Title: Mastering the Challenge of Writing a Literature Review on African Swine Fever

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Arvo Viltrop represents an ASF affected country, Estonia, Vittorio Guberti represents Italy that has
been affected by ASF on the island of Sardinia for more than 35 years. Twenty-three genotypes
have been described based on the partial sequences of the p72 gene ( 3, 4 ). Dressing facilities would
be used if they have tap water, electricity, freezers, and waste water collection. This objective may be
aided by decision-support tools to prioritize and harmonize efforts on individual farms. Any product
that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not
guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher. Although signs of ASF and classical swine fever (CSF)
may be similar, the ASF virus is unrelated to the CSF virus. For this reason, free-range management
practices in communal areas or public forest with no biosecurity measures nor veterinary control have
been banned ( 5, 16, 20, 23 ), such as in Sardinia since 2012 ( 20 ). However, it has been also
suggested that this ban may be deemed effective only in regions where the habitat is unsuitable for
wild boar and where feeding caused artificial population establishment ( 53 ). Epizootiology,
laboratory and virulence analyses during the emergency phase of the African swine fever eradication
program in Brazil in 1978: a historic account. Cleaning and disinfection protocols have to be applied
after slaughtering on the facilities and to the slaughter tools ( 15, 16 ). Assessment of the risk of
African swine fever introduction into Finland using NORA-a rapid tool for semiquantitative
assessment of the risk. According to this expert panel, the most important preventive measures for
commercial, non-commercial, and outdoor farms were the identification of animals and farm records;
enforcement of the ban on swill feeding; and containment of pigs to not allow contact with pigs
from other farms, feral pigs, or wild boar or their products. This manual is based on the manual on
ASF (FAO Animal Health Manual No. 11) published in 2001, updated to capture new knowledge
and adapted to cover European settings. Early detection may even be associated with additional
losses for the individual producer: it implies contacting the CA as soon as suspect—and typically
unspecific—signs are noticed and being imposed a standstill while waiting for laboratory results.
The interval between disease confirmation and eradication dates was short: for 5 of the 12 infected
farms, the date of confirmation and the eradication date coincided, while, in other cases, a maximum
of 5 days elapsed between confirmation and eradication. The explained process was individually
performed by three reviewers following the mentioned exclusion criteria in order to cross-check
selected literature and resolve any disagreement. Thirty five-year presence of African swine fever in
Sardinia: history, evolution and risk factors for disease maintenance. He blew the whistle with a post
on Weibo, a Chinese social media platform. Articles written in English, French, Spanish, and Italian
were included. In the early stages, farmers voluntarily depopulated their premises. Due to its
complex epidemiology, the disease has expanded relentlessly since 2018, affecting more than 50
countries 2. Attitudes and beliefs of pig farmers and wild boar hunters towards reporting of african
swine fever in bulgaria, germany and the western part of the russian federation. With most piggeries
in Asia being small-scale and the spread of the virus showing no signs of abating, what are the
implications for pig farmers and the global trade of the world’s primary source of protein. Having
lost 308 of their 500-odd pigs to a “fever” since April, they finally informed the state’s Animal
Husbandry and Veterinary Department, whose officials visited their piggery in Sateek village, on the
outskirts of state capital Aizawl, on June 18. This approach would require a legal basis and
endorsement by the competent authority (CA). Table 3 summarizes the literature analysis according
to surveillance and intervention strategies. Candidate variables were alternative modeled as
standardized continuous variables or categorized as binomial variables (above, below the median). It
is a major hub of trade between Myanmar’s Chin State and Mizoram. Thus, control and eradication
of this disease still relies on rapid detection in field followed by the application of strict sanitary
measures. These measures were effective in addressing a number of outbreaks, as exemplified in the
Czech Republic's first experience of ASF.
African Swine Fever in Wild Boar and African Wild Suids (2015). Given the continued expansion of
ASF worldwide and the challenges with existing control efforts, there is a need for alternative
disease management and control approaches that allow producers to better handle disease risk and
impact in an endemic area or during an active epidemic. Originally from Saskatoon, she is also the
author of two collections of poetry, a biography, and a novel called Mad Cow. A serum survey was
carried out at slaughterhouse and at farm levels. After the virus introduction into the Russian
Federation in 2007 ( 20 ), in order to mitigate the risk of ASFV spread toward the EU, the EU
Member States bordering the Russian Federation implemented specific protection measures.
