Ethnobotanical study of plants used by traditional healers in Lubumbashi

(Democratic Republic of Congo) in the management of typhoid fever

Bashige Chiribagula Valentin 1, *, Kasongo Ilunga Pierre 1, Manya Mboni Henry 1, 2, Félicien Mushagalusa
Kasali 3, Okusa Ndjolo Philippe 1 and Lumbu Simbi Jean Baptiste 4
1 Service of Therapeutic Chemistry, Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of
Lubumbashi (UNILU), 27, av Kato, Commune Kampemba, Lubumbashi, DR Congo.
2 Laboratory of Pharmacognosy, Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of

Lubumbashi (UNILU)- 27, av Kato, Commune Kampemba, Lubumbashi, DR Congo.

3 Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Public Health, Official University of Bukavu (UOB) PO

Box: 570 Bukavu, Commune of Kadutu, Av. Karhale-DR Congo.

4 Organic Chemistry Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Lubumbashi (UNILU) -2, av de

la maternity, Commune of Lubumbashi, DR Congo.

GSC Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2022, 21(01), 265–286

Publication history: Received on 14 September 2022; revised on 21 October 2022; accepted on 24 October 2022

Article DOI: https://doi.org/10.30574/gscbps.2022.21.1.0403

Abstract
No documented study reports the ethnobotanical knowledge of the medicinal plants involved in the management of
typhoid fever in Lubumbashi. This study aims to identify plants and recipes used by traditional medicine practitioners
(TMPs) in Lubumbashi to manage typhoid fever. The cross-sectional descriptive survey was carried out on TMPs
through a direct interview, making it possible to collect ethnobotanical data. Fifty TMPs consulted (sex ratio M / F = 2.5,
age = 45 ± 11 years, experience: 20 ± 13 years) made it possible to list 57 plants. These taxa are mostly shrubs (52%),
Microphanerophytes (52%), endemic to tropical Africa (32%), belonging to 28 botanical families dominated by
Fabaceae and indicated in 47 other causes of consultation for which diarrhea comes first position. From these 57 plants
derived, 67 anti-typhoid recipes were administered orally. The stem bark was the most used part (33%), and the
decoction (72%) was the most common preparation method. This study reports for the first time the ethnobotanical
anti-typhoidal use of 25 species, among which Ficus sur Forssk. (0.22), and Monotes katangensis DeWild (0.18) has the
highest consensus indexes (CI) and Diplorhynchus condylocarpon (Müll.Arg.) Pichona (UVp = 0.19) followed by Albizia
antunesiana Harmsa (0.17), the highest usual values (UVp). TMPs use several plants in Lubumbashi to treat typhoid
fever. Some are specific to the ecological environment, and others are used in other regions of the continent.
Pharmacological studies are underway to assess the therapeutic efficacy of lesser-known plants among those listed.

Keywords: Typhoid fever; Medicinal plants; Traditional Medicine; Lubumbashi; Traditional medicine practitioners
(TMPs).

1. Introduction
Typhoid fever is a severe food poisoning caused by a gram-negative bacterium, Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica
serovar Typhi, present in water and food contaminated with faeces [1, 2]. The acute form of the pathology is
characterized by prolonged fever, headaches, fatigue, and digestive disorders, including nausea, constipation, or
diarrhea. Severe complications of typhoid fever occur in 10-15% of hospitalized patients, usually after 2-3 weeks of

*Corresponding author: Bashige Chiribagula Valentin

Service of Therapeutic Chemistry - Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences - University of Lubumbashi (UNILU) - 27, av Kato, Commune
Kampemba, Lubumbashi - DR Congo.
Copyright © 2022 Author(s) retain the copyright of this article. This article is published under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Liscense 4.0.
 GSC Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2022, 21(01), 265–286

illness, and can include life-threatening gastrointestinal bleeding, intestinal perforation, and encephalopathy [3, 4]. This
infectious pathology mainly occurs in developing countries where hygiene conditions are precarious [5, 6].

Every year, typhoid fever affects between 11 and 20.6 million people worldwide and causes more than 223, 000 deaths
[7]. In sub-Saharan Africa, typhoid fever is more than 100 per 100, 000 people per year, and the number of annual
deaths due to the disease is estimated at 33, 490 [6, 7]. Data on the prevalence of the disease at the national level are
not accessible. However, 40 to 60% of prevalences are reported in certain regions of the country, particularly in Kikwit
[5, 8] and Goma [9]. In Lubumbashi, indirect studies have reported prevalence estimated at 38.4%, n= 203 [10] and 62
%, n=510 [11].

In the past, chloramphenicol was used as the treatment of choice for typhoid fever. Still, as soon as multi-drug strains
resistant to chloramphenicol, ampicillin and co-trimoxazole appeared, fluoroquinolones (ciprofloxacin and ofloxacin)
became a more serious alternative. Although fluoroquinolones are superior to cephalosporins, the diffusion of strains
less sensitive to ciprofloxacin has limited their effectiveness, especially in Asia. Thus, extended-spectrum
cephalosporins (ceftriaxone and cefixime) and azithromycin remained suitable alternatives for S. Typhi less susceptible
to fluoroquinolones. Increasingly combinations of cephalosporin and azithromycin are used frequently to treat patients
who have not responded quickly [12]. Although there are models of anti-typhoid vaccines, which can strengthen the
axis of prevention, their effectiveness-accessibility-risk ratio significantly reduces their performance in the fight against
typhoid fever [13]. Despite all these alternatives for managing typhoid fever, the fact remains that cases of resistance in
the most affected countries are increasingly alarming, and the number of new cases is increasing.

