~.

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1.0 ~

1.1 SFRllcHI

1. 2 ~ et ft JOO5I
fllll CFft "&JT&IT

1. 3 ~ CFft q IVlOIn:Cfl -m:'lWIT

1.4 JOiI'ici111 ~ II ~ ~ ~ CFft ~

1.5 ~1'i41JOifftl Cf)T ~-a.tf

1.7 ~

1.8 ~~

1.9 3Pl ~ ~ ~'4

1.10 m~m et~·
1.0 .•

~ ~ Cf)T lJ&r'~ ~ Cf)T ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ q ~3TI -B ~

t I ~ ?:J6 ~
CflU1T CFft ~ ~ ?:J6 ~ t fq; ~ \jfR(fT t 7:ff ~ II m:f11~
t ~ ~ fcfiCRT \lfRCf i, 7:ff \jfR ~ i, ~~ CFIT 3l~ men t I ~ ~ "Cfl1

:Wf.sx::Cfl ~ QI(qn:Cfl ~ -m:'lWIT3TI Cf)T 3l~ m ~ ~ 'BT~-'BT~ ~

'~' (to knwo ) Cf)T ~ ~ II ~ 3l~ ml ~ ~ ~ et ~
ClIWfClCfldl -CflT~ -CflT~ m~ ~ -B ~ M'lFf ~3TI Cf)T 3l~ ml
anm: ~ lfRCf ~ II ~1'i41JOifftl et ~ et 'BT~ ~ ~ -CflT ~I

3l{f:. ~ ~ et am II ~ f;:p:;f et 6fR II ~ 1WM;

• ~CFft~
• ~ ~ fq~Cllft II 3MR
• ~ et fcro<t.ft et ~ II ft'~6ClI<\ CFft ~
• ~ -CflT "SITt(l CfiB II ~ ~ ~1~f~4)' CFft ~

• ~1'i41JOifftl et CfiTCfa.tf Cf)T ~

• ~ -CflT ~ et ~ ~1'i41JOifftl Cf)T ~

1.1 !H~ICI'11
~ ~ ~ 4211'/iMCffi (Metaphysics) 1Tl1 CFft ~ Cf)T 3W'll ~ f.:ma.lUT et
3TI~ 1R fcfi<:rr t- '~~~ "fq'qJCffi: '~' ~ il' Cfiic ?:J6 ~ ~ i
fq; '~ CFIT \jfR ~ ~t~ CFft ~ ~ II ~~ ~ tl ~1'i41JOifftl 5
 ~ ~ ~ il iill1¥f1qi~1 ~lti1ltllfl31 ctt ~ ~ i ~ ~ et ~'l1JCf, ~
er ~a}?r CfiT3l~ qmft il iill1¥f1qi~1 ~ ~"5lr<f ~ et m~ 'R: ~ ~
il ~ ~ am ~ et ~ ~ ~ qmft il'iill1¥f1qi~I' et ~ ~ ~
Qf4:&4/("fTJI (Epistemology) ctt ~ 1:fG: ~ ~'1f2~1 ~1~fHCfl ~ !ksRCfl
~ (J ames Fredrick Ferrier) ~ ctt 2ft 1 ~ 1:fG: "titCfl ~ Qf4:&4 (Episteme)
am fflrrm (Logos) (~CfiT~) ~ 3WlT il

~ f1'"1f(1f@i.1 ~ ~ ~ i :

• ~~i?
• lfIl ~ ~ ~~?

• lfIl~~~~~?

• ~ ~ ~ "5lr<f fcfi?;rr ~ ~ i?
.
• • CflIl ~ H~:qi.1 mcrr i?

• ~ ~ am fq~cll~ 1l ~ i?
• ~ CfiT~a}?r ~ i?

• lfIl cp:fl~ et ~ ~ ~ ~ 'R: fq~ql~ qm) ~ am ~ 'R: ~?

~ ctt ql(JOYRCfl-qft~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 3ilq~lICfl i fcfi '\iI'R1T' (to

know) CfiT~ 3l~ il ~ \ifFFl "* ~ fcfi ~ ~'1l ~ ~ CfiT~ ~
~ fcfi?;rr ~ i, ~ ~ et ~ CfiT fq~<?It:l 01 CfiVlT mTl 3TI'iiOlffcR1l1i~
fcfi -' ~ \iI'R1T' (Know that), '~ \iI'R1T' (Know how), 'cp:fl \iI'R1T' (Know
why), '~ \iI'R1T' (Know him), '~\iI'R1T' (Know where) am '~ ?:IT~
31f.rcw:f il ,~,·et
\iI'R1T' (Know whether) CfiTfq~Ri.1 -trUa,-TUT ~ ~ ~
;fffffi;r (knowledge) CfiT~ ~ 3l?lT 1l fcfi?;rr ~ il ~?:IT m'~ ~ m'
et 3l~ 1l?:IT'~ i.11~kRli.1I' et 3l~ 1l ~ mcrr illfll, ~ql;<ji.1: fcfim cx:rfcRf, ~
?:IT~ ~ \ifFFl et *~ 1l ~ 3l~ CfiT~ qm) ~I lfIl ~ ~ 'fcfim et
m ~' ~ et 3l~ 1l m qm) ~I Cflm-Cflm ;fffffi;r ~ '41lfqiillHCfl ~'
ctt 3TI~ et ~ 1l m ~ mcrr il ~1~ff1Cfl'j~ ~ et ~ 3l~ Wl ~ ~
fcfi - ( i) '~\iI'R1T' (knowing that), (ii ) '~ \iI'R1T' (knowing which), (iii )
'~\iI'R1T' (knowing how ), (iv ) '~\iI'R1T' (knowing what) , '~~~
i ~\lfR1T' (knowing what it is like) 1~ ~ '~ \lfR1T' (knowing how) et ~
teA (techne ) ?:IT~ (skill) ~ CfiT~ fcfi?;rr il ~ Q,f4fk4 (Episteme)
~ CfiT~ ~ 4tH'q,{ui ~, ~ fcfi ?:IT m~ i ?:IT~, et ~ fcfi?;rr
il '~ \iI'R1T' (knowing that) afu:' ~ \iI'R1T' (knowing how) ~ 1l 3RR il
'~ \iI'R1T' CfiT~ ~ ~ et ~ ~ ~ et ~ fcfi?;rr ~ t ~fcfi
~ \iI'R1T fcfi ~ ~ ~ il ~ d~16<01 1l ~ ~ ~ CfiT~ ~ m m
mm~ ~ f.r:n:rT ctt ~ ~ Cfl{ ~I ~, fcr:rfur ,~. "\ifJrAT'
~
(know that) fcfim ~ ~ et ~ ~ ~ Cfi«fT i afu: ~ oqfcm et -qm
6 ~ ~ CfiT~ mcrr i ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ il 3TI~ ~11~fHCfl'~

,
 11

~', 3l~ (f~~ ~~, ~ ~ wij ~ 3th: ~ tt ~ 3l?l ~ ~ ~ iilH4\qi~1 qft

<:JT en ~ mm ~ <:JT~I '~' (to know) Cfi1 ~ 3l?l 'cli:hCfICfllI,lOICflWj' ~~~

(Propositional knowledge) Cfl6(1IClI~I ~ 1ftq;- CfiR1 -B ~ (fCfl iill1:tllfil~I' ';)

~ dctlCfICfllklOlCflClI'tR ~ W:rr ~ ~ fc!:i 'Cffl'~' (knowing that) ~ ~
~I ~ ~a:T ~, ~iillf~Cfl ~, ~ ~, ';:ftfu ~, llfbldhl ~, ~
~, 3lTC'l1-~ ~ f<:n'm m "SICfiR Cfi1 ~ Clch'CfICfllI,lOICfl
~ tt 3Rrfu 3lffiT ~I