Diagnosi e interventi nel territorio di giurisdizione della stazione sperimentale zooprofilattica del
mezzogiorno—Portici. Besides the wild boar population and habitat, the current European
epidemiological situation also implicates humans as the main cause of both long-distance
transmission and virus introduction to domestic pig farms ( 90 ). African swine fever in wild boar in
Europe: a notable challenge. That in turn has led to an increase in overall inflation - pork alone was
responsible for two-thirds of October's rise of 3.8% - beyond the government's target of 3%. The
use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the
copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance
with accepted academic practice. Due to its complex epidemiology, the disease has expanded
relentlessly since 2018, affecting more than 50 countries 2. If the virus reaches Canada, it would
devastate the pork sector, says the Alberta veterinarian, seen here in an affected area in south China
late last year. Photo. Persons with disabilities who require alternative means of communication for
program information (e.g., Braille, large print, audiotape, American Sign Language, etc.) should
contact the responsible State or local Agency that administers the program or USDA’s TARGET
Center at (202) 690-0443 (voice and TDD) or contact USDA through the Federal Relay Service at
(800) 877-8339. Review of African swine fever: transmission, spread and control. Moreover, experts
were encouraged to suggest additional measures if they thought they were missing. As there is no a
vaccine against ASF, biosecurity is key to prevent its spread between and within domestic pig farms.
This study identified thirty-seven preventive measures aimed at reducing the spread of ASF among
domestic pigs. Yet, her pig farming business took an unexpected turn in 2019, when African swine
fever (ASF) hit her country for the first time. Additional papers were found by manual searching or
by screening the primary sources of information. Budapest: Faculty of Veterinary Science, Szent
Istvan University (2016). This hypothesis is supported by the progressive disappearance of classical
swine fever and ASF in wild boar only by controlling the grazing of domestic pigs, and by the time
sequence of the reports of disease, which occur first in domestic pigs and after in wild boars. These
measures were aimed at reducing the risk of spread of the disease to domestic pig farms and its
transmission between wild boar populations. All the articles written in languages other than English,
French, Spanish, and Italian were excluded. Subscribe to the monthly newsletter and stay informed
on the organisation’s latest activities at both global and regional levels. Two European countries have
managed to eradicate the disease and submitted a self-declaration of freedom: Belgium (event
resolved in March 2020) and Czech Republic (event resolved in April 2018). However, with the
increasing spread of ASF worldwide, Partitioning can also have value in free areas under increased
ASF risk of introduction, for preparedness and to increase the chance of early detection when ASF is
introduced into a new area, before it further spreads. The remaining 35% were located in mosaic
agroforestry areas and buffer monoculture areas surrounding natural landscapes where agro-livestock
activities are usually concentrated ( 28 ). Ultimately, it is in the interest of the producers to
implement these processes properly to have a chance to prevent on-farm ASF spread and qualify for
targeted depopulation. Although the flu cannot be transmitted to humans and other livestock, it has
greatly devastated and affected nearly a third of the nation's 12.8 million pig herd which translates
badly to the swine industry. Therefore, joined efforts focusing on the domestic pig sector and wild
boar need to be applied in parallel. Generally, the basis of such ASF control and eradication
programs is strict sanitary measures, including stamping-out policy and movement control ( 7 ).
Such knowledge will help to improve the effectiveness of ASF-eradication program in Sardinia and
in other ASF-infected territories. You can order these items and more via our online order form. A
review published in Porcine Health and Management presents recent developments in the
epidemiological understanding of African swine fever, based on the current epidemic in Europe and
Asia. The incurable disease, which can be spread via fomites and in uncooked pig products, is
wreaking havoc on hog industries in China and Southeast Asia. It is a major hub of trade between
Myanmar’s Chin State and Mizoram. Susceptible pigs can be infected by direct or indirect contact
with infectious animals or their fluids, ingestion of contaminated animal feed, pork, or pig products,
or contact with contaminated surfaces or fomites (clothing, footwear, vehicles, farming tools, etc.)
