S2 CHEMISTRY NOTES

ATOMIC STRUCTURE
An atom is the smallest particle of an element that takes part in a chemical
reaction. All atoms of the same element are identical and different from
those of other elements.

Shape of an atom
An atom is spherical in shape and has a small region in the centre called
the nucleus. The nucleus is surrounded by circular paths known as
electron shells or energy levels that carry electrons. These shells are
represented as circles.

The energy level (shell) closest to the nucleus is called the 1st energy level
or the K shell. The 2nd closest shell to the nucleus is the 2nd energy level
or the L shell. This is followed by the 3rd shell or the M shell. So, the
energy levels are named 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, e.t.c. or K, L, M, N e.t.c. from the
shell closest to the nucleus outwardly.

General structure of an atom

An atom is composed of particles namely; protons, neutrons and electrons.

Protons (p)
Protons occur in the nucleus; Protons have a unit mass of one (1); each
proton carries a charge of positive one (+1).
The total number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is the atomic
number. The atomic number of each element is unique and it is used to
identify the element. All atoms of the same element have the same atomic
number.

Neutrons (n)
Neutrons occur in the nucleus of an atom; it has a unit mass of one i.e.
the mass is approximately the same as that of a proton; a neutron carries
no charge(it is nuetral). The sum of all protons and all neutrons in the
nucleus of an atom is called the atomic mass or mass number.

Electrons (e)
Electrons occur in the energy levels or electron shells and are constantly
rotating around the nucleus; an electron has a mass of 1/1840 of a
proton, there fore its mass is said to be negligible; it carries a charge of
negative one(-1).

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N.B. The number of electrons in the energy levels (negative charges) is
equal to the number of all protons in the nucleus (positive charge) hence
an atom is neutral because the number of positive charges(protons) is
equal to the number of negative charges(electrons).

Mass number and Atomic number

Atomic number (Z)
Every atom has its specific atomic number. This atomic number is the same for
all atoms of the same element.
Atomic number is the total number of protons in the nucleus of an atom (of an
element). An atom being neutral has equal number of protons and electrons.

Mass number/Atomic mass (A)

Mass number is the sum of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an
atom of an element. The protons and neutrons occupy the nucleus and
are referred to as nucleons.

Mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons

Notation of an atom
An atom can be represented as

Where W is the symbol of an element; A is the atomic mass or mass

number and Z is the atomic number.

Electron arrangement in atoms

The arrangement of electrons in an atom is the electronic configuration
and structures drawn showing the distribution of electrons in the energy
levels is the electronic structure. In writing electronic configurations or
structure, the following rules are considered.
1. The 1st electron shell (one that is nearest to the nucleus) has the lowest
energy level and electrons fill it first.
2. The 1st electron shell or energy level holds a maximum of two electrons. It
cannot hold more than two electrons.
3. The 2nd electron shell holds a maximum of eight electrons. It can hold less
the maximum number but never beyond the maximum number.
4. In the outer most shell of any atom, the maximum number of electrons
possible is 8.

Electron shells are numbered 1, 2, 3, etc, or L, M, N e.t.c.outwards from

the nucleus. All electrons in a given shell have approximately equal
energy. This energy increases in successive shell outwards from the
nucleus.

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Table showing the electron arrangement of the first 20 elements
Element Symbol No. of No. of electrons Electronic Electronic
electron in each shell configuration structure
s 1st 2nd 3rd 4th
Hydrogen H 1 1 1