CFiW ClctlCfICflI Cffl' *i-q ~ I,1OICfl 3fu: (f~ crrcp::r ~ ~ f<:n'm (f~ <:JTf<:n'm ~
~ (state of affairs) ~ fc!:i '~«R~ ~', '2 + 2 = 7' q;l ~ W ~I
Clch'CfICfll<:JT m '~ <:JT m~ mm ~ 3l~ ~ (f~ q;l CZJCRf~ 'Cfl1
=~......;;~ . r ~, ,
3'1ICf:t4CflCIl '1QI QI\l1I 3l(f:, ClCflCfICfllI(1OlCfl
~ ctll~, Cffl' ~~ (knowing
that) ~ ~ ~I ClctlCfICflll(1OlCfl
~ tt cn?R 3lf~: 'fc!:i' (that) ~ CZJCRf
~ ~ i. 3t:J6(01 tt ~, 'Cffl' ~ ~ fc!:i ~ ~ ~ ~I' "Hm crrcp::r
ClctlCfICfll~ ~I 3<\16(01 tt ~, '~ Cf<1r~?' ~ crrcp::r ClctlCfICfll~ ~ ~
~ crrcp::r -B fcfim ~ ~ _'Cfl1 ~ <:JT~ Cfi1~ mm I Clc6CfIct41''tR
~
~ <:JTfcl:tCfRI fcfiGJT~ ~ ~I ~ <:JT m~ <:JT~ m ~I 3l(f: ~ <:JTm
¥-I1CflRI <:JT~ ~ ~ ~ 3fu: ~ "SICfiR 'Cfl1 fCfi1fCl (assertion) <:JT~'tl
(denial) f.t$r Cfl$(1 Idl ~I ~, ~ ~ ~ ~ 3th: f1~T.lClClI Cfi1 ~ ~
mm ~ 3th: ~ ~ et ~ ~ -B ~I~ q;l ~~ ~ ~I

~ tt ~ f<:n'm ~ q;l '~' (know) Cfi1 3l?l ~ fCf:tCflfl ~ ~ 3fu:

~tR:~~OO(f~~~~1 3l(f:, ~ fq:tCflfl 3fu: ~'tl (understanding)
Cfi1<WT ~I ~ -qft~ ~ tt f~ (Theaetetus) 'tR 3lT'tlTfuJ ~I -m ~,
~ tt 3'lRCfI4Cl: cfR 'lWT ~ SllOIIOnCfl(OI,~ 3fu: fq:tCfIftI 3l(f:, Clch'CfICfllI,lOICfl
~ ' SllOIl
fbICfl ~ fq:tCf1ft' ~ I ~ -qft~ Cfi1~ Rmn?l ~ ~ fc!:i ~ CFiWf<:n'm
(f~ ~ fq:tCflfl Cfl<m ~ 3fu: f<:n'm CflI(OICf:t1~ fq:tCflfl ~ m~ ~I m
~ ~ ~ ~ f1Cfl(1ClI fc!:i Cffl' '~' (know) t~ 7:ffli 'tR fq:tCflfl ~
SllOIl
fbICflCIl Cfi1 3l'qlq mm ~ I
fq~cuft
f<HCflfl m lR q;l m ~ ~I fq:tCflfl ~ "SICfiR tt m ~~ fc!:i ~a:T ~iillf1Cfl,
~, (1\jj~fdCfl 3fu: ~I fq:tCflfl q;l f<:n'm Clch'CfICfll'Cfl1 ~ q;l ~ f<:n'm
"SICfiR 'Cfl1 flflIl q41lld1 tt ~ -B ~ "Cfl1:~ tt ~ ~ -qft~ fcfiGJT~ ~I
fCf:tCflfl ~ tt <:J Mcq;:;r 3l?l ~ ~ ~ ~ 3'lICf:t4Cfl ~I >r~ 3l?l tt ~
~ 3l?l '~ fq:tCflfl' (believe in) <:JT''llUm ~' (to trust) -B ~I il am ~
~ q;l ?J!UT ~ ~ ~: ~ 'tR fCf:tCflfl "Cfl1:~I ~. 3l?l ~ ~ fc!:i il 'llUm
Cfl<m i fc!:i Cffl' ~ Cff1m "Cfl1:~I ~: ~ 3l?l ~ fq:tCflfl ~'tl cn?R ~. '{ClfjlOlf1
CfiUf ~ fc!:i ~ f<:n'm 3l?l ~ 3q~lln <:JT~ SllOIlfblCl~I ~ 3l?l tt ~,
f<:n'm 'tR fq:tCflfl ~ Cfi1 3l?l ~ fc!:i Cffl' ~ ~I pq'( fq:tCflfl ~ -Q:m f<HCflfl
~ fc!:i p~ ~I Gf6l iill1l,lOICfl (Cognitive) ~ q;l ~ Cfim ~ ~I 3<\16(01 tt
~, ~ fq:tCfIfI ~ 'Cfl1 3lTCfiro -;:ftffi ~, -Q:m ~ ~ ~ fc!:i cn?R, '3lTCflWT-;:ftffi
~' ~ ~I ~ ~ "SICfiR Cfi1 fq:tCflfl ~ ~ -:q:qf ~ tt tR:~ ~ 'Cfl1 \l'I'Rft ~I 7
 <mfq, ~ et ~ ~ ~ fCj:tcCl~ (true belief) it ~ ~ il ~ ~ fCj:tcll~
~ ctt mrr 'tR ~ ~ ~I ~ 31TtT~ fCj:tcll~ CJiT<l t 1% ~ ~ ~
~ ~ fi:R;A ~ afu: ~ ~ m ~ i m~ ~ ~ il ~ fCj:tcll~
~ it ~ m lTm ~ ~ "tf~ -q ~ )ftITOT~ il 7.1R fcfim et 1:Jm
fcfim VCfiR CfiT~ i m~ 1:Jm ~ ~ ~ $1I"1lfOICfl
fCj:tcll~ m ~I
~ fq~ql~ afu: fcrim: (opinion) ~ fcq;:;; il ~ a:rR fCj~ql~ 'tR ~ m ~
t~ ~ -q ~ am: TTffift it ft-m ~ ~ ~ il fcrim:-q ~ et
~ ~ i ~ ~ ~ H;ilfGflillffi ~ m~ mm il ~ ctt mf ~
~ i 1% ~ ~ 611 am:, ~ et ~ ~ fCj~qm it ~ ~ i ~ ~
fq~qm ~ ~ tl am:, ~ ctt ~ 3lf.:rqpf mf i-~ 3l~ ~ ~ i
1% p am: ~ p it ~ il

~ 1% rn ~ ~ i 1% ~ cm fCj~ql~ ctt ~lq~~Cfldl ~ ~ ~~ fCj~cll~

~ ~ i ~ ~ Cfi~-Cfi~ a:rR fCj~ql~ 'tR ~ ~ tl ~aN -q,m ~
fq~ql~ ~ am: ~ ~ ~ tl ~ ~ ~ ctt Rm -q ~ ~ fCj~qR:fr
~ /~lCflI(I -qffi ~ ~ fCj~ql:m' ctt am ~ ~ tl ~ ~ ~ -q fCj~ql~
CfiT~ ?:J~?fur cm ~ a:rR ql~FCjCfl ~ -q ~ ~ mm il <mfq m
~ FCj~ql~ ~~qCfl ~-~ cm ?:J?TfCrn ~ ~ -q ~ ~ t afu: ~
~ ~ t afu: m~ it ~ fCj~ql~ \ffl ~~qCfl ~-~ cm ~ ~ -q ~
CJiT<l t ~ ~ CJ~ ~ tl ~~ ~ ~ ~ ctt ~ ~ W tl
am:, FCj~ql~ et ~ ~ ~ i 1% ~ ql~fCjCfldllml et ~ m ~ ~
i am: ~ ~I ~ ~ ctt 3lf.:rqpf mf i am: 7.1R fq~ql~ ~ ~ i m~ ~
cm f.rll::Rr~ ~ ~I am:, ~ fCj~qm am: ~ ~ et ~ mq ~
tl ~ ~.~ ~ afu: mq lIIJ"I1
onCfl<01 ctt 3ilq~~Cfldl il

~ ~ fq~ql~ ~ ~ il m- fq~ql~ ~ mf ctt ~ -afqq ~ cm

".
~~ ~ mf ctt ~ ~ ~ 6RT ~I ~ ~ ctt.mf ~ i 1%
~ et 1:Jm ~ ~ ~ ~ )ftITOT m 1% fCj~ql~ ~ ~3lT Cfi~ ~ il
3iCJ:, ~ lIIJ"IlfOld fCj~ql~ it, \ffl -afqq ll'flf IDU ~ i, ~ cm ~ CJiT<l il
~ ll'flf ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ afu: -am- wnurr CfiTll'flf il ~ ~ ~
fcfim 3lCI'W 'tR 7.1R ~ m ~ ~ m~ ~ ~ cm ~ ~ ctmITl fq~ql~
CJ~ IIIJ"IIfOld mm i ~ ~ -am- CfCfiT am: ~ et "@lA -am- "'SJl1TU1l'tR3lT~

ml ~ VCfiR ctt lIIJ"IifOlCfldlcm ii1111f4CfllIIJ"IlfUlCfldl~ tl fCj~ql~ ctt lIIJ"I