In the absence of accessibility to the drug, as mentioned earlier, associated with low efficiency and socio-cultural habits,
80% of the population, which does not have access to primary health care or drinking water, is exposed to infectious
pathologies, especially typhoid fever, and resorts to traditional medicine. Some plants like Annona senegalensis Pers
(Annonaceae), Euphorbia hirta L. (Euphorbiaceae) or Piliostigma thonningii (Schumach.) Milne-Redh. (Fabaceae) are
claimed in traditional African medicine both in Nigeria [14] and Cameroon [15] in the treatment of typhoid fever and
have also shown efficacy against S. Typhi in vitro [16–18]. In DR Congo, some plants are reported to be used in traditional
medicine in some cities against typhoid fever. This is particularly the case of Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf (Poaceae)
in Lubero [19], Crassocephalum monthuosum (S. Moore) Milme-Redh (Asteraceae) in Butembo [20], Dialium angolense
Welw. Ex Oliv (Fabaceae) in Bukavu [21], Morinda morindoides (Baker) Milne-Redh. (Rubiaceae) in Kinshasa [22] and,
Cymbopogon densiflorus (Steud.) Stapf (Poaceae) in Lubumbashi [23]; However, no study has been devoted to collecting
plants against typhoid fever in Lubumbashi, despite the danger presented by the disease and the effective use of
medicinal plants observed within the target population.

This study aims to list the plants and recipes used in Lubumbashi by traditional medicine practitioners (PMTs) to
manage typhoid fever to draw up an ethnomedicinal profile.

2. Material and methods

2.1. Study period and site

This descriptive ethnobotanical study was conducted between September 2020 and June 2021 in the city of
Lubumbashi, in the province of Haut-Katanga, in the Democratic Republic of Congo (Figure 1).

The city of Lubumbashi is located between 11°26'- 11°55′ south latitude and 27°15′ – 27°40′ east longitude at an
altitude of 1230 meters. The climate is tropical, with an average annual temperature of 22.4°C and an average yearly
precipitation of 512.7 mm3. The rainy season (from November to April) is shorter in two seasons. The characteristic
vegetation is dominated by the Miyombo forest [24].

2.2. Ethnobotanical data Collection

Ethnobotanical data were collected between September 2020 and June 2021 from PMTs in the city of Lubumbashi by
direct interview using a guide questionnaire with 18 questions. These questions mainly focused on information relating
to the plants and recipes used to treat typhoid fever in Lubumbashi. However, elements relating to the socio-
demographic characteristics of TMPs were also collected. The sampling of PMTs was carried out in a snowballing
fashion from an initial core of PMTs constituted based on information from the population of each municipality or other
PMTs of their posters. The investigations were carried out in all 7 communes of Lubumbashi city of (Figure 1). The
plants identified with the PMTs were harvested with the help of the PMTs. During the harvest, a herbarium was created
and deposited at the Kipopo herbarium, where the plant's identity was determined.

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Figure 1 Map of the city of Lubumbashi.

The geographic types were determined based on data from the database « African Plant Database ». The botanical names
of the species have been formatted based on the information contained in the databases, African Plant Database
(https://africanplantdatabase.ch/), Plants of the World Online (https://powo.science.kew.org/), or World Flora Online
(http://www.worldfloraonline.org/).

2.3. Data analysis

The relative frequency of citation (Fi = n*100/N) was used to assess the socio-cultural characteristics of informants as
well as the floristic and ethnobotanical characteristics of the plants after processing by the Excel version 2016 software.
Three ethnobotanical indices were calculated to assess the significant species: The use value (UV =∑Ui/N), the fidelity
index (IF=np/N), and the consensus index (IC =nr/Np) where n= number of times the characteristic is mentioned and
N= number of informants, Ui=Number of uses mentioned by informant i, Np=number of informants who mentioned a
species for use p.

In this study, UV: makes it possible to assess the medicinal importance of a plant in the study environment, IC: makes it
possible to identify the level of consensus of a species as to its anti-typhoidal use; IF: makes it possible to establish an
agreement of informants around an anti-typhoidal recipe.

3. Results

3.1. Ethnobotanical characteristics of plants collected from PMTs

This study identified fifty-seven plants used in Lubumbashi to manage typhoid fever (Table 1) which are named in 13
languages of the Democratic Republic of Congo with a predominance of Bemba: Fi= 40.4% and Luba: Fi=28.1% (Figure
2). These plant species belong to 28 botanical families dominated by the Fabaceae (Fi= 28.1%). Apart from this
predominant family, 3 other families, Euphorbiaceae, Lamiaceae, and Phyllanthaceae, share second place with Fi =5.3%
each (Figure 3).

Table 1 Ethnobotanical profile of listed plants

Plant species Family Appellation Uat Al Herbarium

code
1 Acalypha villicaulis Hochst. ex A.Rich. Euphorbiaceae Kaboboa RAS RAS KIP452120000

2 Albizia antunesiana Harms Fabaceae Musaseb RAS RAS KIP462025883

3 Albizia versicolor Welw. ex Oliv Fabaceae Musasel RAS RAS KIP452120001

4 Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. Asphodelaceae Musulab Uo, [37] KIP452120002

p

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Plant species Family Appellation Uat Al Herbarium

code
5 Ananas comosus (L.) Merr. Bromeliaceae Inanasi f Uo, RAS KIP203550072
p

6 Annona senegalensis Pers. Annonaceae Muloloa Uo [17] KIP452120003

7 Antidesma venosum E. Mey. ex Tul. Phyllanthaceae Kifubiab Itompoa Uo [38] KIP418175142

8 Arachis hypogaea L Fabaceae Mbaaa Uo RAS KIP309272041

9 Asparagus bequaertii De Wild. Asparagaceae Mukoma wa RAS RAS KIP350524510
Kanyegeleb
10 Bidens pilosa L Asteraceae Sokontwe h Uo, [39] KIP452120004
p
11 Bobgunia madagascariensis (Desv.) Fabaceae Munienzeb RAS [40] KIP452120005
J.H. Kirkbr.
12 Brachystegia allenii Hutch. & Burtt Fabaceae Musamba a RAS RAS KIP452120006
Davy
13 Brachystegia taxifolia Harms Fabaceae Musambc RAS RAS KIP452120007

14 Bulbostylis scabricaulis Cherm Cyperaceae Msikib RAS RAS KIP452120008

15 Cajanus cajan (L.) Huth Fabaceae Golioliob Up [41] KIP223105500

16 Carica papaya L Caricaceae Ipapayi g Up [42] KIP452120009

17 Cassia abbreviata Oliv. Fabaceae Kafungunasha a Up [43] KIP452120010

18 Celosia trigyna L. Amaranthaceae Katunia RAS [44] KIP452120011

19 Citrus × limon (L.) Osbeck Rutaceae Chungwa a Uo, [45] KIP452120012
p
20 Combretum celastroides Welw. ex M. Combretaceae Kibobo a RAS RAS KIP452120013
A. Lawson
21 Crossandra leucodonta Vollesen Acanthaceae Misafwa a RAS RAS KIP452120014