Helium He 2 2 2

Lithium Li 3 2 1 2;1

Beryllium Be 4 2 2 2;2

Boron B 5 2 3 2;3

Carbon C 6 2 4 2;4

Nitrogen N 7 2 5 2;5

Oxygen O 8 2 6 2;6

Fluorine F 9 2 7 2;7

Neon Ne 10 2 8 2;8

Sodium Na 11 2 8 1 2;8;1

Magnesium Mg 12 2 8 2 2;8;2

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Aluminium Al 13 2 8 3 2;8;3

Silicon Si 14 2 8 4 2;8;4

Phosphorus P 15 2 8 5 2;8;5

Sulphur S 16 2 8 6 2;8;6

Chlorine Cl 17 2 8 7 2;8;7

Argon Ar 18 2 8 8 2;8;8

Potassium K 19 2 8 8 1 2;8;8;1

Calcium Ca 20 2 8 8 2 2;8;8;8;2

Isotopes and Isotopy

Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same number of protons
but different number of neutrons. Isotopes therefore have different mass
numbers. For elements that show isotopy, the most abundant (common)
isotope is taken to be the representative of all the element. The
abundance is usually given as a percentage.

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Isotopy is the existence of atoms of the same element with the same number of
protons but different number of neutrons.

Examples of isotopes
Element Symbol Atomic number Isotopes Abundance
Hydrogen H 1 99.99%

0.01%

Rare

Carbon C 6 98.9%

1.1%

Trace

Chlorine Cl 17 75%

25%

Example
Copy and complete the tabe below.

Relative Atomic Mass (RAM)

This is the mass of one atom of an element compared to 1/12 (a twelfth) of
the mass of one atom of Carbon 12 isotope.

R.A.M =

Relative Atomic Mass of an element that shows isotopy is dependent on

the relative abundance of each isotope and the atomic masses of the
isotopes. R.A.M is a ratio of the same quantity and therefore has no units.

Example
Neon has three isotopes, (percentage abundance 90.5%); (percentage
abundance of 0.3%) and (percentage abundance of 9.2%)

Solution

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THE PERIODIC TABLE
The periodic table is the arrangement of elements in order of increasing
atomic masses. The periodic table is made up of rows and columns. The
horizontal rows are called periods and are assigned numbers according
to the number of electron shells/energy levels that are filled by electrons.
All elements in the same period have the same number of electron shells
/energy levels. The periods are written in roman numbers as 1, 2, 3, etc.
The vertical columns are referred to as groups and the group number is
written in Roman numeral on top of the group (column). The group
number represents the number of electrons in the outer most
shell/energy level. Elements in a particular group resemble each other
chemically because they have the same number of electrons on the outer
most shell/energy level.

Periodic table of the first 20 elements

Group

Period
4 K Ca

The elements in the periodic table are classified as metals, metalloid, non metals
and noble/inert/rare gases.

i) Metals: these are on the left of the periodic table in group I, II and
III. Metals react by loss of electrons.
ii) Semi metals (metalloids): These are found in the middle of the
periodic table in group IV.
iii) Non metals: they are on the right of the periodic table in groups
V, VI and VII. Non metals react by gain of electrons.
iv) Noble/rare of inert gases: They are at the extreme right of the
periodic table in group VIII (O). Non metals are not reactive
because the are very stable.
Transition elements: these are found between group II and III and

towards the bottom of the periodic table. Transition elements form

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 colored compounds and have variable valencies. Examples of
transition elements include copper, iron, chromium, cobalt etc.

Trend of reactivity of elements in the periodic table

1. Elements in the same group react in similar ways because they have
the same number of electrons in their outer most energy level/ shell.
2. Reactivity increases as you go down the group of metals because of
increase in atomic size (atomic radius). As the size of atoms increase,
the outer most electrons become loosely held because they are no
longer strongly attracted by the nucleus hence such electrons are
easily lost. Because metals react by loss of electrons, the more easily
a metal loses electrons, the more reactive that metal is.
3. As you go down the group of non metals, reactivity decreases due to
increase in atomic size (atomic radius). As the atomic sizes increase,
the forces of attraction of the nucleus for the electrons decrease hence
electrons cannot be gained readily. So, the more easily a non metal
gains electrons, the more reactive that non metal is.
4. Across the period of elements from left to right, reactivity decreases
from group I to group IV and then increases up to group VII and falls
sharply in group VIII. This is because, as you go across the period,
the effective force of the nucleus increases hence the outer most
electrons become more strongly attracted.