1fOlCfl<0'
CfiT3l1!f ~ ~ i 1% ~ cm .m:ftq H~ildd ctt ~ Iq~~Cfld I i 1 ~
I VCfiR ctt llJlT
~ ~ ~'~I~ql<:; ctt am ~ ~I lIIJ"IlfOlCfldlctt mf ctt llJlT ~ i 1% ~ cm
-am- "'SJl1TU1l
'tR ~ 6RT ~ -;:r ctt ~ <:JT~ ~3lT 'tR1 Cf6 ~

(C\f~'iuf i 1% q;~-~ 3illlJ"llfOlCfl fq~ql~ ~ ~ et CfiRUT~ m ~ t

~ lIIlilfOlCfl fq~ql~ ~ ql1cft~ ~ et CfiRUT~ m .~ tl 3<:;lg<01 et ~,
CflTq<HCfl~ ~ ~ et @fnt'wllf?fl ~(qlo:g et ~ f~"H1 cm lIIlilfOlCfl ~ ~
fC'!flCflI( CJiT<l ~ <mfq ~ 'Q?-fi ~ ~ ~I ~ ~ ctt ql~FCjCfldl m
~ "'SJl1TU1l et ~ it m ~ 3ilq~~Cfl ~ il ~ ~ i 1% ~ am:
8
!lllilfUlCfidl fCF~qlfl Cfl1 ~ 3lWf-3lWf -mY ~I ~ Fc:t~qlfl ~ W "'«IT ~ ~ fcfi 4'*4 ifCl cfit
~II"
Cf6 !lllilfUlCfi ~ 7:JT~, ~ )lCfiR !lllilfUlCfi fCF(qlfI ~ W "'«IT ~ ~ fcfi Cf6 ~ qfhutu afrt ~
~ 7:JT ~I ~, ~ !lllilfUlCfi fCl~qlfl et ~ -g);) Cfl1'~ ~ -g);) Cfl1
~~~I

3Rrn:, ~ ~ ~ W ~ ~ fcfi m fcF.rR fCl~qlfl Cfl1~a:U ~ fiI'(Cfi'( W1

~ ~ ~I ~ ~ fCl~qlfl ~ ~ afR m W1 'R ~ ~I $~f~QO, ~
~ fiHqlfl Cfl1 ~ !llliIUnCfi'(UI "ID'U 'tlAf$(:qd m -~ ~ 'ijG1 Cf6 W1 Cfi6(.1ldl ~I
~ ~ ~ fcfi fq~qlfl q;l W1 m- et ffiQO ql'RlfClCfidl et ~ m--n ~ afR
~ ~~ ~ "q:ci ~~ 1fq(j1l1' ~ flflIlflOld m--n ~I ~ cqytTCfiT am '~
(Gettier) Cfl1 ~' ~ 'CfWfT~ ml QO:Sli;;S~ ~ 1963 -q a:r:A ~ ~
-q ~ et W1 Cfl1~ CfiT~ ~I ~ ~ ~ ~ "ID'U ~ fcmur
~ ~ ~ fcfi ~ fCl~qlfl ~ ~ ~ et -qm dc6f1"ld ~ ~
!lllilfUld ~ fCl~Cflfl ~, ~ ~ W W1 m ~ Af$(:qd ~ ~ afR ~
~ -q ~ ~ ~ Gffif CfiT"Wl?R ~ fcfi fcr~qlfl ~ ~ ~ et -qm
!lllilfulCfi ~ fCl~qlfl m~~ W1 ~ ~I ~ ~ et ~ ~ ~11~1I~1I1' ~
W1 Cfl1 QRP4RCfi ~ -q m'l:R ~ afR ~ ~?ft mf q;l ~ ~ ~I
~ 1=IFAT ?Tf fcfi W1 et ffiQO ~ cft;r -mY ~ ~ ~; ~ ffiQO ~ ~?ft
mf Cfl13ilq~llCfiql ~, ~, ~ oct \i1l fcr~qlfl Cfl1 am: ~ ~ m~ ~ ~
)lCfiR CfiT~ ~ fcr~qlfl flfA4f(.1d ~ m--n ~I ~, !II«Ilq11 et ~ -q
W1 q;l ~ I !lllilfUlCfi ~ fcr~qlfl' ~ -q ~ ml

~~1
RlIIuft : Cfl)a:r:A ~ et ffiQO ~ ~ ~ 1tcffi ~ CfiT ~ ~I

~) ~ et 3Rf -q ~ ~ m~ a:r:A m CfiT f1ffiR ~I

1) I~' (to know) et ~'4 -q ~111('qCfi~ ~ )lCfiR ~ ~ ~

fcq;;r ~?

--
...................................................................................................................

.
...................................................................................................................
9
 ~ 'lWT -q: ~ ~ CFil ~ CFil Tf{ CFil ~ ~ ~ QI<Ali1:Cfl~ "B ~ cp:rr
il ~ ~ CFil am9!IT "CflB "B ~ q)l ~ ~ men I ~ CfiT ~ ~ "B ~
~ ~ ~ ~ er ~ ~ m= CfiT \lfffiT '4t ~ m 3"lICI~lICflil ~ CFil
~ q)l ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ "B ~ Cfl<Clldl il ~ VcflR, ~ 'lWT -q: ~
~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ -q: 3lv:r:R ~I ~ ~ ~ ~ i; ~ fcfi ~aI, ~,

~, ~ (testimony),~, ~ (intuition) ~I QI~'CIIC'lI

~ ~ ~
q)l 7.iQ llff-1T i
;~:Il:5I~Y:jI· fcfi ~ ~~ ~ i I ~ VcflR ~ fcrqp: ~ ~ CfiT
fI·~QClI~ ~ il ~ 3"lR1i1:Cfd~ ~ ~ ~ lOIQ(i5l i?ffI'5Ii!;llI, ~ ~ CFil
'
~'qCfffi CfiT ~ ~ i, 1f"<;ClIi!; (~, f~'1hll a:lR c:11~cilf1ffi) a:lR 31j'lOfClTC!:
(~, ~ a:lR ~) il

~~

lOIl1cft1I ~ CfiT ~ <mt ~ ett ~ ~ i fcfi I ~ cp:rr i? I ~ 7.iQ '4t fcfi

lOIHcftll W"1 q)l fcmm: ~ Wll ~ ~ ~ il ~ fcf;q.n ~ i <:IT\lfR ~
i? ~ CFil ~ ~cqq.:rr ~ ~11~lIfil ~ ~ mm il ~ ~ 7.iQ i fcfi
Icp:rr ClI«1fqCfl ~ )ITt(f ~ ~ ~ i? ~ e;1~ff1CflI·q)l llff-1T i fcfi llRCf ~
~ ~ ~ \lfR 1:fRT~~ i <:IT~ ~ Cl~~ "B ~ ~ ~ CfiT \lfR
1:fRT~~ il ~ ~, ~ ~ q)l llff-1T i fcfi llRCf ~ '4t ~ \lfR ~I
~ ~ ~ CFil ~'qfCRf CfiT ~ 3lT't.lR 1R ~ CFil ~ mftKr (finite) >ITUit i a:lR
¥ ~mftKr i ~ ~ '4t mftKr il awl ~ ~ VcflR ~ M'lFl ~,
~, crrc::-~ ~ ~ ~ CfiT fI·~QClIe;CFil am ~ W:rrl fI·~QClIe;~ -Q:m
e;1~fRCflfcrqp: i ~ llff-1T i fcfi ~ CFil ~'qfCRf (Possibility) mftKr i ~
<:IT m~ ~ ClI«1fqCfl ~ CfiT ~ -q: ~ ~ i <:IT m ~ ~ (~
fcfi d(i5l41lOliBlll ~) ~ ~ CFil ~ "B ~ il ~ (Pyrrho) ~ fI·~QClI(!,l
~ CFil ~ CFil a:lR "ffirTI CfiT f.r$;IT CfiT i91~Cfl<·lOIl1roCfl 'Wfu q)l 31j~ "CflB

~ ~ ~ ~I fI·~QClIe;~ ~ ~ ~ :P3fi'4:!.rnIif4 (Skepticism) ~

~ I:P3fiQ/ij'"B 3lT<:fTi ~ 3l~ 'UTR "B ~', '~~ ~', l\iffq
~il

fI·~QClIi!;~ VcflR q)l men i : 1Wl <:ITf.r{qaI (Absolute) fI·~QClIe; a:lR ~aI (<:IT
, Qo.<;fcllld) fI·~QClIe;11W\/f.R1laI fI·~QClIi!;~ ~ fcfim '4t VcflR q)l ~.~~ '1iI'