22 Cryptolepis oblongifolia (Meisn.) Apocynaceae Kalembelembe a RAS RAS KIP452120015

Schltr.
23 Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf Poaceae Kiyombomputub Uo, [46] KIP178804459
p
24 Cymbopogon densiflorus (Steud.) Poaceae Bikochie RAS [47] KIP472716179
Stapf
25 Dalbergia boehmi Taub. Subsp Fabaceae Msuatib RAS RAS KIP452120016

26 Diplorhynchus condylocarpon Apocynaceae Mburi a RAS RAS KIP361753009

(Müll.Arg.) Pichon
27 Dysphania ambrosioides (L.) Amaranthaceae Lufianyoka a RAS RAS KIP231226246
Mosyakin & Clemants
28 Euphorbia hirta L. Euphorbiaceae Kavudjib Up [16] KIP501400542
29 Euphorbia ingens E. Mey. ex Boiss. Euphorbiaceae Ntul a mendc RAS RAS KIP452120017

30 Ficus sur Forssk. Moraceae Mukuyub RAS RAS KIP539378804

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Plant species Family Appellation Uat Al Herbarium

code
31 Ficus sycomorus L. Moraceae Tshikuyib RAS [48] KIP452120018
32 Julbernardia paniculata (Benth.) Fabaceae Mutando a RAS RAS KIP452120019
Troupin
33 Lannea acida A. Rich Anacardiaceae Muheti j Up [49] KIP452120020

34 Lantana camara L Verbenaceae Makereshe k Uo [50] KIP452120021

35 Monotes katangensis De Wild. Dipterocarpaceae Chimpampa a RAS RAS KIP452120022

36 Moringa oleifera Lam Moringaceae Moringa b Up [51] KIP318101663

37 Ochna afzelii R.Br. ex Oliv. Ochnaceae Munyahub Up RAS KIP452120023

38 Ocimum americanum L. Lamiaceae Lueni a RAS RAS KIP452120024

39 Parinari alvimii Prance Chrysobalanaceae Pundud RAS KIP452120025

40 Pericopsis angolensis (Baker) Fabaceae Mubanga a Up RAS KIP452120026

Meeuwen
41 Phragmanthera capitata (Spreng.) Loranthaceae Kwapata i Up [52] KIP452120027

42 Phragmanthera leonensis (Sprague) Loranthaceae Mupela a RAS RAS KIP452120028

Balle
43 Phyllanthus amarus Schumach. & Phyllanthaceae Kivumbwad Up [53] KIP256901169
Thonn.
44 Phyllanthus muellerianus (Kuntze) Phyllanthaceae Mupetwalupe a RAS KIP277202454
Exell
45 Piliostigma thonningii (Schumach.) Fabaceae Kifumbee RAS [54] KIP452120029
Milne-Redh.
46 Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich.) Hochst. Anacardiaceae Muongob [55] KIP452120030

47 Senna occidentalis (L.) Link Fabaceae Kimbayeshi m Up [56] KIP231974463

48 Senna sophera (L.) Roxb Fabaceae Dayc RAS RAS KIP452120031

49 Senna spectabilis (DC.) H.S. Irwin & Fabaceae Kifunfub RAS [57] KIP523712350
Barneby
50 Solanum aethiopicum L. Solanaceae Mutete g RAS [58] KIP452120032

51 Strychnos spinosa Lam. Loganiaceae Kisongole a RAS [59] KIP221873302

52 Terminalia mollis M.A. Lawson Combretaceae Kibobo a Uo [60] KIP452120033

53 Tetradenia riparia (Hochst.) Codd Lamiaceae Mutuzo a RAS [61] KIP370001297

54 Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) A. Gray Asteraceae Kilulukunja h Up [62] KIP452120034

55 Turraea floribunda Hochst Meliaceae Wapinga a RAS RAS KIP452120035

56 Vachellia hockii (De Wild.) Seigler & Fabaceae Lungoleb RAS RAS KIP203066812
Ebinger

57 Vitex madiensis Oliv. Lamiaceae Mafutu a RAS RAS KIP452120036

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a: Bemba name, b: Luba name, c: Rund name, d: Hemba name, e: Lamba name, f: Shi name, g: Swahili name, h: Tabwa name, i: Lingala name, j: Mbala

name, k: Nande name, l: Sanga name, m: Tetela name, Uo: ethnobotanical use in DR Congo, Up: ethnobotanical use outside the country, RAS: Nothing
to report.

Figure 2 Language of the naming of listed plants (n= 57).

Figure 3 Botanical families of listed species (n=57)

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The plant species inventoried during this study present 3 morphological types, where the shrub represents the most
dominant morphology (60%). It is followed by grass with Fi = 30%. These taxa also present 3 biological types, where
the McPh type (60%) comes first, followed by the MePh type (30%). Three sites, Kamalubwe, Kashamata, and Mimbulu,
served as collection locations, and 50% of the taxa were collected from Kamalubwe. These species have 11 geographical
types with a 75% predominance of 2 types: the tropical type: TA (Fi= 32%), and the Australo-tropical type: SA-TA, Fi=
23% (Figure 4).

According to data from the available literature, the plants inventoried (Table 1) can be grouped into 4 classes where
most of the plants (43.9%) are unknown both from the point of view of anti-typhoidal activity and from the point of
view of for use in the management of typhoid fever. However, among the 57 plants, those reported and proven as active
plants on S. Typhi represent 31.6% (Figure 4).