acting as mechanical vectors ( 1 ). This is relevant both early, immediately after the introduction of
ASF into a country or region, as well as when ASF has become endemic. In Mizoram, the
government data shows ASF has caused severe losses, claiming more than 8,130 pigs in 10 of the
state’s 11 districts by June 29. The response variable was whether or not the commune reported ASF
outbreaks from 1993 to 2009 (yes, no). In addition to this, the Danish regulation applies a 48 h
quarantine period before the next movement of animals ( 27 ). African wild suids may be infected
without showing clinical signs, allowing them to act as reservoirs. Thus, control and eradication of
this disease still relies on rapid detection in field followed by the application of strict sanitary
measures. The figure was originally published in Emerg Infect Dis 24, 810 African swine fever (ASF)
epidemiology is a complex affair. Given the continued expansion of ASF worldwide and the
challenges with existing control efforts, there is a need for alternative disease management and
control approaches that allow producers to better handle disease risk and impact in an endemic area
or during an active epidemic. Therefore, a hunting regulation plan, aimed at increasing the
biosecurity level of hunting, as well as effective monitoring of the epidemiological situation were
applied, and additional actions to limit wild boar population density were promoted. A farm may
represent, for example, common ownership, taxes, property, location of land dedicated to agricultural
purposes. Non-commercial farms are built for own consumption purposes, investment is minimum
and animals could be fed on kitchen leftovers ( 88 ). The additional papers found as supplementary
source of information were used if they met the eligibility criteria or if they complemented some
information already achieved through the primary source of information. Also, the probability of a
false positive may increase if criteria for suspecting a case are changed and become extremely
sensitive, e.g., if the alarm is raised as soon as any potential sign of disease (e.g., loss of appetite,
depression, or fever) is noticed on a single animal. Repopulation was done after 6 months from the
date of the culling of the last animal. Returning trucks should be cleaned and disinfected at the farm
where pigs are unloaded ( 45 ). The government has released supplies from its strategic reserves of
frozen pork. Systematic review of surveillance systems and methods for early detection of exotic,
new and re-emerging diseases in animal populations. This cycle focuses on the wild boar population
and its habitat as a virus reservoir ( 37 ). After the virus introduction into the Russian Federation in
2007 ( 20 ), in order to mitigate the risk of ASFV spread toward the EU, the EU Member States
bordering the Russian Federation implemented specific protection measures. Thus it becomes crucial
to include social science when planning prevention-, control-, or eradication measures. Its latest
victim is India, where cases have been reported since May 2020 but have exploded in the past couple
of months. With such Partitioning approach, individual producers may reduce ASF risk on a farm
and in the region, while also reducing ASF outbreak losses via targeted depopulation of affected
units. All the articles dealing with ASF surveillance and control measures in countries where the
disease was not eradicated, they were excluded. This type of farm is common in countries such as
Romania ( 46 ), Bulgaria ( 80 ), Poland ( 87 ), or Sardinia (Italy) ( 6, 23 ), among others.
The number of open fattening farms, the total number of pigs, and the proportion of open farms
were marginal significant ( P 4. Early detection may even be associated with additional losses for the
individual producer: it implies contacting the CA as soon as suspect—and typically
unspecific—signs are noticed and being imposed a standstill while waiting for laboratory results.
Animal Disease Notification System (ADNS): Outbreaks per Disease (2017). In most affected areas,
official control programs are in place to contain and eradicate the disease, following the guidelines
from the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) ( 2, 5, 6 ). Between 1971 and 1980, ASF
appeared in several American countries: Cuba, in 1971 and again in 1980; Brazil in 1978; the
Dominican Republic in 1978 and Haiti in 1979 ( 67, 76 ). African Swine Fever Strategy for Eastern
Part of the European Union. Risk of African swine fever introduction into the European Union
through transport-associated routes: returning trucks and waste from international ships and planes.