il ~, 7.iQ Cfi~ m 3Wfl 3W1 -q: m~ i ~ ctiW Rf}('CId ~ "B 7.iQ

~ % ~ i ctiW ~
fcfi ~ \lfR ~? ~ ctiW '4t ~ ~~ GJCIT
fq ~ClfI 1lll ~ i? m, ctiW '4t ~ VcflR ~ -e;rcl1R fq~ClIfI cp:fl Cfi1: CFil ~ ~~
~ il ~ am, ~aI fI·~QClIi!;~ lOIQ(i5l'iuf~ f.:rcqr ~ i cp:fffcn 7.iQ ~

~ CFil am ~ Cfi«IT i ~~ ~ (Common sence knowledge) -q: ~

CfiT fi:R;:rffi il 3lT~ ~ -q: ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ dCfl1lCfl ~ ~ #~
i a:lR en ~ CFil flQllIdl "B lit ~ -{ ~ -q: t (cogito ergo sum) ~
~: ~ ~ Wll ~ il ~ q)l 7.iQ dCfl'11Cfllll fI·~QClIe;~ Cf~ 1R 3lT~
i CFil ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ i a:lR ~ CflI<OICl~1
~ fq~CllfI ~ m
~ il ~ SllOIlfUlCflfCl~CllfI -qR ~ ~ ~ ~ a:lR ~ -q: am ~ awn
10 ~I ~ VcflR, CfQ"~ M'tT &TU ~ ~ ~ Wll ~ fcfi Cfil1 "B Cfil1, Iit
 mm "{ am: ~ {' (I think therefore I am) 1 ~ ~:~ ~ CfiT 3W:lR ~ ~"'41qiffl ~
~ awl ~ ~ et ~ ~ ~I~. ~ ~~ (Hume ) -;t ~ (~. ~ 3f)r lCRC\1f

~ 3W 1RT~) f1~~a qRCfi(Yq113lTCfiT ~ ~ Cflll ~ et ~' am=q Cfll

Rm ~ -t 3W '1 m ;:&r Cfll ~ -tl ~ CfiI(Olql<:;Cfil fflCGHl .qr ~ ~
~3lT 'tR :a:rr~ -tl "Cfiic: Cfll iill1if1qiBI .qr ~ Cfll '8lfqaal CfiT m'JlR1 3W
W{ et 3RR ~ ~ Cfi«fi -t 1 :a:rr~ ~ CfiT ~ \ill ~ -tl ~ -rw:rrf$.n
~ CfiT tm ~ ~ ~ ~ \i1T1 ~I mfctCfi" ~ (Logical positivism) Cfil
~ .qr ~ -Q:m m -tl ~ ~' \i1l ~ .qr ~ ~ -t ern- 31~ -t 3W
\i1l ~ ~ ~ -t ern- 31~ -tl am:. B'~6ql<:; Cfil ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~
\ill ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ CfiT ~ CfiB Cfll ~ ~ ~ \ill ~
-tl

~. ~ B'~6qlc;l <:;1~ff1CflI'Cfll ~ ~ Cfilf -tl ~ am \i1l ~a:r 1:JT

dCfl;flCfll B'~6ql<{) i ~ .qr "<:;l mm ~ fcr~ m \lfffi il oo~. eft \i1l ~ ~
i fcfl ~ 31f~: ~flR~ (Mind) 3W ~ fqfcq;;f fcrmm &TU )[GJ1
~ ~ -t 3W ~ eft ~ ~ lWRT -t fcfl ~ Cfll ~ ~ 3W ~
~·crA 311cqql ~ ~ mm -tl >r~ CfiT ~f.&ql~l er ~ CfiT 311~ et 1T1l
~ ~ ~ -tl tm ~ ~ Cfll T.f'CIf B'~6ql<:; et ~ et ~ ~ ~I

~f.&ql<:; et fftCGI;f,et ~ ~~ ~ Cfil ~ ~ ~ ~ mm -tl ~Nfta ~

Cfll ~ ~ ~fCGql<:; et ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~7qfc1iT4~ 'qfliIT Cfll ~ mr
(ratio) ~ ~ ll<:JT-tl ~ 31~ ~~ (resson ) -tl ~ <:;1~ff1Cfl\i1l ~ CfiT
.~ CfiB et ~ ~ Cfll 3l\la:TToctf~ 'tR 31f~ ~ ~ i. ~CI&qlc;l Cfi6(11\9
il ~f.&qlf~lIl· et ~ tmR ~-311~ ~ 'l;Ff ~ ~"6ffl il ~ ~
~ 'tR ~ ~ ~ i cp;fffcfi ~ Cfll ~-~ ~ qRqJ1~fI(1 3W
Jlfu~fI(1 mm il 7:fR tm ~ ~ 'tR ~ ~ ~ ~ "¥ i m ~ ~ tm
~ 'tR fq~qlB ~ Cfi{ ~I ~-~ ~ ~ ~ ~ m~ 3<:;16(01
~ CfiTm ~"WIT CfiT ~ ~I am:. ~-~ 'tR 'rffi: fq~qlB ~ ~
\ill ~ 3W ~~flf(1QO~ m~ Cfll ~lq~lICfi(11 -tl QRoIIQa:. ~ ~ CfiT tm
3#rqp:f 3W -mcf~ ~ Cfi'6" ~ il <:;1~ff1Cfi~ ~ VcfiR et w.fi~ 'tR
:a:rr~ ~ m ~I ~ CfiT ~ Cfi~ 'tR :a:rr~ ~ ~ \i1l -mcf~.
3#rqp:f 3W f.R1la:r ~ ~ ~~ m 1

am: ~ et ~ et ~ ~~ ~ iill1lfJiCfi ~ ~ 311'qq Cfll ~

CfiT ~ -tl ~ 'i:lR1JTTet ~ ~ Cfil ~ ~ ~ ~ cm1T ~a:r ~
-tl 3WJ ~3lT CfiT ~ i. ~ ~ i. ~ i. ~ et ~ ~ w=rn i 3W ~
i fcfl ~ ~ ~ fcrffl ~ CfiT ~ et 1lT~ ~ ~ il ~. ~ ~
~-311'qq ~ ~ ~ mml ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ "6fflil· iill1~IIf3t1 ~ ~ VcfiR
et ~ CfiT 9film: ~~ 3W ~~ (apriori) ~ il ~ ~ VcfiR et
Cfi~ ~ 3RR ~ -t fcfl 311cqql ~ )lTt<f Cfi~ CfiT ~ \ill ~ -t ~ ~ 'tR
fq~qlB ~ ~ \ill ~ ~ fcfl TffU'rij. 3<:;16(01 et ~. 2 + 2 = 4 et
~~ Cfi~ et ~~ ~ m ~ -tl ~ VcfiR et ~ Cfll ~ et ~ ~
.qr (f~ 1:JT m Olfq61RCfi \i1i~Q~dl(1 ~ ~ ~I ~ ~ fcfl ~ VcfiR et
. ~ CfiT ~ CfiB ~ tm ~ 3R ~ Cfil m~ il ~~ Cfi~ et 11

I
 ~'4 "B<:rR~ fc:nm VcfiR CfiT Cf~ )Ilt(f men -% en ~ ~ ~~ .am: aTI'tl
Cfi w:rrurr Cfi1 ~ ~ Cfldt 1 ~,OllCltIRCfl Cfi~ <t ~ Cfi1 ~ Cfi8 <t ~
~ aTI'tlCfi ~ aTI'tlCfi FfTUTT Cfi1 ~ "B ~ t 1 ~ 04 Cltl RCfl ~~ f~ Cfld 1
(generalization) Cfi1~ t .am: ~ 3lJ11lFf (induction) <t &TU SlGlfbld Cfldt tl
3c:,lt{OI <t ~, '"B.qf ~ CfiR'l t'l ~ fiRRr aTI'tlCfi ~ aTI'tlCfi CfiR'l -Cfl1an CfiT
f.:ffiarcrr m "3Cf11 it aTI~ ~ Cfi~ Cfi1 ~ ftr.& mrrr 1 ~ fircr;:fi aTI~ ~
aTI~ ~31T ~ ~ m t"3Cf11 it aTI~ ~ fCl~ClRl OllCltlRCfl ~~f~Cfldl
<t ~ ~ -%1 -Q:B*'4"B lIDf ~ Cfi1 ~ ~ ~ -% ~ ~ ~ ~
f1~~d VcfiR <t 3l1~ ~ it )Ilt(f men -%1

Cf~, ~ ~ ~ CfiT .qf ~ w;rr ~ Cfi1 ~T.&ClI<;l 3l1'l1cf ~ )Ilt(f ~ CfiT