Figure 4 Morphological, biological and geographical types and classification of species

Ethnobotanical use anti-typhoidal (-) anti-typhoidal activity (-) previous: Class α, Ethnobotanical use anti-typhoidal (+) anti-typhoidal activity (-)
previous: Class β, Ethnobotanical use anti-typhoidal (+) activity anti -typhoidal anterior (+): Class γ, Ethnobotanical use anti-typhoidal (-) anti-
typhoidal activity anterior (+): Class δ. (-): absent, (+): present. MePh: Mesophanerophytes, McPh: Microphanerophytes, NPh: Nanophanerophytes,
Th: Therophytes, TA: tropical Africa, SA: southern Africa, MA: Madagascar, NA: North Africa.

3.2. Ethnomedicinal profile of the plants collected from the PMTs consulted
From 57 listed plants, derive 65 anti-typhoidal recipes, which all use a single plant and for which only Strychnos spinosa
has 3 anti-typhoidal recipes (R56-58). It is followed by 6 other species, Albizia antunesianaα, Antidesma venosumγ,
Asparagus bequaertiiα, Piliostigma thonningii.δ, Senna sopheraα, and Vitex madiensisα which each have 2 anti-typhoid
recipes. The balance is made up of one-recipe plants (Table 2).

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Table 2 Anti-typhoid recipes and other indications

Plant species Anti-typhoid recipe IC IF PU Other UVp UVo

(n=50) indications (n=48) (n=48)

Acalypha villicaulis R1: Decoction for 15 0.04 1 R Diarrhea and 0.06 0.06
Hochst. ex A. Rich.α minutes of a handful of Typhoid Fever.
root bark in 2 liters of
water. Drink 200 mL
twice a day for 5 days.
Albizia antunesiana R2: Decoction for 15 0.06 0.6 ER Tonsillitis, 0.17 0.13
Harms α minutes of a handful of Diabetes,
root bark in 2 liters of Typhoid fever,
water. Drink 200 mL Gonorrhoea,
twice a day for 5 days. Peptic ulcer
disease,
Tuberculosis.
R3: Decoction for 15 0.04 0.4 Fr Diabetes, 0.06
minutes 5 handfuls of Typhoid Fever
fruit in 2 liters of water. & STI.
Drink 200 mL twice a day
for 5 days.
Albizia versicolor R4: Decoction for 15 0.02 1 ER Intestinal 0.06 0.06
Welw. ex Olivα minutes of a handful of worms, Fever,
root bark in 2 liters of typhoid,
water. Drink 200 mL Gastrointestinal
twice a day for 5 days. disorders.
Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f.γ R5: Decoction for 45 0.02 1 F Acnes, 0.06 0.06
minutes of a handful of Diarrhoea,
fresh leaves in 1 L of Typhoid fever.
water. Drink 150 Ml twice
a day for 5 days.
Ananas comosus (L.) R6: Decoction for 15 0.04 1 Fr Constipation, 0.10 0.10
Merr.β minutes of the whole fruit Gastrointestinal
in 1 litter of water. Drink disorders,
100ml twice a day for 5 Typhoid fever,
days. Malaria,
Intestinal
worms.
Annona senegalensis R7: Decoction for 30 0.02 1 F Intestinal pain, 0.10 0.06
Pers.γ minutes of a handful of typhoid fever,
fresh leaves in 1L of HIV.
water. Drink 100 mL
twice a day for 5 days.
Antidesma venosum E. R8: Decoction for 30 0.1 0.5 ER Anemia, 0.15 0.08
Mey. ex Tul.γ minutes of a handful of Diarrhoea,
root bark in 1.5 liters of Typhoid fever,
water. Drink 100 mL Gastrointestinal
twice a day for 7 days. disorders.
R9: Decoction for 30 0.1 0.5 ET Urogenital Tract 0.08
minutes of a handful of Infections,
stem bark decoction in Gastrointestinal
1.5 liters of water. Drink Disorders,

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Plant species Anti-typhoid recipe IC IF PU Other UVp UVo

(n=50) indications (n=48) (n=48)
100 mL twice a day for 7 Typhoid Fever
days. & HIV

Arachis hypogaea Lβ R10: Decoction for 45 0.04 1 F Cancer, 0.15 0.15

minutes of a handful of Constipation,
fresh leaves in 1 L of Fever, typhoid,
water. Drink 150 mL wounds,
twice a day for 5 days. Insomnia,
Prostatitis.
Asparagus bequaertii R11: Decoction for 30 0.02 0.5 R Malaria, 0.06 0.04
De Wild.α minutes of one of the Typhoid fever.
roots in 1.5 liters of
water. Drink 100 mL
twice a day for 5 days.
R12: Decoction for 30 0.02 0.5 ET Diarrhoea, 0.04
minutes of a handful of Typhoid fever.
stem bark in 1.5 liters of
water. Drink 100 mL
twice a day for 5 days.
Bidens pilosa Lγ R13: Decoction for 30 0.02 1 ET Intestinal 0.10 0.10
minutes of a handful of worms,
stem bark in 1.5 liters of Hepatitis,
water. Drink 100 mL Typhoid fever,
twice a day for 5 days. Peptic ulcer
disease,
Gastrointestinal
disorders.
Bobgunia R14: Decoction for 30 0.02 1 ET Gastrointestinal 0.08 0.08
madagascariensis minutes of a handful of disorders,
(Desv.) J.H. Kirkbr.δ stem bark in 1.5 liters of peptic ulcer
water. Drink 100 mL disease,
twice a day for 5 days. Diabetes,
Typhoid fever.
Brachystegia allenii R15: Decoction for 30 0.1 0.5 ET Gastrointestinal 0.08 0.08
Hutch. & Burtt Davyα minutes of a handful of disorders,
stem bark in 1.5 liters of peptic ulcer
water. Drink 100 mL disease,
twice a day for 5 days. diabetes,
typhoid fever.
Brachystegia taxifolia R16: Maceration for 72 0.1 0.5 ER 0.06 0.06
Harmsα hours of 5 handfuls of Diarrhoea,
root bark in 1 litter of typhoid fever,
water. Drink 100 mL cough.
three times a day for 3
days.
Bulbostylis scabricaulis R17: Decoction for 30 0.02 1 ET Typhoid fever 0.02 0.02
Cherm α minutes of a handful of
stem bark in 1.5 liters of
water. Drink 100 mL
twice a day for 5 days.