IONS
An ion is a charged particle formed from an atom or a group of chemically
combined atoms by gaining or losing one or more electrons. Ions are
either negatively charged (anions) or positively charged (cations).

Ion formation

a) Positive ions( Cations)

These are formed when atoms or group of chemically combined atoms
lose electrons. Atoms lose electrons so as to acquire a stable electronic
configuration as the noble gases. The positive ions (cations) are formed
by metal atoms, hydrogen atoms and ammonium.

i) Formation of Aluminium ion

Aluminium atom with 13 electrons (electronic configuration 2.8.3), has 3
electrons more the stable configuration of noble gases,(2.8). During
reaction, Aluminium loses the 3 electrons in the outer most energy level
(electron shell) to become stable and form aluminium ion, (electronic
configuration 2.8)
Aluminium atom (Al), unstable Aluminium ion( ), stable
Electronic configuration 2.8.3 Electronic configuration 2.8
Charge=0 Charge=+3

Loses 3 outer most electrons

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 Loses 3 outer most electrons
Aluminum atom Aluminiumion

Al–3e
(Al + 3e)

ii) Formation of sodium ion,

Sodium atom with 11 electrons (electronic configuration 2.8.1), has 1
electrons more the stable configuration of a noble gases, (2.8). During
reaction, sodium loses the 1 electron in the outer most energy level
(electron shell) to become stable and form sodium ion, (electronic
configuration 2.8)

Sodium atom (Na), unstable Sodium ion ( ),

stable Electronic configuration 2.8.1 Electronic
configuration 2.8
Charge=0 Charge=+1

(Na + e)

iii) Formation of lithium ion,

Lithium atom with 3 electrons (electronic configuration 2.1), has 1
electrons more the stable configuration of a noble gases, (2). During
reaction, lithium loses the 1 electron in the outer most energy level
(electron shell) to become stable and form lithium ion, (electronic
configuration 2)

Lithium atom (Li), unstable Lithium ion( ),

stable Electronic configuration 2.1 Electronic
configuration 2
Charge=0 Charge=+1

(Li + e)

b) Formation of negative ions (Anions)

These are formed when atoms gain electrons. Atoms gain electrons so as
to acquire a stable electronic configuration as the noble gases. The
negative ions (anions) are formed by non metal atoms). Examples of
anions are chloride ion and oxide ion.

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i) Formation of a chloride ion,
The ion is formed from chlorine atom. Chlorine atom (electronic
configuration 2,8.7) lacks only one electron to attain the stable electronic
configuration of a noble gas(2.8.8). The chlorine atom there fore gains the
one electron during reaction and forms a chloride ion.
Chlorine atom (Cl), unstable Chloride ion ( ), stable
Electronic configuration 2.8.7 Electronic configuration 2.8.8
Charge=0 Charge=-1

Gains one electron

Chlorine atom Chloride ion

Gains one outer electron
Cl+

ii) Formation of an oxide ion,

The oxide ion is formed from an oxygen atom. Oxygen atom (electronic
configuration (2,6) lacks two electrons to attain the stable electronic
configuration of a noble gas(2.8). The oxygen atom therefore gains the
two electrons during reaction and forms an oxide ion, .
Oxygen atom (O), unstable Oxide ion ( ), stable
Electronic configuration 2.6 Electronic configuration 2.8
Charge=0 Charge=-2

Gains 2 electron

Oxygen atom Gains two electrons Oxide ion

O+2

VALENCY

Valency is the combining power of an element or radical. In other words

it is the measure of the power of an element to combine with others. The
power of an element to combine with others is determined by the
structure of its atoms. This therefore implies that the valency of an
element can be determined from the electron structure of its atoms.

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Elements with atoms having 1-4 electrons in the outer most shell, their
valencies are equal to the number of electrons in the outer most shell.i.e.
Group I elements have a valency of 1; group II elements have a valency
of 2; group III elements have a valency of 3 and group IV elements have
a valency of 4.