The highly contagious and deadly disease affects both domestic and feral (wild) pigs and there is no
treatment or vaccine available for it. Partitioning would contribute to the improved resilience and
sustainability of the global pork industry and will benefit consumers and society through improved
food security and animal welfare. Modelling African swine fever presence and reported abundance
in the Russian Federation using national surveillance data from 2007 to 2014. Candidate variables
were alternative modeled as standardized continuous variables or categorized as binomial variables
(above, below the median). You also have the option to opt-out of these cookies. Use of test and
removal strategy to contain an ASFV outbreak in a farm. Both the systematic literature review as
well as the expert opinion elicitation, highlighted three main areas where preventive measures would
be very relevant to halt ASF spread in the domestic pig population: (1) control of entries into the
farm, (2) control of pigs’ feed, and (3) improvement of health services and education. Transmission
routes of African swine fever virus to domestic pigs: current knowledge and future research
directions. Despite this, in 2014 ASF entered Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland, where the
disease has become endemic in the wild boar population ( 25 ), whereas the sporadic outbreaks
occurring in domestic pigs have been efficiently controlled, thus preventing extensive secondary
spread ( 26 ). Given the continued expansion of ASF worldwide and the challenges with existing
control efforts, there is a need for alternative disease management and control approaches that allow
producers to better handle disease risk and impact in an endemic area or during an active epidemic.
This is because additional surveillance gets more cost-effective as the risk of outbreak and
subsequent full depopulation increases. Reproduction and dissemination of material in this
information product for educational or other non-commercial purposes are authorized without any
prior written permission from the copyright holders provided the source is fully acknowledged.
Furthermore, the complex cycle of the disease, involving probable interaction between wild and
domestic suids in the grazing areas (wild boar was considered to represent a potential virus reservoir),
and the role of O. All authors read, reviewed, and approved the final manuscript. The late diagnosis
allowed ASF to spread throughout the whole province of Havana and was confined to the province (
51 ). The Directive lays down the measures to be taken in the infected area and the provisions to
apply on the holdings of that area. The infected animals develop fever and their skin turns purple,
with watery discharge from the eyes and severe, bloody diarrhoea before death. This outbreak was
effectively controlled and eradicated in June 1958. Epidemiology of classical swine fever in
Sardinia: a serological survey of wild boar and comparison with African swine fever. People reported
big carcasses flowing in rivers criss-crossing the international border,” A Chakraborty, director of
research, North Eastern Regional Disease Diagnostic Laboratory, Guwahati, tells Down To Earth
(DTE). At the same time, countries may also self-declare the absence of ASF from their territory on a
voluntary basis. Modeling the live-pig trade network in Georgia: implications for disease prevention
and control. The ASF virus can last for long periods in contaminated environments or cured pork
products, which can be a source of infection or introduction of the disease to distant areas.
However, ASFV does not recognize country borders and if considering the viral circulation in
connected wild boar populations, progress of the virus in the border areas can be foreseen.
Regulatory certainty gives individual producers a financial motivation to invest in measures to meet
such requirements, in exchange for the possibility to reduce their losses. Best Available Techniques
(BAT) Reference Document for the Intensive Rearing of Poultry or Pigs. African swine fever: how
can global spread be prevented. Any hunting equipment used as well as the dog’s coat should be
cleaned and disinfected ( 42 ). Agricultural diseases on the move early in the third millennium.
Therefore, ASF rapidly spread throughout the country affecting 25,100 pigs and 304 premises.
Comparison of loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) and cross-priming amplification
(CPA) for detection of African swine fever virus. The countries that succeeded in eradicating the
disease teach us that prompt eradication can be achieved only by applying early detection and proper
control and intervention strategies, as foreseen by the EU legal framework for ASF. An analysis of
the 1978 African swine fever outbreak in Brazil and its eradication. In: Proceeding of the 101st
Conference of Research Workers in Animal Diseases. As a result of this literature review, 153
references were selected; and the most updated and reliable information data on the identified risk
factors were gathered per commune from national and international sources (Table 1 ). It is vital for
everyone to know about ASF and how to prevent it, while keeping the U.S. pig population healthy.