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Plant species Anti-typhoid recipe IC IF PU Other UVp UVo

(n=50) indications (n=48) (n=48)

Cajanus cajan (L.) R18: Decoction for 30 0.04 1 F Elephantiasis, 0.10 0.10
Huthγ minutes of a handful of Influenza,
fresh leaves in 1L of Typhoid fever,
water. Drink 100 mL Gingivitis,
twice a day for 5 days. Hepatitis.
Carica papaya Lγ R19: Decoction for 30 0.1 1 F Asthma, 0.08 0.08
minutes of a handful of Beriberi,
leaves in 1L of water. Typhoid fever,
Drink 100 mL twice a day wounds.
for 5 days.
Cassia abbreviata Oliv.γ R20: Maceration for 72 0.06 1 ER Diarrhoea, 0.08 0.08
hours of 5 handfuls of Typhoid fever,
root bark in 1 litter of Malaria, Peptic
water. Drink 100 mL ulcer disease.
three times a day for 3
days.
Celosia trigyna L.δ R21: Infusion for 30 0.06 1 F Gastrointestinal 0.06 0.06
minutes of a handful of disorders,
leaves in 2 liters of water. Typhoid fever,
Drink 200 mL twice a day Intestinal
for 5 days. worms.
Citrus × limon (L.) R22: Decoction for 30 0.1 1 F Angina, typhoid 0.04 0.04
Osbeckγ minutes of two handfuls fever.
of fresh leaves in 1L of
water. Drink 100 mL
twice a day for 5 days.
Combretum R23: Decoction for 15 0.02 1 ER Conjunctivitis, 0.06 0.06
celastroides Welw. ex minutes of a handful of Joint pain,
M. A. Lawson α root bark in 2 liters of Typhoid fever.
water. Drink 200 mL
twice a day for 5 days.
Crossandra leucodonta R24: Decoction for 15 0.02 1 ER Amoebas & 0.04 0.04
Vollesen α minutes of a handful of Typhoid Fever.
root bark in 2 liters of
water. Drink 200 mL
twice a day for 5 days.
Cryptolepis R25: Decoction for 15 0.02 1 ER Diarrhoea, 0.08 0.08
oblongifolia (Meisn.) minutes of a handful of Typhoid fever,
Schltrα root bark in 2 liters of Gastro-
water. Drink 200 mL duodenal ulcer,
twice a day for 5 days. Cough.
Cymbopogon citratus R26: Infusion for 30 0.02 1 ET Bronchitis, 0.10 0.10
(DC.) Stapfγ minutes of a handful of wounds,
stem bark in 2 liters of rheumatism,
water. Drink 200 mL typhoid fever,
twice a day for 5 days. tuberculosis.
Cymbopogon R27: Infusion for 15 0.04 1 R Asthma, 0.08 0.08
densiflorus (Steud.) minutes of a handful of Epilepsy,
Stapfδ roots in 1 litter of water. Typhoid fever,
Drink 150 mL once a day Colds.
for 5 days.

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Plant species Anti-typhoid recipe IC IF PU Other UVp UVo

(n=50) indications (n=48) (n=48)

Dalbergia boehmi R28: Maceration for 72 0.12 1 ET Diarrhoea, 0.10 0.10

Taub. Subsp α hours of 5 handfuls of Dysentery,
stem bark in 1 litter of Typhoid fever,
water. Drink 100 mL Period pain,
three times a day for 3 Gingivitis.
days.
Diplorhynchus R29: Infusion for 30 0.02 1 R Constipation, 0.19 0.19
condylocarpon minutes of a handful of Diabetes,
(Müll.Arg.) Pichon α roots in 1 litter of water. Dysentery,
Drink 100 mL three times Typhoid fever,
a day for 3 days. Hepatitis, Acnes,
Hepatitis,
Wounds,
Measles.
Dysphania R30: Decoction for 15 0.04 0.5 R Diabetes and 0.06 0.06
ambrosioides (L.) minutes of a handful of Typhoid Fever,
Mosyakin & Clemants α the roots in 2 liters of STI.
water. Drink 150 mL
three times a day for 5
days.
Euphorbia hirta L.γ R31: Decoction for 15 0.04 0.5 F Asthma, 0.08 0.08
minutes 5 handfuls of the Bronchitis,
leaves in 2 liters of water. Typhoid fever,
Drink 150 mL twice a day Colds.
for 7 days.
Euphorbia ingens E. R32: Maceration for 72 0.02 1 ET Diarrhoea, 0.08 0.08
Mey. ex Boiss α hours of 5 handfuls of Dysentery,
stem bark in 1 litter of Typhoid fever
water. Drink 100 mL Gastrointestinal
three times a day for 3 disorders.
days
Ficus sur Forsskα R33: Decoction for 1 hour 0.22 1 ET Anemia, 0.15 0.15
of a handful of stem bark Diarrhoea,
in 2 liters of water. Drink Typhoid fever,
200 mL twice a day for 7 Peptic ulcer
days. disease,
Infertility,
Oedema,
Rheumatism.
Ficus sycomorus Lγ R34: Decoction for 1 hour 0.1 1 ET Typhoid fever & 0.04 0.04
of a handful of stem bark Tuberculosis.
in 2 liters of water. Drink
200 mL, twice a day for 7
days.
Julbernardia R35: Decoction for 15 0.04 1 ER Malaria, 0.04 0.04
paniculata (Benth.) minutes of a handful of Typhoid fever.
Troupin α root bark in 2 liters of
water. Drink 200 mL
twice a day for 5 days.

