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Section I: Methods and Traditional Branches

I. Traditional Branches of Philosophy

A. Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy which deals with the fundamental questions of reality.
Cosmology and ontology are the two (2) traditional branches of metaphysics.

1. Cosmology seeks to understand the origin, evolution, structure, and ultimate fate of the
Universe at large, as well as the natural laws that keep it in order.

2. Ontology is the investigation into what types of things there are in the world and what relations
these things bear to one another. It deals with questions concerning what entities exist or can
be said to exist, and how such entities can be grouped, related within a hierarchy, and
subdivided according to similarities and differences.

B. Epistemology is the branch of philosophy which deals with our concept of knowledge, how we
learn, and what we can know. It addresses four (4) main questions.

1. What is knowledge?
2. How is knowledge acquired?
3. What do people know?
4. How do we know what we know?

C. Logic is the branch of philosophy which studies the rules of valid reasoning and argumentation. It
is often divided into two (2) parts: inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning. The former refers
to drawing general conclusions from specific examples, while the latter is drawing logical
conclusions from definitions and axioms.

D. Ethics, or moral philosophy, is the branch of philosophy which is concerned with human values
and how individuals should act. It is concerned with the concept of morality (e.g., concepts like good
and bad, right and wrong, justice and crime, virtue and vice, etc.)

E. Aesthetics, or esthetics, is the branch of philosophy which deals with the notion of beauty and the
philosophy of art. It deals with the nature of beauty, art, taste, and the creation and appreciation of
beauty. It is more scientifically defined as the study of sensory or sensory-emotional values,
sometimes called judgments of sentiment and taste.

F. Political philosophy, or Politics, is the branch of philosophy which studies the concepts of liberty,
justice, property, rights, law, and the enforcement of a legal code by authority: what they are, why
(or even if) they are needed, what makes a government legitimate, what rights and freedoms it
should protect and why, what form it should take and why, what the law is, and what duties citizens
owe to a legitimate government if any, and when it may be legitimately overthrown, if ever.

II. Methods of Doing Philosophy

A. Truth and Opinion

1. Truth is defined as being in accordance with fact and reality, sometimes considered as a fidelity
to an original or standard.

2. Opinion is defined as a view or judgment formed by a person about something, which is not
necessarily based on fact or knowledge.

B. Methods of Philosophizing

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1. Logic
- Truth is based on reasoning and critical thinking analysis and construction of arguments. It
serves as a path to freedom from half-truths and deception. Logic, as the study of
reasoning, or the study of the principles and criteria of valid inference and demonstration,
attempts to distinguish good reasoning from bad reasoning.

a. Inductive Reasoning - moves from specific premises to a general conclusion

- requires several pieces of evidence to form a generalized
conclusion

Example:
Cathlem was playing Mobile Legends during class and was reprimanded by the
teacher. Dany was also playing Mobile Legends during class and was reprimanded.
Thus, if I play Mobile Legends during class, I will be reprimanded.

b. Deductive Reasoning - moves from a general truth to a more specific conclusion

Example:
Video games are almost always rooted in fantasy. Surgeon Simulator is a video game.
Therefore, Surgeon Simulator is rooted in fantasy.

2. Existentialism
- It is the importance of free individual choice regardless of the power of the people to
influence and coerce our desires, beliefs, and decisions. For example, there is a problem
that you need to make a decision, but you should face what would be its early
consequences. Another example is when a person makes a decision about his/her life,
follows through, or does not follow through on that decision and begins to create his/her
essence. It is said in existentialism that existence comes first, and essence comes second.

Characteristics

a. Existence Before Essence

- Existentialism gets its name from an insistence that life is only understandable in terms
of an individual’s existence and his/her particular life experience.

b. Reason is Unable to Deal with the Depths of Life

- There are two (2) parts to this idea: first, that reason is relatively weak and imperfect,
(people often do not do the “right” thing), and that there are dark places in life which
are “non-reason,” to which reason scarcely penetrates, (meaning we often commit acts
which seem to defy reason, to make no sense).

c. Alienation
- Existentialism holds that, since the Renaissance, people have slowly been separated
from concrete earthly existence. Individuals have been forced to live at ever-higher
levels of abstraction, have been collectivized out of existence, and have driven God
from the heavens (or, what is the same thing to the existentialist), from the hearts of
men. It is believed that individuals live in a fourfold condition of alienation: from God,
nature, other people, and our own “true” selves.

d. “Fear and Trembling“ and Anxiety

- The optimism of the 18th and 19th centuries gives way, after the First World War, to
the Great Depression, World War II, and the Holocaust, to a feeling of pessimism, fear,
and anxiety. Another kind of anxiety that individuals faced in the 20th century when the
philosophy of existentialism developed was “the anguish of Abraham,” the necessity
which is laid upon people to make “moral” choices on their sense of responsibility.

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e. The Encounter with Nothingness

- According to the existentialists, for individuals alienated from God, from nature, from
other people, and even from themselves, what is left at last but Nothingness? Simply
put, this is how existentialists see humanity: on the brink of a catastrophic precipice,
below which yawns the absolute void, black Nothingness, asking ourselves, “does
existence ultimately have any purpose?”

f. Freedom
- Sooner or later, as a theme that includes all the others mentioned above, existentialist
writings bear upon freedom. All these ideas either describe some loss of individuals’
freedom or some threat to it, and all existentialists of whatever sort are considered to
enlarge the range of human freedom.