Rtl'tl ~ Cfldtl ~ 3W1fu lIDf ~ -% fq) 3l1'l1cf ~ )Ilt(f ~ ~: ~ .am:
~ ~ ~ ~ men 1 3TIf:, ~ ~ ~'tl Ruf<;r ~ fl:rffif 1 "BaJr1 "B, 3l1'l1cf &TU
)Ilt(f ~ ~ ClIfdfClCfldl CfiT ~ ~ ~ ~ "Cfl\ ~I ~ it i!Hff1ctl ~
'iR>cCfllol <iT ~ 'if~CflIOI Cfi1 ~ -% en ~ <t ~f.&ClIc:.l fflO&I-=dCfiT~ men
-%1 ~ ~f.&Cllf<;<li ~ 3l1~ Cfi1 fRt\l1'1Cfl, 3ifCl~CllfI ~ .am: Cfi.qf ";f ~ Cfi8
~ ~ .am: "1:fftuwl-~ ~ llRCf-~ ~ 3l1~ Cfi1 ~ Cfi1 &ftuT <iT
~ "Cfl\ .~I ~ 3FllT <t ~ ~-3l1'l1cf ~ 'fiTln CfCfi ~ <f ~
<t ~ ~ -% ~ ~ ~ -%1 "B.qf ~f.&CllaJ ~'l1fcrcn ~ Cfi1 "B'qCRT
Cfi1 ~ t ~ -m ~ ~ Cfi1 -qR "B ~ 3l1~ ~ ~ -%1 er 3l1~
Cfi1 -$r;rr "B ~ ~ (Innate Ideas) <t ~ Cfi1 ~ W-Tfu ~ -% ~ ~
c:pf{UT ~ ~I ~f.&ClIf<;4r <t ~, '~' ~ (Innate) ~ ~ 31~ ~
~ (Inborn) ~ tl ~#11f1Cfl ~ ~ fI~<;'iI' ~ )Ilt(f ~ m ~, ~
mcf~f~Cfldl .am: 3lf1C114dl ~ ~ 3lfu 3iICl~~Cfl -%1 3TIf:, -m ~ ~ GlT'tl
CfiT~ ~ -%1~ llFRT -% fq) ~ ~ CfiT~ -Q:m ~ -%"\lIt ~ H~~d
~ .am: ~ (notions) CfiT 3lH'1UCfl ~ ~ -%1 ~ 3i1-=dRCfl ~
3l1'l1cf <t men 1 <l ~
&TU ~ ~-fcfT.rR <t ~ t .am: ~«lf0q: 3l1'l1cf ~
-% 3l~ <l ~ ~ ~ .am: ~ 3l1'l1cf <t ~ )Ilt(f m tl ~f.&Cllf<;4r ~ ~
~ Cfi1 ~ ~ .am: ~ <t ~ <t ~ "B fC41CflRfcf;<:n -% .am: ~ Cfl{OICl~1
~ flcfOlllqi (universal) llRT -%1 ~ Gl'1cn~ lf1 (mind) ~ ~ war .am:
~ ~ ~ t. 3TIf:, <l 3if1C114d: ~'tl tl ~ ~'I:l(IT <R ~ ~ fcf;<:n ~ ~
.am: ";f tt ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ -%1

31-l~
~ ftr.&ffi CfiT '1IGCfl{OI ~CffI<!fI Qfa:JRCflfl (200 AD) <t 11ll <R fcf;<:n <r:rr -%1
~CffI<!fI ~ ~ ~ ~ CfiT Sire ql<;'1 fcf;<:n ~ 1 ~ ftr.&ffi <t ~ ~ ~
3th: ~ ~'tl (Understanding) ~ ~ To{ 3l1~
Cfi1 -;ffq 3l1'l1cf "B, ~
"B "\lit ~ ~ ~ )Ilt(f m t. -%1~ ftr.&ffi <ftCfi ~f.&ClI<; ~ fcrtrfuT -%1 3l1~
~ <t ~ "B "B.qf ~'l1fcrcn ~31T, ~ fq) ~ <t ~ "B ~ WIT fq),
'~ ~ CfiT~ Cfi"RUT-%', CfiT Rtl'tl Cfldt tl ~ ~a:TT, ~ llFRT -% fq),
'~' (intellect) "B -Q:m ~ ~ .qf ~ -% "\lit fq) ~ ~ "B ";f m I' 3TIf:,
3l1'l1cf ~ ~ lf1 ~ ~ ~ (Blank state) <t w:rR men -% .am: \ifT .qf ~
(Ideas) ~ lf1 "B t err ~ ~ ~ Wffu <t m~ ~ <t Cfi"RUT)Ilt(f ~ tl
12 ~filf0q:, ~'l1fcrcn llT&J1l ~ Cf~ ~ Cfi1 "tlRT 3l"B'l1cf -%1 3l1'l1cf ~ Cf~
~ ~ mm % ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ f1n<ild ~ ~ ~ mml ~ ~1.,4\qifll ctt
~ ~ ~ (Sensation) afu: aijfTFfH (Reflection) ~'~ ~~, ~ ~ ~~~

~~,m, Tfm ~ <.fiT~-~ >rTt{fmm % ~ 3ijfiid'1 ~ ~ l1'1' CfiT

,;3i H'HJ Cf) ~ q:; fcr:r:r II ~ >rTt{fmm %, "B'4t ~ q:; ~ <.fiT ~ 31Jcqq %,

31J~ q:; ffl:&i'"t'1 cn1 ~ ~ ~ ~ <\~ff1Cf) ~ ~ t m: 31J~

<.fiT m '4t Cfi6T \3fRIT %1 ~ w:R ~ CfiT ~31ffi ~f"'ClI<\ fB:&H'1 q:; ~
~ cn1 ~ ~ CfiT, ~ ~ ~ CfiT fq; ~ q:; ~ l1'1' ~ ft:Rf ~
(Tabula Rasa ) CfiT ~ mm %1 ~ llP'RT ~ fq; <:rR lR II fcfim '4t ~
~-fq:rm ~ "ill ~ lR ~ ~ mm, ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ fq; ~, ~
afu: ~ ~ cn1 ~ ~ ~ ~ mm afu: ~ m cl ~ fcr:r:r II ~ ~
~, ~ ~' ~ GJffi <.fiT ~ 3l~ ~ % fq; fcfim q:; -qm ~ fq:rm % afu:
Cffl' ."3""B fq:rm CfiT fcr:r:r- ~ ~ ~ ~ % 1 3lij:, ~ ~ lWffi % fq; ~
f1n<ild ffl:&H'1 ~ ~ m m lR II ~ ~ ~I

~ ~ q:; ~ ~ ap:r ~ <\1~ff1Cf) ~ ~ ";ff1l ~ ~ ~, ~

~ q:; ~' ~ ~ ~ fi%,~J CfiT ~ %1 ~-~ q:; aiFdRCRI ~
<.fiT CFiW ~ ~ %1 ~ ~ fi%I~' (sensations) afu: ~ (ideas) II ~
fcfi<:rr afu: 1WIT CfiT ~ CfTffi ~ 1R R~ %1 ~ ~ fi%I~J ~ ~ ~ ~
~ mm %1 ~ <.fiT ~ ~-~ <.fiT ~ ~ q;- ~f:&ClI<\ q:; ffl:&Hl <.fiT
m~ -qfturp::r %, ~ <.fiT ffl:&I'"t'1 fI~6ClI<\ CfiT 3lR ~ Cfi«IT %, 7:f6T 'Cfl"RUT% fq;
'~~' (viennacircle) q:;~ 'ilIClClIt{)41' (logical positivists) ~GJCITfcfi<:rr
~ fq; ~ ~ ~ ~~ Fcl"iSll{CflI'II ~ ~ %, ~ 'Cfl"RUT~ % fq; ~
q:; 1W1 31J~ ~ ~ fcrcrRT CfiT 3l~ 1R lH'1fT4(1 ~ W:n ~ 3lT~
31Jcqq II ~ %,

~~2
~~uft : Cfi) w:R ~ q:; fu'Q: ~ ~ rm: ft:Rf ~ <.fiT ~ ~I
~) ~ q:; 3Rf II ~ rm: m= ~ w:R m= <.fiT f1:RvfR ~I

1) fI'~6Cl!<\ cp::rr %7

13
 #11141~ifll ~ et ~,:ft ~~ a};rT ~ m, <1\lFilrnCfl m, l"If1Jrn m;
Cffl" ~
i.1c6I?II'0I m, ~#11f1Cflm, ;:ftrn4)~ifll et a};r m ~ m ~'1IfCl#111m, ctt "&IT&:lT Cfi'<'ffi
et ctt i.1c6I?II'0I, 41 m I?11'01, ~.nfCl#111
*~~
tl ~ ~ #1l1fq~ifll a};r "&IT&:lT, i.1(q4)~ifll,
3fu fI~I\i1I?II'0I et ml .

qRCfl(?<f11('JlCfl
