis also divisible by 57 2 EHH? 4. g2Ue+4)+4js divisible by 57 i.e. p(k + is true. Hence p(n)is true ¥ positive integers 3. Prove by Mathematical induction that 6"? + 72"*1 is divisible by 43 for each positive integer n. Solution: Let p(n): 6"? + 72"*1 is divisible by 43, Now p(0):36 + 7 = 43 is divisible by 43. Let assume for any k,p(k) ts true.i.e.6**? + 7?** is divisible by 43. Now 642 4 720et)42 kts 4 pets = 6.682 4 72, 72K42 = 6.61? + 49,7241 = 66H? 4 724) 4 43,7044 Since6(6**? + 7+) is divisible by 43 and 43.7?**4is also divisible by 43 2 6H? 4 720e+2)44j5 divisible by 43 ie. p(k + 1)is true, Hence p(n)is true v positive integers 4. If f(n) = 50n* — 6n +23 then show that f(n) = O(n). Solution: Given f (n) = 50n° — 6n +23 = |f()| = [50n5 — 6n + 23] = [50n? —6n +23) 150n3| + |-6n| + [23] S50n3 + 6n3 + 233 S79n? where n 21 24 |P By S.Krishna reddyne=79 F(n) = 07?) 5. Let p(n)be the statement that 1? + 2? + 3? + +n? = BENCHED for the positive integer n, @ What is the statement p (1)? (ii) Show that p (1) is true, completing the basis step of the proof. (iii) What is the induetive hypothesis? iv) What do you need to prove in the inductive step? (¥) Complete the inductive step, identifying where you use the inductive hypothesis. 6. Let p(n)be the statement that 1+2+3 + +n =" for the positive integer n nines) Solution: Let p(n): 1 +243 +n = 2 Now p(1):1 = 1(1 + 1)/2 = 1ie.LH-S.=R.HS k(k+ 1) = 2 Let assume for any k, p(K)is true.i.e. p(k): 1+ 2+ 3 +--.+k (k+ I+ 141) _ (k4+1)K 42) p(k4+1):14+2434+-.+k+(k+ 1) = 2 2 We now return to our proof. We find that adding (k + 1) both sides we have kk+1) LH2ES bo 4kt (RED = tet) — kK + 1) +2k+1) ~ 2 _ ceinyck42) ~ 2 +0 Hencep(n):1+24+34--4n a > is true v positive integers 7. Let p(n)be the statement that 19+ 2° +3° +--+ n3 =" for the positive 25|P By S.Krishna reddy,integer n Solution: Let p(n): 1° +29 +39 4-4 n? = SO va+1)? Now p():1? = = 1i.e.LHS.= RES K(k +02 Let assume for any k, p(k)is true.i.e. p(k): 15 +23 + 3% +--+ ko = coe (k+ 1k +2)? P+ +2743 bet PH (kt) = 7 ‘We now return to our proof. We find that adding (k + 1)* hoth sides we have 2 2 134294384 se Gera EOD aay _ Rk +1)? + 4k + 1% —aee: _k+17 ik +4K +4] ae _ e+ 2%(k +2)? -_ 4 nent 1)? Hence p(n): 18 + 23 +38 4-43 is true V positive integers RECURRENCE RELATIONS A recurrence relation is an equation that recursively defines a sequence based on a rule that gives the next term in the sequence as a function of the previous terms when one or more initial terms are given, 1. The Fibonacci sequence is defined by using the recurrence relation F,, = Fy + Fy-2 with initial conditions Fy = 0.F, In the same way , we can find the next succeding forms in the sequence such as Pp=Py+Po=1+0=1 By S.Krishna reddy,Fo +F,= 14152 SF, +h=24+1=3 Fy =F, +f, =3+2=5 Fy +Fy=5+3=8 Fo+Fs=8+5=13 Fy = Fy: + Fy Va > 2 We obtain the sequence of Fibonacci numbers by using above recurrence relation, we have 0,1,2,3,5,8,13,21, 2. Solve the recurrence relation a,, = 4,1 + f(n)for n> 1 by substitution. Solutio jiven dy, = dy. + f(a)forn> 1 For n= 1,a, = ay + f(1) For n= 2, a) =a; + f(2) = do + f(1) + f(2) For,n = 3, dy = a + f(3) = do + f(1) + f(2) + £3) for n= n, ay, = aq + f (1) + f(2) + FB) + n= a+) F(8) & 3. Suppose that a person deposits Rs.10, 000 in a saving account at a bank yielding 11% per year with interest compounded annually. How much will be in the account after 30 years. fr) Solution: Let P, = the amount in the accout after'n'years. * Pn = amount in the account after'(n — 1)'years + interest for the'n'th year. Hence {py}satisfies the recurrence relation By S.Krishna reddyPn = Pn—1 + Po(11%)where pp = 10,000 Dy = Po + 0.11 py = 1.11 py P2 =P, + 0.11 py = (1.11)*po Ps = D2 + pi(0.11) = (1.11)%p9 Pn = (1.11)"bo Po = (1.11)?°(10,000) = 228922.97 4. Let (a, }be a sequence that satisfies the recurrence relation ay = dy-1 — @,-2forn = 2,3,4...and suppose that ag = 3,a, = Swhat are a,and a3? 