The Critical Resolved Shear Stress (CRSS)

• The yield stress sy varies if single crystals of different orientations are deformed.
• A dislocation moves when it becomes subject to a force which has a component
parallel to the slip plane in the slip direction. Hence, it is not the applied tensile
stress, rather the resolved shear stress in the slip system that causes dislocation
motion.

𝐹 cos 𝜆 𝐹
𝜏= = cos 𝜆 cos 𝜅 = 𝜎 cos 𝜆 cos 𝜅
𝐴 𝐴
cos 𝜅

The factor m=cosl.cosk is called Schmid-

factor and assumes values 0 ≤ 𝑚 ≤ 0.5 for
tensile deformation.

1
 Schmid's Law

With Schmid's law the active slip systems of a single crystal can be determined.
The slip system with the highest Schmid-factor will reach the critical resolved shear
stress first and, therefore, carry the plastic deformation.

For tensile stress applied in the [001]-[011]-[-111] unit triangle, the most highly
stressed slip system (highest Schmid factor) has a (111) slip plane and a [-101]
slip direction.
W. F. Hosford. The mechanics of crystals and textured polycrystals 2
Schmid's Law
active slip systems
Single, double and multiple slip

3
Schmid's Law
active slip systems
In addition to the primary slip system in a given triangle, there are systems with
smaller resolved shear stresses. Particular names are given to some of these.

Pr: Primary
Co: Conjugate Co
Cross Pr CP
Cr: Critical
CP: Co-planar
Cr
Cross: Cross slip system
CP

4
Crystal rotation during deformation

The slip process induces crystal lattice rotation, which will bring the crystal in a
position corresponding to the strain forced upon it, e.g. in tension the active slip
direction approaches the tensile axis. Thus the Schmid-factor changes.
This can lead to the initiation of slip on a different system.

Akhtar S. Khan, Continuum Theory of Plasticity 5

 Crystal rotation during deformation

This rotation is represented by the rotation of the tensile axis relative to the
crystal lattice in the standard stereographic projection.

-101

-112

001 011

W. F. Hosford. The mechanics of crystals and textured polycrystals 6

Crystal rotation during deformation
Geometry of deformation
Latent hardening and overshooting

Overshooting : Upon arrival at the symmetry line, the primary slip system
continues to dominate.

This" overshooting" is a result of latent hardening, which means that the secondary
slip system is hardened because of the activation of the primary slip system
Crystal rotation during deformation
Geometry of deformation
Latent hardening experiment
In a primary test a specimen is oriented for single slip on system α and strained
up to γα.
In a successive secondary test on a part of the same specimen, another previously
latent slip system β is activated.
The amount of latent hardening is directly observable through comparison of the
back-extrapolated initial yield stress τβ in the secondary test with the stress level
τα at the pre-strain γα in the primary test.

latent hardening ratio (LHR) = τβ / τα

Strain Hardening of fcc Single Crystals
Geometry of deformation

Calculation of the shear stress-shear strain curve τ(γ) from the recorded σ(ε)
curve, requires taking into account the change of the Schmid-factor with
deformation.
s Δ AEB : Cos κ0=AE/l0
s Δ AEC : Cos κ=AE/l
Δ ADB : Sin λ0=AD/l0
Δ ADC : Sin λ=AD/l

ε = (l-l0)/l0= l/l0 -1 à
Strain Hardening of fcc Single Crystals
Geometry of deformation
Strain Hardening of fcc Single Crystals
Strain hardening

The shear stress-shear strain curves of single crystals of different orientations are
very different although similar in character.
Elastic properties of dislocations
Stress fields of dislocations (Screw dislocation)
Elastic properties of dislocations
Stress fields of dislocations (Screw dislocation)

Eq. 6.40
 Elastic properties of dislocations
Stress fields of dislocations (Edge dislocation)

Eq. 6.42 & 6.43

The existence of normal stresses can be understood from the atomistic structure of an edge dislocation. Above the slip
plane the lattice is squeezed, corresponding to compressive stresses, while underneath the dislocation core the lattice
is dilated leading to tensile stresses.

Fig. 6.35
Elastic properties of dislocations

So far we have neglected the dislocation core, where Hooke's law does not hold
anymore because of the large distortions.

For an assessment of the radial size of the dislocation core ro, we can utilize the fact
that the elastic stresses can never exceed the theoretical shear stress (6.30).

In case of a screw dislocation:

Elastic properties of dislocations
Energy of dislocations

The energy associated with a dislocation is the energy required to distort the lattice
surrounding the dislocation elastically.
Consider an element of length L and thickness dr at a distance r from the center of
a screw dislocation.