~ (Speculative Philosophy) ctt ~ ~ i.1(q4)~ifll 3fu #11141~ifll
tl i.1(q4)~ifll ~ ~ mi:f et ~ et ~ ~ 3l~ ~ t ~ #111!Oi'~ifll
~ ~ ~ 3l~ ~ t fCfl ~ cp:rr t 3fu ~ ~ W'i1cr t? ~ ~ cm ~
~ fcrcw!:t fCfl #1I1!Oi'~ifll cm i.1(q41~ifll ctt 3N&lT >rT~ ~ ~ ~ ~I
~, ~ 3fu Cfi'tl ChT ~ l1R1l ?'IT ctt #1I1!Oi'~ifll i.1CflI?II'0I~ ~ t ~ ~
ctt \3ffq-~ 3fu ~ ctt «lfqi.1i.1111(11~ et ~'qlCf et ~~ ~ i.1lf~Cfl ft:.RR
~ 3lf.rcwf tl ~ 3fu ~'1)\i11 3fu ~ ctt ~31T -;l OO~ i.1(q41~ifll 1R
~ ~ 3fu ~ cm a:rR i.1(q¥:fl~i'EflCjH &:fltU et Wrn ~ I fcrcw!:~ "\ill
~ m, #1114)~ifll 3fu i.1(q¥:fl~ifll ~-~ "tR ~ ~ ~ f.:r,* tl ~ 3irnR6R1
-g# #1114)~ifll ChT a};r i.1c6I?II'0I et a};r ~ ,:ft W cm ~ tl i.1c6I?II'0I~~ wt
~ ~ fuQ&Hl1"ChT 3l1q'i'.IIRCfl~ t, ~ #11141~ifll ~ et ~'qlCf cm \ilFA
~ ~HfHCfl ~ tl d~J~<oll et~, wt ctt ~ ~~ t ~~, ~ ~ ~
~ t .~ ~~ et ~'qlCf ctt \i1j:qq'5i.1R1~ #1111('JlCfl
~ tl

$ ~ (Bertrand Russell ) -;l :furerr t fCfl' ~l1cilCj ~ ctt '5I"lTfu et ~ ~

~ ~ ~ cm ~3fu ~ ~ m ctt ~ tl' ~ et -4 ~
cffil::rR ~ ~ 'WfRr m- tl ~ ~ t fCfl #111¥:fl~ifll et 3l~ ChT ~ ~
mm t fCfl ~ fCll?qlfl ~ t ~ ~, ~ t ~ 3ii.1lfCflCfl, !II~lrulCfl t ~
3i!ll~lruICflI #111¥:fl~ifll ~ ~ ctt #1111('JlCfl
~31T ChT l{~iCfl1 ~ "\i1'ffiTt 3fu
m #1111('JlCfll{~iCfl1 et ~ "WlP1 f.:r;m ~ ;fIf!."1I?11'01 ~
'\lffif t I ~ '5ICfiT(ctt
'ql1!TfChT wWT~ '01 ltRCf
"\i1'ffiTt I ;:ft I?11 m 3lfCRUT et -mT 3fu ~ ~'qlCf ctt
\3ffq 'Cfl'«fTt 3fu ~~ ltRCf ~ ~ ~ "WlP1 fflQ&H1I' ctt ~
'Cfl'«fTtl 3l(f:, ~ ~ ~ ~, -mT ~ lJffiJ ~ ~31T ChT l{~iCfl1 'Cfl'«fT
tl ~ ~ a};r l ~,#111¥:fl~ifll 3fu ;:ftf!."1I?II'0I~ -g# ~ ~ cm ~ q
~ m~ fI~ICji.11~ tl-4 -g# ~ cm ~ q ~ m et ~ ~
fI~ICjCfl ~ ~ ~ tl

~ ~ #1114)~ifll 3fu ~'11fCl#111 et ~ et ~~ ChT mm 'tR ~ ~ ~ ~

t fCfl '5r~ ~ ~ mm t 3fu ~ ChT ~ ~ 3lRPq mm t? 'q~ 3TI~
qm;y ~ ~'1lfCl#1113ltRt ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ wr tl ~'1)fc~#111'tR 3fu
~ ~31T q?'IT ~ ~ 'Cfl17.f 'Cfl'«fTt ChT 3l~ tl 3l(f:, ~.:h~#1IHCfl ~8;l,
~, mcRT ~ qRf4G1131TChT 3l~ ~ tl ~'1lfCl#111 ctt ~-~ ~ t
fCfl 'tR ~ 'Cfl17.f 'Cfl'«fTt ~ #111¥:fl~ifll ctt fCltilCjq~ ~ t fCfl 'tR ~ ~
1R 'Cfl17.f 'Cfl'«fTtl ~, ~ ChT ~ ~ ~ t ~ ~1)fCl#111 ctt ~ ~
(~ fCfl ~8;l ctt #1111('JlCfl
~, ~-~ am ~) m~~ !IIfsflCjI~
~ "\ill f'lA ~~ ~. #111!Oi'~ifll ctt ~-~ tl ~11fCl#111~'ift ~11fuCfl ~

14
(3lt-~ ~) Cfi1 m Cfi«fT i ~, ~1'i41lii~1 ~ ~1'i1\liCfi 3l~ Cfi" #i1'1tfllOiifll qfr
~.q '# ~1'i1\liCfi ~ Cfi1 m~ il ~1'i4Ilii~1 am: li11fCl~R '# ~ am ~afu~
mer ~ m ~ ~ ~.~ '# ~ ~lil'idl ~ cit ~ i \lIT f9n ~
~Y<ll«llf~ ~ ~ il

~ ]CfiR, ~1'i41lii~1 ~lil\l1~lIf5t "B m ~~ il CI'ffilCT '#, ~lil\l1~lIf5t CfiT~

fcmtr ~ i ~ '~ CfiT ~lil\l1~lIf?l' cnm ~ il ~ 3RfTffi ~ ~llilf~Cfi
~, \lIT ~ Cfi" ~ Cfi1 am ~ \lffifr t CfiT 3l~ fc8n ~ il ~, ~
~ lOll\l1~11f?l ~ Cfi" ~ llil f\l1Cfi ~ Cfi1 ~ CfiT~ -m "'R 3l~ Cfi«fT t, Cltf
"'R, ~1'i4Ilii~1 ~1'i1\liCfi ~ (~ fcFi ~<t«TI) Cfi" ctl«lfClCfi ~ Cfi",~ '# 3lfcercn
fq'f(ffi wffi iI

~ ~ ~ ~ 3lW-~ '# ~ Cfi1 ~ ~ Cfi1 ~ Cfi1 ~ fcFi ''Bm ~

~'l1TCffi: "\l1T11T~ ~'I ~ ~ i ~ ffiTT llRCf ~ '# ~ Cfi1 "W3R=r
am: ~ ~ :<:fiT ~ ~I ~ ~ CfiR1 "B it ?:J6 ~ ~ fcFi .~ ~ ~
cit ~ CfiT -w:rrn fc8n i am: mP1- mP1 ~ 'Bm \11cflctCfi 7.fT 3"1\11if> Ri Cfi mqT cit
~ CfiT-w:rrn fc8n i ~ fcFi '3"ffCfiT"BPFIT ~3TI i I 3TI1l-~ >rr=r ~ ~ cit
lfR CR ~ tfcFi cm \lIT m~ >rc'lr8TIJ~ ~ ~ cm CI'ffilCT '# ~ i I ~,
~~ "B f.rttarui ~ "'R 11ffi ~ i fcFi CI'ffilCT '# ~ ~ i I ~ I'i 4lli i~ I ~
lil'i en?1 ~/1:R Cfi1 ~ If~ ?11' am: ~ "ff\1:rr:m"B f~ GRRft i I ?:J6 ~
~~ ~.Cfi1 ~ cit ~ W il

~ ~ fcrrq cit, cm ~ fcr.<cf '# 3"I1R ~ cit ~ Cfi1 ~ W(fT il ~

Cfi1 ?:J6 m l1T?r 3l~ tTI 7.fT~ q:q IRCfi ~ '# ~ cit ~ Cfil:1T~ i I ~,
?:J6 m <it ~ ~ Cfi" ~ Cfi"~.q '# ~ cit ~ ~ tTI il ~ ~
?:J6 ~ ~ ~ fcFi '# q<:fT~ ~ (?' crm ~ ?:J6 m~ ~ fcFi ''BCL q<:fT
i?' ~ fcr.<cf am: ~ Cfi1 Cll«lfClCfidl CfiT~ ~ ~ Cfi" M''l=Ff ~ cit 11R
'# ~61?1dl Cfi«fT il ?:J6 ~ ~ cit ~ am: >RFl ~ il ~1'i4Ilii~1 Cfi" &TU
~ lj&T ~ ~ Cfi1 mi \lIT ~ ~ "B 'Pffi ~ il 310:, ?:J6 ~
fCl:qI<crcfCfi~ cit 11R Cfi" ~ mtl ~ il ~ ~ ?:J6 ~ ~ ftr.&ffi m
~ ~ i~ Cfi1 ~ ~~:m cit ~ ~ ~ ~ am: ~ cit
~ ~ ~ f.rq'tl ~1?:J6 ~ ~ am: ~ cit ~ it mcf'e!lllcrcfCfi