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Plant species Anti-typhoid recipe IC IF PU Other UVp UVo

(n=50) indications (n=48) (n=48)

Lannea acida A. Richγ R36: Maceration for 72 0.04 1 ET Diarrhoea, 0.06 0.06
hours of 5 handfuls of Dysentery &
stem bark in 1 liter of Typhoid Fever.
water. Drink 100 mL
three times a day for 3
days.
Lantana camara Lγ R37: Infusion for 45 0.04 1 F Typhoid fever, 0.08 0.08
minutes of a handful of Rheumatism,
leaves in 1 L of water. Peptic ulcer
Drink 150 mL twice a day disease, Cough.
for 5 days.
Monotes katangensis R38: Maceration for 72 0.18 1 ET Cough, 0.06 0.06
De Wild α hours of 5 handfuls of Diarrhoea &
stem bark in 1 litter of Typhoid Fever.
water. Drink 100 mL
three times a day for 3
days.
Moringa oleifera Lamc R39: Decoction for 30 0.02 1 ET Typhoid fever, 0.06 0.06
minutes of a handful of Malaria,
stem bark in 1.5 liters of Gastrointestinal
water. Drink 150 mL disorders.
twice a day for 5 days.
Ochna afzelii R.Br. ex R40: Decoction for 15 0.06 1 ER Peptic ulcer & 0.04 0.04
Oliv.β minutes of a handful of Typhoid fever.
root bark in 2 liters of
water. Drink 200 mL
twice a day for 5 days.
Ocimum americanum L R41: Decoction for 30 0.02 1 R Diabetes, 0.06 0.06
α minutes of a handful of Gingivitis &
the roots in 3 liters of Typhoid Fever.
water. Drink 150 mL
twice a day for 7 days.
Parinari alvimii Prance R42: Decoction for 15 0.06 1 ER Typhoid fever. 0.02 0.02
α minutes of a handful of
root bark in 2 liters of
water. Drink 200 mL
twice a day for 5 days.
Pericopsis angolensis R43: Infusion for 45 0.1 1 F Convulsions, 0.06 0.06
(Baker) Meeuwenβ minutes of a handful of Typhoid Fever
leaves in 1 L of water. & Malaria
Drink 150 mL twice a day
for 5 days.
Phragmanthera R44: Maceration for 72 0.04 1 ET Acne, Diarrhoea, 0.06 0.06
capitata (Spreng.) c hours of 5 handfuls of Typhoid fever.
stem bark in 1 liter of
water. Drink 100 mL
three times a day for 3
days.
Phragmanthera R45: Infusion for 45 0.04 1 F Typhoid fever. 0.02 0.02
leonensis (Sprague) minutes of a handful of
Balleα leaves in 1 L of water.

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Plant species Anti-typhoid recipe IC IF PU Other UVp UVo

(n=50) indications (n=48) (n=48)
Drink 150 mL twice a day
for 5 days.
Phyllanthus amarus R46: Infusion for 45 0.1 1 F Asthma, 0.13 0.13
Schumach. & Thonn.γ minutes of a handful of Diabetes,
fresh leaves in 1 L of Typhoid fever,
water. Drink 150 mL Hepatitis,
twice a day for 5 days. Bronchial
infections,
peptic ulcer
disease
Phyllanthus R47: Infusion for 45 0.04 1 F Wounds, 0.15 0.15
muellerianus (Kuntze) minutes of a handful of Difficulty giving
Exell α fresh leaves in 2 liters of birth, Typhoid
water. Drink 150 mL fever, Influenza,
twice a day for 7 days. Malaria, Snake
bite, Intestinal
worms.
Piliostigma R48: Maceration for 72 0.02 0.5 ET Typhoid fever, 0.06 0.06
thonningii (Schumach.) hours of 5 handfuls of gastritis,
Milne-Redh.δ stem bark in 1 litter of haemorrhoid,
water. Drink 100 mL cough.
three times a day for 3
days.
R49: Decoction for 15 0.02 0.5 ER Typhoid fever, 0.04 0.04
minutes of a handful of STI.
root bark in 2 liters of
water. Drink 200 mL
twice a day for 5 days.
Sclerocarya birrea (A. R50: Maceration for 72 0.02 1 ET Typhoid fever. 0.04 0.02
Rich.) Hochst.δ hours of 5 handfuls of
stem bark in 1 liter of
water. Drink 100 mL
three times a day for 3
days.
Senna occidentalis (L.) R51: Decoction for 15 0.04 0.5 ER Constipation, 0.10 0.10
Link γ minutes of a handful of Diabetes,
root bark in 2 liters of Typhoid fever,
water. Drink 200 mL Malaria,
twice a day for 5 days. Intestinal
worms.
Senna sophera (L.) R52: Decoction for 30 0.04 1 F Diabetes & 0.04
Roxb α minutes of a handful of Typhoid Fever.
fresh leaves in 1L of
water. Drink 100ml twice
a day for 5 days.
R53: Decoction for 15 0.02 ER Typhoid fever. 0.02
minutes of a handful of
root bark in 2 liters of
water. Drink 200 mL
twice a day for 5 days.

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Plant species Anti-typhoid recipe IC IF PU Other UVp UVo

(n=50) indications (n=48) (n=48)

Senna spectabilis (DC.) R54: Decoction for 15 0.06 1 ER STI, Typhoid 0.02 0.06
H.S. Irwin & Barneby δ minutes of a handful of fever,
root bark in 2 liters of Tuberculosis.
water. Drink 200 mL
twice a day for 5 days.
Solanum aethiopicum R55: Decoction for 30 0.02 F Typhoid fever 0.04 0.04
L.δ minutes of a handful of and high blood
fresh leaves in 1L of pressure.
water. Drink 100ml twice
a day for 5 days.
Strychnos spinosa R56: Decoction for 30 0.04 0.7 F Diarrhoea, 0.25 0.17
Lam.δ minutes of a handful of Typhoid fever,
leaves in 1L of water. Miscarriage,
Drink 100ml twice a day Gastritis,
for 5 days. Haemorrhoids,
Urogenital tract
infections,
Toothache,
Tuberculosis.
R57: Decoction for 15 0.02 0.3 ET Diarrhoea, 0.06
minutes of a handful of Typhoid fever,
stem bark in 1.5 liters of Intestinal
water. Drink 100 mL worms.
twice a day for 5 days.
R58: Decoction for 15 0.02 0.3 ER STIs, typhoid 0.10
minutes of a handful of fever,
root bark in 2 liters of gastrointestinal
water. Drink 200 mL disorders,
twice a day for 5 days. ringworms,
intestinal
worms.
Terminalia mollis M.A. R59: Decoction for 15 0.02 1 ER Diabetes, 0.08 0.08
Lawsonγ minutes of a handful of Diarrhoea,
root bark in 2 liters of Gastrointestinal
water. Drink 200 mL disorders,
twice a day for 5 days. Typhoid fever.
Tetradenia riparia R60: Decoction for 15 0.1 0.5 ET Angina, sores, 0.17 0.08
(Hochst.) Coddδ minutes of a handful of typhoid fever,
leaves in 1.5 liters of gastrointestinal
water. Drink 100 mL disorders.
twice a day for 5 days.
Tithonia diversifolia R61: Decoction for 30 0.04 0.7 F Diabetes, 0.10
(Hemsl.) A. Gray c minutes 3 handfuls of Amoeba,
leaves in 1L of water. Cancer, Typhoid
Drink 100ml twice a day Fever &
for 5 days. Intestinal
Worms.
Turraea floribunda R62: Decoction for 15 0.02 0.3 ET Typhoid fever. 0.02 0.02
Hochstα minutes 2 handfuls of
stem bark in 1.5 liters of