Elements in group V-VII, their valencies are equal to the number of

electrons gained to acquire a stable electronic configuration i.e. Elements
in group V gain three electrons each to make them stable, they therefore
have a valency of 3; Elements in group VI gain two electrons each to make
them stable, they therefore have a valency of 2 and elements in group VII
gain one electron each to make them stable therefore have a valency of
1.

NB. Therefore, valency can also be defined as the number of electrons lost
or gained by an element in order to attain a stable electronic structure.

Examples of elements with their valencies

Valency 1 Valency 2 Valency 3 Valency 4

Hydrogen (H) Beryllium (Be) Nitrogen (N) Carbon (C)
Lithium (Li) Magnesium (Mg) Phosphorus (p) Manganese (Mn)
Sodium (Na) Calcium (Ca) Boron (B) Lead (Pb)
Potassium (K) Oxygen (O) Aluminium (Al) Silicon (Si)
Silver (Ag) Sulphur (S) Iron (Fe) Tin (Sn)
Copper (Cu) Barium (Ba)
Chlorine (Cl) Zinc (Zn)
Bromine (Br) Iron (Fe)
Iodine (I) Lead (Pb)
Copper (Cu)
Mercury (Hg)

NB. For metals with variable valencies, Roman numerals are included in
their name to indicate the valencies of the metal. E.g. Iron (II) has a
valency of 2,Lead (IV) has a valency of 4 etc.

RADICALS
A radical is an atom or group of atoms that exist in several compounds but
does not exist on its own.

Valencies of common radicals

Radical Formula Ion Valency
Hydroxide OH 1
Chloride Cl 1

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Nitrate NO3 1
Nitrite NO2 1
Ammonium NH4 1
Hydrogen carbonate HCO3 1
Chlorate ClO3 1
Permanganate MnO4 1
Hydrogen sulphate HSO4 1
Hydrogen sulphite HSO3 1
Oxide O 2
Carbonate CO3 2
Sulphate SO4 2
Sulphite SO3 2
Sulphide S 2
Phosphate PO4 3
Nitride N 3

CHEMICAL FORMULAE
A chemical formula is a representation showing the proportions of
elements present in a chemical compound using symbols.

Important concepts about chemical formulae

1. In a chemical formula, the number written as a subscript after the symbol of
an element indicates the number of atoms of that element chemically
combined.

Consider examples of the chemical formulae below.

In water, H2O-the two (2) represents the number of hydrogen atoms
chemically combined. There fore, water consist of two (2) hydrogen atoms
and one (1) oxygen atom chemically combined together.

In sulphuric acid (H2SO4)- there are 2 atoms of hydrogen, 1 atom of sulphur

and 4 atoms of oxygen chemically combined together.

CaCO3 is the chemical formula of calcium carbonate (chalk), which consists

of 1 atom of calcium, 1 atom of carbon and 3 atoms of oxygen chemically
combined.

2. For groups of atoms (radicals), a bracket is used showing that they are being
considered under the same valency.
Examples
In calcium nitrate, Ca(NO3)2,the 2 indicates that there are 2 nitrate radicals
(NO3). Both nitrogen and oxygen in nitrate are being considered under the
same valency.

In aluminium sulphate, Al2(SO4)3,-the 3 shows that there are 2

sulphate radical (SO4), both the sulphur and oxygen in the sulphate

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 are being considered under the same valency. There fore, Al 2(SO4)3
consists of 2 atoms of aluminium and 3 sulphate radicals.

3. A number put infront of the formula of a compound indicates the number of

molecules of the compound. For example
2H2SO4 this means two molecules of sulphuric acid
8HNO3 means eight molecules of nitric acid
3CO2 means three molecules of carbondioxide
H2O means one molecule of water

4. To be able to write a chemical formula, one has to know the symbol and
valency of the atoms or radicals.

Steps taken in writing chemical formulae

1. Identify from the name of the compound, the elements and radicals present
e.g. in sodium chloride, there is sodium and chloride radical.
2. Write the symbol of the element or the formula of the radical separately,
beginning with the one of a metal or ammonium radial followed by a non
metal or radical.
Na Cl

3. Write the valencies as superscripts to the right of the symbols written

separately.