~ am: ~ cit ~ il ~ 3l~ '#, ?:J6, ''BCL ~ 3l1CRUT~' ~ i am:
~ ]CfiR CfiT~- ~ ~ (wisdom) Cfi" ~ 3lf.:rqp:f i I 310:, ~ Cfi1 ~ ';Jft
~ (Vincent G. Potter) ~ ~, '~f~liI1 ~ Cfi" ~ 'Baf ~ Cfi" ~ '# 'Baf
~ '\l1FR1 3"lICl~?1Cfi~ i ~ ~:m Cfi" ~ cit~:m am: ~ m~ Cfi"
~.q '# '\l1FR1 3"11
Cl~?1Cfi i I ?:J6 '~ ~ 3"I1R 3TIl:J '# q<:fTi' ~ ~ i I
dc;lj~I<, ~ ~ ~ t fcFi ~114)lii~1 ~ cit ~ CfiT ffl~11d (Maxim)
I~ cit fl' cit ~ ~ ~~Illdl ~ crmft il

15
 lint Wf 3

~cquft : Cfi) 3TtA ~ et ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ CfiT~ ~I

~) ~ et 3A ~ ~ ~ m= ~ 3TtA m= CfiTfireR ~I
1) iilI141qi~1 CfiT~ ~ ~ t?

1.7 ftHi~1
~ ~ ~ rn- iilH41qi~1 et ~q ~ ~ og;i;'qf'd~IIf541lfam: ql(tqRCfl ~31T
et 6RT ~ m~ ~ ~ ~ ~, ql(tqRCfl ~ ctT ~ ~ 6RT
rn- ~ ~ CfiTwm:r ~ t. ~ '~' ctT ~ ~ efuJ mm t am: ~
~ -srcm: ~ ~ q;«ft t ~ ~ ~ 3lmA ~ t ~ ~ ~ mmtl rn-
~ f.:ricf;t:f m ~ t ~ ~-~ 'Cfll mt(f ~ ~ ~ 51ullf\JICfl
~ fq~ql~
ctT 3ilq~lfCfldl mm tl 'tTBr~ ctT ~ ~ ~ et ~q ~ ~ ~ ~
~ Cfi"{~I ~ CfiR'UTt ~ ~ et ~ -m: ~ am: ~ 3ll~ 'Cfll ~
~ ~ l1GJT tl -Q:m lIAT ~ t ~ ~ ~ et "fl ~ -m: ctT ~6llfdl ~ ~~
~ mt(f m ~ tl ~ am: ~-311~ ~ ~ et ~ -m: -;lllRCf 'Cfll
~~6qli\l ~ 3llRA ~ "UCfiT t am: ~ ~ ctT wrfu ~ 3lfu-3ilq~lfCfl tl

~ CfiT~ ~ ~ fcrtflfT ~ ~ t ~ ~ d('C441qi~l,dc6~IIf3I, ;ftrn~IIf3I,

ql1fqiilH q ~qlliJl~IIf3I 31W::1iilH41qi~1 ~ "fl fcrtflfT -q ~ ~qHdl~ q am -m
'Cfll1lR-ffi ~, 3Rrn:, rn- ~ q6('C4,{ufCfiRU1T CfiT f.m~~ t ~ ~ ~ ~
~ llRCf 'iftcA et ~ iilI141qi~ICfiT ~ fcfiwrr dq~jlfl tl

1.8 ~~
iilH41qi~1 ~ et ~, -m: afu: ~ :mf~ddl31T CfiT
3l~ tl

~ 51qlfOlCfl
~-fq~ql~ tl ~ ~ 'Cfll ~ "CflT3l?f t
~ ~ fq~ql~ ~ am: ~ fq~ql~ 'Cfll 51qlfOld~ 7:11
16
 <:J?lTW'qq ~ ~ ~ ~ 'Cfiv:ITfcn ~ fq~qRi ~ ~"'I41qi~1 qfr
il
~afu-~

fl'~6ql<; ~ ~ mhft ~ 'Pifi:<.ffi..;q "IDCfl~ ~ ~

'PiceJiI ~ ~ ~ t ~ 3l~, I~ ~ ~',

I~ 'Cfiv:IT', I f.Rtarur 'Cfiv:IT' i I

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ >rTt(f mm i <:rJ SII"llfOld mm il ~

~ ~ "SJCfiR~ ~ 'RlS:T "lIT 3ltfUS:T 3ll'qq ~ ~
q~ il ~~ -q, ~ ~ ~ i \lIT 3ll'qq 1R f.J~ ~
tl
~ ~ ~-311'qq ~ ~ >rTt(f mm il <hl, ~ 1R ~
~~ CfiTm~~mml 3l<l:, ~~~ i~ ~
"lIT ~ 3ll'qq ~ mm tl
et c) lilriililld fcrtm: ~ \lIT JOi11C1111
3llcqql CfiT~ ~ i I
~ fftQJ;HI ,!!>f"qli!.141" ~ ~ ~ ~ ?lT1

~, ~ ~., ~ &ITtt 3ifr:F; ~ : ~ f~ $"?l:Sctfl"1, 3lICRiCflh;, 3iICRiCflli

1!1Cff4il W, 1998.
~, ~'~., Cflr2lX11W ~ 3ifr:F; ~, ~ \iRff, m*f ~ ~ ~
qfG(1fl«, 1986.

~, ~ ~., a#r 31 u:sn;d[:.:sjl 3lU:SfRf.;sII : ~ fil;ftlflrqfJ 3ifr:F; ~,

~' ~ <iR. W, 1994.
~' "Q;:tt., &ITtt 3ifr:F; ~, ~, ~f:q,*,1 <iR., ~, 1973.

lll(1II:'I(, ct-~ cl, ~ fil;ftlflrqfJ 3ifr:F; ~, ~' ~ <iR. W, 1990.

~' ~, ~ fil;ftlfllqfJ, ~, qo:llfct1 ~' 1994.

~, ~, tfuR, lflf2RII fil;ftlflrCfl7, ~, G: ilfCf+i(11 W, 1990.

WT, ~, (~.), <132<11# l!.'"ffI$WlfilU41 3ifr:F; jcpftlflrqfJ, ~ ~ ~'

<Idc<.'ilil, 1998.

• ~1
1) ~ -q ~ '6R Cffi'it ~ -q 1Cffl"~' (know thay ), I~ ~' ~

3TI'ti6ltfCR141" CfiT ~ mm il ~ ~ ~ mhft ~ ~ CfiT ~ ~

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3l~ -q ~ mm il ~ m<:r ~ cx:rfcR:r, ~ 3l~ ~ CfiTI ~' CfiTGJCrT
~ ~I ~ ~ ~ CfiT~ Cfl~-Cfl~ ~ ~ ~ -srfu 1ft '6R' ~ 3l~
-q ~ ~ ~I Cfl~-Cfl~ ~ 'JOi11fC!#flf1Cfl ~' Cfft 3TI~ ~ ~ -q ~ 17
 ~ men ~I 'Cffl"~' (knowing that) 3tR:'~~' (knowinghow)
~ -q 3RR ~I '~ ~' CfiT m fclim "5fCfiR et Cfiiwr q;l ~ et ~
fcF;"lrr ~ ~; ~ fcn ~ ~ Cfi1 ~ Wr ~ ~I ~ '3<:;16{01-q ~ cnW
m CfiT Cfiiwr \ifffifT 'l:ft m err 'l:ft Cffl" ~ f.p.p:ff Cfi1 ~ ~ ~ ~ 1
310:, ~ 11< "6ll '~ ~' aTI~ICfiT m ~ Wt ~ '3<:;16{01et
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et ~ q;l ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ et -qm ~ "5fCfiR CfiT ~men ~ Cffl"
~ ~ ~ q;l ~ 'l:ft ~ ~I aTI~ <:;1!(Tf'"iCfl
'Cffl" ~', 3l~ Cf~ ~
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~ men ~I '~' (tokn~w) CfiT ~ 3l~ 'dc6C1ICf<lI,l""JCfl~' Cfl6<?1ldl~I
>rrtfR 1fTct:i "CflR'f ~ ~ (fCfl" ~ 41l""JiflCflI'';) ~ dc6C1ICf<lI,l""JCfl
~ Cfi1 ~~
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2) fct!(Cl1ft q;l fclim dchCl1Cf<lCfi1 ~ q;l ~ fclim flflIl q;fj4 dI et ~ ~