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Plant species Anti-typhoid recipe IC IF PU Other UVp UVo

(n=50) indications (n=48) (n=48)
water. Drink 100 mL
twice a day for 5 days.

Vachellia hockii (De R63: Decoction for 30 0.02 1 R Epilepsy, 0.06 0.06
Wild.) Seigler & minutes of a handful of Typhoid fever,
Ebingerα the roots in 3 liters of Gastrointestinal
water. Drink 150 mL disorders.
twice a day for 7 days.
Vitex madiensis Oliv α R64: Decoction for 15 0.04 0.7 ET Malaria, 0.08 0.04
minutes 2 handfuls of Typhoid fever
stem bark in 1.5 litters of
water. Drink 100 mL
twice a day for 5 days.
R65: Decoction for 15 0.02 0.3 ER Diabetes, 0.06
minutes 2 handfuls of Typhoid Fever &
root bark in 2 liters of Gastrointestinal
water. Drink 200 mL Disorders
twice a day for 5 days.
IC= Consensus index (IC=n /N), IF: fidelity index (nr/Np: the number of people who cited the recipe out of the number of people who cited the
plant); UV: usual value (UV=∑Ui /U the set of uses of an organ (Uo), of a plant (Up) out of all the uses identified in the study). F: Leaves, ET: Stem
bark; ER: root bark, R: roots; Fr: Fruit.

A third of anti-typhoidal recipes (33%) are made from stem bark, but the use of leaves and root bark occurs with the
same frequency (Fi= 27%), occupying the second position. Although rarely used, fruits are only used at 3% (Figure 5).

Figure 5 Parts used and ways of preparing anti-typhoid recipes

The consensus indices of different species vary between 0.02 and 0.22, and those of fidelity range from 0.3 to 1. The
recipes R33, R28 (CI= 0.12) and R38 present respectively the highest consensus indexes (CI = 0.22, CI= 0.12 and CI=
0.18) and reliability If (IF = 1). These 3 recipes are respectively those based on taxa, Ficus sur Forsskα, Dalbergia boehmiα
and Monotes katangensisα However, it is the taxa Strychnos spinosa δ (UVp =0.25), Diplorhynchus condylocarpon α (UVp
= 0.19) and Albizia antunesianaα have the 3 highest usual values, which vary between 0.02 and 0.22 (Table 2).

Apart from typhoid fever, these 57 plants are implicated in 47 other causes of consultation, where diarrhea (34%),
gastrointestinal disorders (29.8%), diabetes (27.7%), and gastroduodenal ulcers (25, 5%) constitute the first 3
indications (Figure 6).

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Figure 6 Other indications of the 57 listed anti-typhoidal plants

3.3. Socio-demographic characteristics of traditional medicine practitioners (TMPs) consulted

This study was made possible thanks to the participation of 50 PMTs (sex ratio M-F = 2.5, the average age of 30 years;
extremes: 25 and 65 years, the average experience of practice in traditional medicine 20 years - extremes: 5 and 30
years). These PMTs have acquired knowledge from their ancestors (90%). Although the majority are Luba from Katanga
(38%), Luba from Kasai (36%), and Bemba (18%), all speak Swahili (Table 3).

Table 3 Socio-demographic characteristics of the PTMs

Class Subclass Ei Fi (n=50 )

Age 20 – 30 3 6
30 – 40 20 40
40 – 50 9 18
50 – 60 16 32
˃ 60 2 4
Experience (year) 44682 8 16
5 – 10 21 42
42278 8 16
15 - 20 7 14
20 - 25 6 12
Sex Women 14 28

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Class Subclass Ei Fi (n=50 )

Man 36 72
Level of studies State diploma 30 60
Third cycle 3 6
Primary 13 26
No Instructions 0 0
Secondary 2 4
Professional 2 4
Spoken languages Bemba 9 18
French 40 80
Luba 19 38
Swahili 50 100
Ethnic group Bemba 9 18
Luba of Kasaï 18 36
Luba of Katanga 19 38
Hemba 4 8
Ei = counts, Fi: Relative frequency of citations.

4. Discussion
This study has just identified for the first time 57 plant species used by the PMTs of Lubumbashi in the management of
typhoid fever. Most of these taxa belong to the Fabaceae family 28.1% (Figure 3). The preponderance of Fabaceae
reflects the importance of this family in traditional medicine for the management of several pathologies, as reported in
various ethnobotanical studies carried out in the Lubumbashi region. This is particularly the case of the survey carried
out on the plants used in the management of sexual dysfunction [21], or that carried out on plants known to be
antimalarial [23] or diabetes [25], or against tooth decay [26], against schistosomiasis [27] or for diarrhea [28]. The
preponderance of Fabaceae during this study can be linked to the fact that it constitutes the most prominent family of
trees in the tropical and dry forests of Africa [29], mainly from Lubumbashi [30].