African swine fever: how can global spread be prevented. Epidemiology of African swine fever in
Poland since the detection of the first case. All the articles dealing with ASF surveillance and
control measures in countries where the disease was eradicated, they were included. Hunted wild
boar should be tested and only released after receiving negative results. On the other hand, the viral
spread could evolve in an endemic manner, in both the domestic and wild populations, due to its
persistence in vectors or wild hosts, or due to human factors. This will foster practice-based
knowledge and encourage producers' “buy-in” and compliance, as compared with a strictly
regulatory imposition of biosecurity standards. However, without an ASF vaccine, prevention of ASF
becomes very challenging for the European pig sector. Consequently, the EU elaborated a guidance
where minimum biosecurity measures on farms were defined and biosecurity was enhance to
minimize the risk of spread from wild boar ( 15, 63 ). The analysis of available data regarding the
incidence of ASF outbreaks in certain non-EU Countries authorizes the suspect of lack of
information. Update on the Epidemiological Situation, Control and Surveillance Measures Applied as
Regards African Swine Fever in Romania (2017). Officials are now clueless about how the disease
reached the districts of Phek and Kiphire. African Swine Fever in the Russian Federation: Risk
Factors for Europe and Beyond (2013). These programmes are designed to empower and guide
countries in the development and implementation of sustainable national plans which go well
beyond purely veterinary matters. After identifying a strong spatial structure in the data using a
Bernoulli scan statistic model (SaTScan v9.1.1.), we decided to include in the model spatially
structured ( S i ) and unstructured ( U i ) random effects to account for unmeasured factors that had
some spatial structure and that were randomly distributed, respectively. Appropriate surveillance
capable of early detection of the disease in both domestic and wild animals, and the implementation
of consolidated contingency plans, are currently considered the best means of controlling this
disease. Used to track the information of the embedded YouTube videos on a website. The program
consisted of three stages of actions, namely, attack, consolidation, and maintenance stages.
Reports from Belgium, Brazil, Cuba, the Dominican Republic and Haiti, France, mainland Italy,
Malta, Portugal, and Spain were included. Biosecurity is the most important and effective measure
available to prevent and control African swine fever. African swine fever in wild boar ecology and
biosecurity. As a reaction to this large number of outbreaks and cases, the Community Veterinary
Emergency Team recommended several measures such as: (i) focus surveillance on wild boar and
domestic pigs, (ii) implement control of animal movements, (iii) safe disposal of wild boar carcasses,
(iv) avoid swill feeding practices, (v) implement biosecurity on farms, (vi) conduct awareness
campaigns and finally, and (vii) review wild boar hunting practices ( 11 ). Although the flu cannot be
transmitted to humans and other livestock, it has greatly devastated and affected nearly a third of the
nation's 12.8 million pig herd which translates badly to the swine industry. This Decision establishes
animal health control measures on the movement, dispatch of pigs and certain pig products, and
marking pig meat from the areas at risk of infection in order to prevent the spread of ASF to other
areas of the Union. On the other hand, “ risk ” means the likelihood of the occurrence and the likely
magnitude of the biological and economic consequences of an adverse event or effect to animal or
human health ( 14 ). In: Terrestrial Animal Health Code. 2021st ed. World Organisation for Animal
Health (2021). It is caused by a DNA virus of the Asfarviridae family. Modeling to support the
design of on-farm surveillance for Partitioning is being conducted. In these cases, the eradication
strategies are less effective and very expensive to apply in terms of direct and indirect costs. But
does that mean every traveller coming into Canada is getting the message? No. In the EU,
movements of pigs or pig products coming from infected areas have been prohibited to prevent ASF
spread ( 4, 19, 21 ). African swine fever, a century-old disease that infects pigs and wild boars with a
near 100 per cent fatality rate, has claimed a third of the world’s pigs since 2018. From 2014 to
March 2019, 4,296 wild boars found dead were tested for ASF, of which 211 tested positive. It was
only a few weeks ago that the Philippines made its announcement (that it had infected herds).
Measures of low importance were (iv) to promote confinement of pigs in infected areas, and (v) to
establish regulations to ensure farms are located far from areas suitable for wild boar. Alternative
approaches are needed to incentivize individual producers to invest in early detection and reporting.
No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms. Such
standards need to consider the balance between the confidence in the disease-free status of
epidemiological units and its cost: setting the monitoring standards too low could result in ASF
spreading undetected to other units or farms, with a negative impact on all stakeholders, but setting
them too high will increase the costs of Partitioning and reduce the net economic incentive for
producers to invest in Partitioning. Nevertheless, it should be considered that eradication of O.
Despite this, in 2014 ASF entered Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland, where the disease has
become endemic in the wild boar population ( 25 ), whereas the sporadic outbreaks occurring in
domestic pigs have been efficiently controlled, thus preventing extensive secondary spread ( 26 ).