3. Analytical Philosophy
- One of the methods of philosophizing, it is the conviction that all philosophies have some
significant structure which, when analyzed, provides the philosopher’s motives. Any of the
various philosophical methodologies holding that clear and precise definition and
argumentation are vital to productive philosophical inquiry. For example, the definition of a
concept can be determined by uncovering the underlying logical structures, or “logical
forms,” of the sentences used to express it.

Foundations
1. There are no specifically philosophical truths and that the object of philosophy is the
logical clarification of thoughts.
2. The logical clarification of thoughts can only be achieved by analysis of the logical
form of philosophical propositions, such as by using the formal grammar and
symbolism of a logical system.
3. There is a rejection of sweeping philosophical systems and grand theories in favor of
close attention to detail, as well as a defense of common sense and ordinary
language against the pretensions of traditional metaphysics and ethics.

4. Phenomenology
- It focuses on careful inspection and description of phenomena and defines it as any object
of conscious experience (things that we are aware of).
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III. Tips on Writing Philosophies

A. Wonder
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- Every art of philosophizing begins with curiosity. Man is always bewildered by his existence,
death, inconsistencies experienced in his everyday life, and so on. As one ponders about the
nature of realities and various mind-boggling experiences in his daily existence, specific
questions begin to arise. Some of such problems are:

1. Why are there things rather than nothing?

2. What is life?
3. What is reality?
4. Can we know anything for sure?
5. What is the underlying principle of reality?

All these questions lead one into speculation.

B. Speculate

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- When questions are asked based on our wondering about reality, human existence, and all
changes experienced, we tend to form opinions and presumptions based on the issues raised.

C. Analyze
- Analysis entails a detailed examination of the opinion formed. So, in analysis, the ideas and
presumptions made are accessed in parts in view to understanding what each of the concepts
that constitute the opinions entails.

D. Synthesize
- After the analysis, we combine our analyzed opinion into a unified knowledge or idea.

E. Critique
- In this step, we take a critical examination of the idea formed, weighing its strengths and
weaknesses before establishing a theory or principle. The method formed leads to another kind
of bewilderment and subsequent questions, and the process continues ad infinitum.

Section II: The Power of Reflection REVIEW HERE

I. Definition

Reflection, also known as self-reflection, is a method of inquiry that assesses a person’s self. It is a
meditation or serious thought about one’s character, actions, and motives.

II. Importance of Reflection

A. Improves self-awareness
B. Provides perspective
C. Allows proaction, not reaction
D. Facilitates deeper learning
E. Improves confidence
F. Challenges assumptions

III. Concepts (as described by Gabriel Marcel)

A. Primary Reflection - examines objects by abstraction

- analytically deconstructs ideas into its constituent parts
- concerned with definition, essences, and technical solutions

B. Secondary Reflection - reconstruction of events to create the "bigger picture"

- collection of experiences and knowledge
- integrates all that has transpired to share it into learnings

IV. Some Reflective Questions to Ask

A. Strengths – What are my advantages? (Am I well organized? Do I remember things?)

B. Weaknesses – What are my weaknesses? (Am I easily distracted? Do I need more practice with a
particular skill?)

C. Skills – What skills do I have and what am I good at?

D. Problems – What problems are there at work/home that may affect me (e.g., other responsibilities
or distractions)?

E. Achievements – What have I achieved?

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F. Happiness – Are there things that I am unhappy with or disappointed about? (What makes me
happy?)

G. Solutions – What could I do to improve in these areas?

References:
Alarcena, M. J. (2018). Methods of philosophizing. Lifted and modified from
https://www.slideshare.net/MARIAJESSALACERNA1/methods-of-philosophizing-109149648
Evolutionary Philosophy (n.d.). Philosophy 101. Lifted and modified from http://www.evphil.com/philosophy-
101.html
Jose, I. (2016). Primary and secondary reflection. Lifted and modified from
https://prezi.com/wabtg5d2ihcx/primary-and-secondary-reflection
Kennedy, T. (2018). How self-reflection gives you a happier and more successful life. Lifted and modified from
https://www.lifehack.org/696285/how-self-reflection-gives-you-a-happier-and-more-successful-life
Philosopaedia (2013). Steps and methods in the art of philosophizing. Lifted and modified from
http://philosopaedia.blogspot.com/2013/09/steps-and-methods-in-art-of.html?m=1
Philosophy Index (n.d.). Branches of philosophy. Lifted and modified from http://www.philosophy-
index.com/philosophy/branches/
Reyes, J. (2016). “Methods of philosophizing”. Lifted and modified from
https://janinereyesblog.wordpress.com/2016/12/05/methods-of-philosophizing/
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (n.d.). Gabriel (-Honoré) Marcel. Lifted and modified from
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/marcel/#7
The Open University (2019). What is self-reflection? Lifted and modified from
http://www.open.ac.uk/choose/unison/develop/my-skills/self-reflection

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