The volume of the element, dV = 2πrLdr

Shear strain associated with this element, γ = b/(2πr )

The energy/volume associated with an elastic

distortion, Ev = (1/2)τγ L

τ=Gγ
τ
Ev = (1/2)τγ

γ
Elastic properties of dislocations
Energy of dislocations
Screw dislocations
dV= 2πrLdr
γ = b/(2πr )
Ev = (1/2)τγ L
τ=Gγ

Ev = (1/2)Gγ2 = (1/2)Gb2/(2πr )2

dE: The elastic energy associated with the element

dE = Ev . dV= (1/2)Gb2/(2πr )2. 2πrLdr = (Gb2L/4πr ) dr/r

Elastic properties of dislocations
Energy of dislocations
Screw dislocations

Edge dislocations

The distortion is severe near the dislocation but decreases with distance from it.
This analysis neglects the energy of the dislocation core.

The total energy per unit length of a dislocation is:

Elastic properties of dislocations
Energy of dislocations

The total energy per unit length for an edge dislocation:

The total energy per unit length for a screw dislocation:

Elastic properties of dislocations
Energy of dislocations

r0 ≈ b ≈ 1Å ≈ 10-10 m

R0 ≈ grain size ≈ µm ≈ 10-6 m

υ = 0.3

Ed ≈ α G b2 [J/m] α: 0.5 - 1.0

Dislocation density: ρ

Etotal =ρ Ed = α G b2 ρ [J/m3]
 Interaction of dislocations
Force acting on dislocations: Peach - Koehler equation

Work of slip W necessary to displace the top part of the crystal by the distance b:
W=t . l1 . l3 . b
the exact same deformation can be accomplished by the motion of a dislocation through
the distance l1.

W=F . l3 . l1

where F is the force per unit length

then:
F= t b
For a general stress state:

F= (s.b) x s
Interaction of dislocations

The force of interaction is given by the Peach-Koehler equation

F=(σ.b) x S

F12 : force, which dislocation 1 with stress field σ1 exerts on

dislocation 2 with Burger’s vector b2 and line segment S2
Screw dislocations
Two parallel or anti-parallel screw dislocations:
F12 = (σ1.b2) x S2
Interaction of dislocations
Screw dislocations
Two parallel or anti-parallel screw dislocations:
F12 = (σ1.b2) x S2
Interaction of dislocations

Two parallel screw dislocations: i.e. b1=b2

Y

X
Fx>0
Repelling forces
Fy>0
Fz=0

Two anti-parallel screw dislocations: i.e. b1=-b2

Y
X

Fx<0 X
Attractive forces
Fy<0
Fz=0
Interaction of dislocations
Edge dislocations

If b1 = b2 :

Fy
Fx
Interaction of dislocations
Polygonization
A periodic arrangement of many dislocations on top of each other corresponds to
the structure of a symmetrical low angle tilt grain boundary , which is known to form
during recovery processes by rearrangement of dislocations.
 Interaction of dislocations
Passing stress
For a large scale displacement of a dislocation, the force Fmaxx has to be overcome.

where α1 is the geometrical factor and d = 1/ √ρ is the average spacing of

dislocations
The passing stress is due to the interaction forces between dislocations of parallel
slip systems.
 Interaction of dislocations

Cutting stress

Dislocations of non-parallel (secondary) slip systems intersect the primary slip

plane and have to be cut through by primary dislocations during their motion.
During the cutting process in both the cutting and the cut dislocations, steps are
generated of size and orientation of the Burgers vector of the reaction partner.
We discriminate two types of steps : kink and jog

Kink and Jog

A jog is a break in the dislocation line moving it out of the slip plane.
A kink is a break in the dislocation line which remains in the slip plane.
Jog or Kink form when the Burger’s vector of the intersecting dislocation is
normal to the dislocation line.
Interaction of dislocations
Interaction of dislocations
Kink and Jog
Kinks can be removed by dislocation motion while jogs are immobile and cause
the formation of dislocation dipoles on dislocation motion.
Interaction of dislocations
Kink and Jog

The cutting process always creates at least one step which is associated with an
increase of the energy of the affected dislocation, namely by the energy of the
newly generated section of the dislocation line αGb2b.

If the average free dislocation line length = Lf

the force acting at the point of dislocation intersection: F = τcbLf

Energy balance:
α2 G b2 . b = τc b Lf . b
τc = α2 G b / Lf = α2 G b √ρf

τ0 = τpass + τc ρp ~ ρ and ρf ~ ρ

τ0 = α1 G b √ρp + α2 G b √ρf = α G b √ρ