From 1993 to 1998, the number of ASF outbreaks, which were mainly concentrated in the province
of Nuoro, started to decrease, reaching minimum levels in 1999 but, in 2005 a large number of
outbreaks were declared in Oristano province and in other areas outside the historical risk area of
Nuoro, which emphasized the need to improve eradication efforts. Protocols in China require
environmental testing of depopulated units and restocking only after all PCR tests are negative.
World Organisation for Animal Health (2021). p. 15. Report No.: 11. Available online at: (accessed
October 28, 2021). Quantitative assessment of social and economic impact of African swine fever
outbreaks in northern Uganda. Finally, all experts identified that the important preventive measures
for non-commercial and outdoor farms is to improve access of those farms to veterinarians and health
services. It has formed in the cytoplasm of a tissue culture of the infected primary swine's kidney
tissue. Cells. more. Authors wish to dedicate this manuscript to Dr. Cristiana Patta. This will mean a
lot for our ability to bring you news, perspectives and analysis from the ground so that we can make
change together.
Rigorous and continuous implementation of biosecurity principles at farm level, as well as increasing
vigilance at borders to prevent the illegal movement of ASF-infected animals or commodities, can
halt the virus from entering pig herds. Like in the case of the COVID-19 pandemic, this disease also
has global economic impacts. Voluntary data sharing to inform disease surveillance systems in food
animals. Additionally, some arthropods that may have acquired ASFV during preceding years (up to
5 years) can transmit the virus ( 10 ). Out of these cookies, the cookies that are categorized as
necessary are stored on your browser as they are essential for the working of basic functionalities of
the website. African swine fever in the North Caucasus region and the Russian Federation in years
2007-2012. Farm staff should follow the same biosecurity procedures. There’s just going to be a ton
of work to do on this, and it’s not going to stop. Effective disinfectants such as calcium hydrate
(slaked lime), should be spread and renewed around the holding including its entrance ( 5 ).
However, additional measures were extracted during the review process (see Table 1 ). Moreover,
contingency plans were revised and the diagnostic capabilities of the EU labs were assured. Several
actions to control the disease were implemented, such as the immediate notification of cases to
neighboring countries with which Brazil had bilateral agreements, and to the OIE and the FAO. In
addition, substantiation of freedom from disease will be conducted in the remaining units before the
standstill can be lifted for these units. Other actions, such as systematic vaccination against CSF, the
restructuring of regional laboratories, training and awareness in animal health, and the
implementation of a national information system, were also adopted. She lost all 1,055 pigs to this
disease in 2019, impacting negatively on her financial resources to cater for her entire family. Animal
Disease Notification System (ADNS): Outbreaks per Disease (2017). In such situations, Partitioning
concepts could serve as a stepping stone to compartmentalization. The cookie stores the language
code of the last browsed page. Those open areas not only have low biosecurity and are difficult to
disinfect and control, in case of ASF infection, but also are places where pigs may easily contact
with swill feeding or waste coming from picnics and other celebrations there. The Annex is divided
into four parts, and territories that are listed in Part IV have a higher risk of spread of ASF than the
ones listed in Part I. In: Terrestrial Animal Health Code. 2021st ed. World Organisation for Animal
Health (2021). All authors contributed to critical review of the manuscript and approved the final
version. These cookies will be stored in your browser only with your consent. African Swine Fever in
Wild Boar and African Wild Suids (2015). The latest working document elaborated by the
Directorate General for Health and Food Safety ( 15 ), which contains the majority of measures
reviewed in the systematic literature review, aim at the improvement of biosecurity measures dealing
with the replacement of animals, facilities design, and management practices, in particular in relation
with cleaning and disinfection facilities, in such holdings. The latter is common, said Brockhoff, who
has worked extensively as a swine veterinarian in China and five other Asian countries. This
minimum distance between farms will vary depending on national and local regulations. African and
classical swine fever: similarities, differences and epidemiological consequences. It could also be
adapted to other transboundary animal diseases and can be implemented as a stand-alone program or
in conjunction with other efforts such as zoning and compartmentalization. Alternative approaches
are needed to incentivize individual producers to invest in early detection and reporting.