This study reports for the first time, 25 species as usual plants against typhoid fever in Lubumbashi (Figure 4). These
taxa have never been the subject of a previous biological study on S. typhi. Those are: Acalypha villicaulis, Albizia
antunesiana, Albizia versicolor, Asparagus bequaertii, Brachystegia allenii, Brachystegia taxifolia, Bulbostylis scabricaulis,
Combretum celastroides, Crossandra leucodonta, Cryptolepis oblongifolia, Dalbergia boehmi, Diplorhynchus
condylocarpon, Dysphania ambrosioides, Euphorbia ingens, Ficus sur, Julbernardia paniculata, Monotes katangensis,
Ocimum americanum , Parinari alvimii, Phragmanthera leonensis, Phyllanthus muellerianus, Senna sophera, Turraea
floribunda, Vachellia hockii, and Vitex madiensis. Among these 25 species, no accessible ethnopharmacological
information are reported on nine taxa: Albizia versicolor, Asparagus bequaertii, Brachystegia allenii, Brachystegia
taxifolia, Bulbostylis scabricaulis, Crossandra leucodonta, Ficus sur, Monotes katangensis, Phragmanthera leonensis. This
study therefore reports for the first time the ethnopharmacological knowledge of these 9 plant species. Subsequent
investigations must be carried out as a priority on these 9 plants to confirm their uses against typhoid fever, especially
since they emerge as rare and endemic to the region. The order of importance in studying these plants can be based on
their ethnobotanical indexes. In this case, concerning the consensus index, Ficus sur (Ic = 0.22) and Monotes katangensis
(Ic = 0.18) may take precedence; however, if we refer to their usual value, Monotes katangensis (UVp = 0.15) and
Brachystegia allenii (UVp = 0.8) occupy the first two places. If we consider the two indices concomitantly (IC and UVp),
Monotes katangensis takes precedence, followed by these 3 other species mentioned above.

This study also shows that the plants listed are primarily named in Bemba: 40% (Figure 2) but that most of the PMTs
consulted are from the Luba ethnic group of Katanga (38%) (Table 3). This disparity can be justified by the fact that the
PMTs are not necessarily the harvesters, so they know the plants that is not of their ethnicity. Another variable that
could explain this disparity would be the fact of a cultural mix which means that the knowledge of the PMT of

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Lubumbashi exceeds that acquired from its ancestors; However, it should be noted that the various ethnobotanical
studies carried out in the region [23, 25, 27, 31] show that the practice of traditional medicine is dominated by the
Bemba and the Luba. They would probably constitute the majority ethnic groups of the region.

Furthermore, the fact that 38.6% of plant species under examination have been previously reported as anti-typhoids
and that among them 31.6% have already been studied on S. typhi (Figure 5) suggests some credibility to be accorded
to the information resulting from the investigations. Thus it is probable to find among the plants not studied but
informed during the present study those active on S. Typhi.

This study lists from 57 plants, 65 anti-typhoidal recipes for which the stem bark constitutes the most used part (Fi=
33%) and the decoction (Fi=72%) the mode of preparation of the recipes, the most used (Figure 5). Although these
results are similar to those encountered in the various ethnobotanical surveys carried out in the region about decoction
[23, 25–27, 31, 32], there is a disparity regarding the most used part. The leaf is more used in some studies of the region
[23, 26, 32], while in others [25, 27, 31], it is the root that is the most used part. In the present study, the stem bark is
the most used. In certain ethnobotanical studies targeted towards anti-typhoidal use, in particular, those carried out in
Benin [4], Nigeria [33], and Cameroon [15], the decoction (50 -100%) and the leaf (34.2 - 68%) constitute the method
of preparation and the most used organ. It is, therefore, possible to identify a trend of consensus on decoction as the
preferred mode of use of plants for anti-typhoidal use, unlike the organ. However, this hypothesis is considered very
modestly given the few studies mentioned.

Nevertheless, it would be interesting to review the literature on the plants used in the management of typhoid fever at
the national and continental levels to have a clear-cut point of view. The use of leaves offers lower stability of constancy
in the activity than stem bark. Indeed, the leaf being generally the organ of synthesis, depending on whether the leaf is
harvested young or at maturity, its composition can easily change, unlike the harvesting of stem bark which constitutes
the storage places where the design should be slightly affected by the synthesis of metabolites.

In previous ethnobotanical studies carried out in Lubumbashi on medicinal plants [23, 25–27, 31], as in the present
study (Table 3), men over the age of 40 old were the most encountered during the survey, unlike women, and their level
of education was deficient. On the other hand, in particular, in works carried out in North Africa [34–36], women
predominate in traditional medicine. One of the reasons that could justify this situation would be that in Lushoise
society, the woman is mainly occupied with housework, leaving the man to look for food for the household. However,
suppose the traditional medicine practice is regarded as a profession in the region; in that case, the probability of
meeting men in its practice seems higher than that of meeting women.

5. Conclusion
This study reports 57 plants used in 65 anti-typhoid recipes by TMPs in Lubumbashi. Pharmacological investigations of
eighteen 57 plants, including Annona senegalensis, have already been registered from different parts of Africa as
potential medicinal herbs to manage typhoid fever. Their studies on S. typhi have shown them to be active. Twenty-five
other species, such as Monotes katangensis or Ficus sur are reported for the first time and have a high medicinal use
value in Lubumbashi. In addition to treating typhoid fever, these plants also treat several other pathologies, such as
diabetes. These results suggest that further work is needed to establish the scientific basis for the anti-typhoidal use of
these plants in traditional medicine and possibly identify the compounds likely to justify this activity.

Compliance with ethical standards

Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Nkulu, Makwasa, and the Kipopo herbarium, respectively, for preparing the herbariums
during the harvest and for the botanical identification of the taxa.

Disclosure of conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that might appear
to influence the work reported in this article.

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Author contributions
Data collection: Kasongo Ilunga Pierre; Project design, formal analysis, statistical data processing, and writing of the
draft article: Bashige Chiribagula Valentin; Supervision - revision and editing of the project: Mboni Manya Henri, Félicien
Mushagalusa Kasali, Okusa Ndjolo Philippe, Lumbu Simbi Jean-Baptiste.

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Author's Short Biography

Bashige chiribagula valentin is an associate professor at the University of Lubumbashi

(UNILU); Pharmacist and Doctor with thesis in pharmaceutical sciences and specialist in
pharmacognosy. He is the author of more than 20 articles and works in the field of Therapeutic
Chemistry and Natural Substances, Improved Traditional Medicines and Drug Standardization.

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