5. Find out the sequence generated by the recurrence relations below. (Ty =2.Ty-awith Ty = 4 (4) Ty = 3.74 —4 with Ty = 3 6. Find out the recurrence relation for the following sequence @) —-2,6,18,54,162 (li) 20,17,14,11,8, (lit) 1,3,6,10,15,21, mnt 7. Prove that, if F,is the nth Fibonacci number, then F, =—3[(S") = allintegers n> 0.or find the explicit formula for the Fibonacci numbers. for Solution: The sequence of Fibonacci numbers satisfies the recurrence relation tn a+ fn-2— —Cwith fo = Of; The characteristic equation is By S.Krishna reddyGiven initial conditions fy = 0, f, Put = 0in (2), we have A+B ie. B---@) Putn = 1in (2), we have a9) 0 wal) 5) aBSH and A 1 v3)" a pavsy” The explicit formula for the Fibonacci numbers 1s fy = =(*) -3(S) 8. Solve the recurrence relation @y — @y_4— 12¢q-2 Solution: Given the recurrence relation 47 12a,_2 = 0-— = (1) with ay = 0,a, an — Given recurrence, relation is a second order homogeneous recurrence relation. The general solution of relation (1) is Ay = ay — (2) To obtain alt put f(n) = 0 in (1) --(@) ‘The charecteristic equation of (L)is, Ay — Aya — 12a, k2-k-12=0 By S.Krishna reddy,sah = (AK® + k"B) = (A(—3)? + B(4)) GS. is ay = A(-3)" + B(4)" --- (4) Given initial conditions are ay = 1,2, Put n= Oin (4) we have A+B=1--()and Put n= 1in (4) we have -3A +4B=2--(6) Solving (5), (6) we get 3 4 A =yandB =F GS. 18 dy = = (—3)" +2 (4)" 9. Solve the recurrence relation dy = 6, a4 — 9-4-2, 0 10, Solve the recurrence relation a, = 6,ay—1 — L1.dy-7 + 6.45 = 0,9 = 2,0, = 5,a, =15 11. Solve the recurrence relation ay = —3.dy_1— 3.y-2— =2,a,=—1 12, Solve the recurrence relation, = 3.a,,1 + 2n with ay = 13. Solve the recurrence relation @y;1 = 4-aq with ag = 3. 14. Solve the recurrence relation a, = 5.4 —6.dy 2 +7". NON-HOMOGENEOUS RECURRENCE RELATIONS ‘Non-homogeneous recurrence relations are of the form inca + Cn-2-An-g Fo + Cpe Anke = f(nywn = k- —— (1) Cn Antey Where ey ¢n-1»Cn-2 ~-are real constant with ¢, # 0 and f(n)given function of n .G.S.of (Iisa, = a” +a?) —-- (2) Where at is the general solution of (1)with {(n) = 0 and ais the particular solution can be calculated by the following cases. 30/P By S.Krishna reddy,Case 1: Suppose f(n)is a polynomial of degre q and 1 is not a root of characteristic equation. Where Ag, Ay, Ap, are constants and a,, = a® Substitute in(1)we get 1g + Ayn + Agn? + Case 2: suppose f(n)is a polynomial of degre q and 1is aroot of multiplicity m of characteristic equation. Where Ao, Ai, Ay, ... are constants and a, = a? Substitute in(1)we get ab =n™{Ay + Ayn + Agn? +++} Case 3: suppose f(n) = ab" where ais a constant and b is a root of multiplicity m of characteristic equation of (1) thea a’ = Ayb” Case 4: suppose f(n) = a b"where ais a constan and b is not aroot of (1) then a? = Ayn™b™ F(a) ah Constant Ap n Ap + Ayn n® Ag + Ayn + Ayn? rn Agr” 2y S.Krishna reddyPROBLEMS 1. Solve the recurrence relation dy +4. dy-4+4.@, 2 =8 for n22 where ay = 1a,=2 ---@ Solution: Given recurrence relation ay + 4.4y-4 +4. dy. Given recurrence relation is a second order non-homogeneous recurrence relation. ‘The general solution of relation (1) is a, = ah + ah —-(2) To obtain ap put f(r) = 0 in (1) y+ 4. dng + 4.n-2 = 0 ——(3) The charecteristic equation of (1)is R24 4k 44 ok =42,-2 «ah = (A+ Bn)k" = (4 + Bn)(—2)"--(4) Ay---@) (A+ Bn)(-2)" + Ag G.s.is an For obtaining Ag in (1)Ag + 44g + 449 ie.9Ay = 8 Gy = (A+ Bny(-2)" +5-— — ©) Given initial conditions are ay = 1,0, = 2 Put n= 0in (6) 8 ay=1=At5 2y S.Krishna reddyG.S.of (Dis n= (5 ~ En) 2)" +8 Solve @, +3. dy +2. dy = 0 for n > 2 using characteristic root method. Solution: Given recurrence relation is ay + 3.aya + 2.an- 0 ~~~ (1)This is second degree Ins characteristic equation is r? + 3r+2= 0 oh =—Lt, General solution is ay = all tah, =AC-)" + B(-2)" 3. Whatis the solution of the recurrence relation ay = @y-1 + 2.d,-2 with ag = 2anda;,=7? By S.Krishna reddy,