m- et ~ -q -qft~ fcF;"lrr ~ ~ 1 fq!(CIIfI ~ et G.T M'lF1' 3l~ ~ ~
(

*' ~ ~
.Cbelieve in) <IT 'fq!(CllfI ~'
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(to trust) ~ ~I ~
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~ ~.4::Rf ~ Sll""JlfOICflfq!(CllfI 'l:ft m ~I 310:, ~ et ~ ~
fq!(CllfI m~ ~ ~ Cf4Tfcn ~ fq!(CllfI ~ m<f ~I 310:, ~ ~~;
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W ~ 3tR: '4R cnW fq!(CllfI ~ ~ m lffiIT err ~ ~ ~ "Cflm ~ ~I
fi:n< fq!(CllfI 3tR: ~ et 3iRl~CR1 ~ Cfi1 W q;l ~ ~ et ~
Sll""JIOOCfl{OI
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~ ~.4::Rf ~ fcn ~ ~ fCl!(ClIft CfiT ~ "5fCfiR ~ 9)f~Cfl{OI fcF;"lrr ~ ~
~I ~~ -q, "6ll ~ ~ -q ~ ~ ~ Cfi1 fcfi'B "5fCfiR 'fcF.m: fct~CllfI ~
~ ~a:rr~ Cfi1 3iR 3imR men ~I fq!(CllfI et wcmr ~ 3tR: Sll""JIOOCfl{OI
~ m<f ~ ~ >rr=<lmen ~I ~ ~ fq!(Cllft Cfi1 HP-?'iilddl <IT Sll""JlfOlCfldl3tR:
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~·et ~ '6RT ~ 3tR: ~ f.r1l:R ~~ wnurr ~ '6RT ~I

~~2
1) fI'~!(IClI<:;Cffl" i!J!(Tf'"iCfl'fcF.m: ~ ~ ~ ~ Cfi1 ~ mfl:rn ~ Cf4Tfcn
<IT err ~ ~ CllfdfqCfl ~ q;l ~ -q ~ ~ ~ <IT CllfdfClCfl ~ q;l
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M'lF1' lldT et ~ CXJ~ 'fcF.m: m et CfiRUT fI'~6C11<:;CfiT ~ ~I 3tR:
M'lF1' CXJT~ 'fcF.m: Tf~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ fcn 'Cf<lT~ et-qm
~ ~ ~ (fCfl" ~ Cfi1 ~ tl ~ ~ fcn ~ ~ lf1 Cfi1
18
 cm"dfcp.fldI ~ ~ Cfft w:Rt ~ ~ mm t 31cf:,~ m~ ~ ~ #l1'141qi~1 ~
~4lfUld m: fcRrn: ~ cfi ~
cnB cfi 7.1Tnr 1@ t fen ~ ~ "lIT ~ ~I ~afu'~
mm, ~ II(?1ctl4i cn@ ~ afu: m m ~ ~ ~ fen ~ ~ ~I ~
.WlTICRT m ~ ~. lTffif m Cfft m tl
2) ~fo&qli\ cfi fBO&I~ cfi ~ ~~ ~. q;r ~ ~ ~ mu ~ tl
~fo&qlf~lIl' cfi ~ m~ 3l1~ ~ Wl ~ ~ mer ~I cni ~
'R ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~-~ ~ qf{qd"il?n(?1 afu:
Ilfcwn(?1 mm tl 31cf: ~ ~ 'R ~: fql?ql'El 1@ fcfiGrr ~ ~ afu:
~filf(?1(( ~ ~~. Cfft 3ilql?4Cfidl tl Qf{0IlJ4d:, -Q:B "ij~~ ~ ~

a#fqp:f afu: "BTCf~ 1@ ~ ~I i\1l?fHCfi ~ ~ ~ cfi Cfl~ 'R

a:rrmfuf 1@ m ~l ~ ~ ~ Cfl~ 'R a:rrmfuf ~ ~ ~ "BTCf~,
a#fqp:f afu: 'Rl\ ~~ ml 31cf:, ~f~ql<;l ~'l1fc.rcfl ~ 'R fql?qlfl cn@ ~I
~fo&qlfi\41' cfi ~, ~ ~ ~ t 31~ <t ~ ~ it ~ cfi "fIT~ ~I
~,m ~ ~ ~~ (understanding) q;r ~ tl ~ 3W,
3l1~ cfi fBO&H"Icfi ~ ~ ~ afu: ~ ~~ (understanding)
Cfft ~ 3l1~ -q t afu: fcM-q ~ ~ ~ ~ 31Jcqql -q t ~~ ~ ~
>IfC<f mer ~ I 3l1~ ~ cfi ~.4:i -q "Bm 3l1~ ~ W'lTICRT31TCfiT~~
cn@ ~I ~ ~an, ~ "4FRT t fen, I~ (intellect) -q -Q:mfcM-q ~
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mar t afu: ~ m~ m lR -q ~ err "B6l ~ m~ cfi "fIT~ ~
cfi CfiT"{UT>IfC<f ~ ~I ~ftlf(?1Q;, ~'l1fc.rcfl llT&f11 ~ "ij~ ~ ~ "l1RT

m:r~ tl 3l1~ ~ "ij~ ~ >IfC<f ~ t fen ~ 3l1~

~ ~ ~ mu
>IfC<f ~ m ~, ~ 3l1~ ~ ~ mn Cfft fcfim m ~ W-Tfu ~
OO~ 1@ Cf1«ITI 3l1~ afu: ~fO&qli\ cfi ll~ "lI'it ~ tl

~~3

1) fCfilf<?1fflCfi ~ Cfft -eJ ~ dfCl4141f11 afu: ~H4141f11 tl dfCl4141f11 -q ~

~ cfi 31fuTcq cfi ~ -q 31~ cn@ ~ ~ ~HlOi141f11 -q ~ ~ 31~
cn@ ~ fen ~ CFITt afu: ~ ~ ~ t? ~H4141f11 afu: dfCl4141f11~
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~H4141f11 ~ ~-~ Cfft Cfft
~'I:fClT -q
Cfft ~ ~ tl ~H4141f11 mm
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fcfiGrr ~ t afu: m ~Hk4Cfi lO[~ICfi"i cfi fffi; -w:rp:J f.r;rl:r ~ \lfRf ~I ~
~, ;fl RWlf?I l1RCf ~ cfi ~ afu: ~ ~cqyq Cfft ~ Cf1«ITt afu:
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41Ifq~l"i afu: ~1"i414ifll ~ -iT~.4:i ~ llm t ~ 41Ifq~l"i qft.~
~ (~ fen ~8:T Cfft ~HI\4Cfi ~,~-~ afu: ~). it err ~
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19
 ~ (~ ~ '~, >W<r ~ ~) "# fq~cllfl CfiB "# f161lfCfl ~, "B" ~'I:«f ~
crm ~H414ifll ~ ~ qi- ~-~ qi- ~ (~ qft ~ \ill fq~qlfl ~
~ ~ ~ ~ "lIT ~) "B" ~~ ~I

2) ~Hql4ifll ~ 4Hcfllf ~ qft ~lfCk"P"lI· am ~ mman "B" 31CrTCf cnmit ~I

~ "6l1it ~~ CfiB qft ~ "Cfll ~ ~ ~I ~ ~ am ~
~ "# 3RR ~ CfiB ~ 514lfblCfldl qft ~ CfiB "# "Ba:P1 ~I ~ ~ ~
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am fq~ql(11d ~ (transcendental truths) "Cfll~"# f16llfdl ~ ~I am:,
~ % ~ ~ fq; ~ ~ ~ "Cfll WfimJ qi- ftr.&ffi 'm "Cfll\ifRT' "Cfll

~ "# f16llfdl ~ ~ ~I

20