Na1 Cl1
Compare the valencies and if the valencies are;
i) If the valencies are the same, counsel them out and write the
symbols/formula close to each other.

Na1 Cl1
NaCl

ii) If the valencies are not the same, but have a common factor,
reduce them to the simplest ratio then interchange the valencies
and write them as subscripts to the right of the symbol or formula
of the radical. e..g. in Lead (IV) oxide

Pb42 O21
P
b
2

O
1

Pb1O2 the 1 is usually ignored and the formula is written as PbO 2.

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iii) If the valencies are not the same and have no common factor,
interchange them and write them as subscripts to the right of the
symbol or formulae of radical. e.g. in aluminium oxide

Al3 O2

Al3 O2

Al2O3
N.B. If the formula of the radical consists of more than one symbol, the
formula must be put in brackets before the subscript is written e.g. in
ammonium sulphate
NH4 1 SO42

(NH4)2SO4

Example
Write the formulae of the following compounds
a) Sodium chloride b) sodium sulpate c) Iron(III) oxide

Solution
a) Sodium Chloride
Na Cl
Na1 Cl1
NaCl
b) Sodium Sulphate
Na SO4
Na1 (SO4)2

Na2SO4

c) Iron(III) Oxide
Fe O
Fe3 O2
Fe3 O2

Fe2O3

Exercise
Write the formula of the following compounds
a) Potassium hydroxide b) Zinc carbonate c) magnesium sulphate d) ammonium
phosphate e) copper(II) oxide f)potassium permanganate g) calcium hydroxide.

CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
This is the representation of a chemical change (chemical reaction) by
means of symbols and formulae. So, when chemical equations are

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written, symbols and formulae are normally used. Word equations are
not significant and not commonly used. A chemical reaction consists of
reactants and products.

Consider the example below for illustration

Hydrogen reacts with oxygen to produce water vapor

Word equation: Hydrogen + Oxygen water vapor

Symbol equation: 2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(g)

Reactants Product

Components of a chemical equation

a) Formulae of reactants and products. These represent compounds

reacting and compounds being formed during a chemical reaction
respectively.
b) State symbols. A state symbol is one small letter or two small letters that
represent the physical state of a compound. They are written after the
formulae and enclosed in brackets. There are four state symbols used.
These are aqueous solution (aq); liquid (l); solid state(s) and gaseous state
(g).
c) The plus (+) sign. The plus sign on the left hand side of the equation means
‗react with‘ and the one at the right hand side of the equation means ‗and‘
.
d) The arrow. This means to produce and the arrow head points to the
products.

Interpretation of equations
2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(g)
This means 2 molecules of solid magnesium reacts with 1 molecule of oxygen gas
to produce 2 molecules of solid magnesium oxide.

2H2O2(aq) 2H20(l) + O2(g)

2 molecules of aqueous hydrogen peroxide produce 2 molecules of liquid water
and gaseous oxygen.
For an equation to be considered correct, it must have correct formulae of
reactants and products; correct state symbols and must be balanced.

Balancing is the process of making each kind of atoms on both the

reactant and product sides equal. A balanced equation there fore has
equal numbers of each kind of atoms on both the reactant and product
sides.
N.B. When balancing a chemical equation, the formula of the compound is
not altered but rather it is the number of molecules that is adjusted.

Steps in writing chemical equations

1. Write the correct formulae of the reactants on the left hand side and
the correct formulae of products on the right hand side of the

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 equation. The reactants and products are separated by an arrow
pointing to the produncts.
e.g. consider the reaction calcium and hydrochloric acid producing calcium
chloride and hydrogen gas.

Ca + HCl CaCl2 + H2
2. Write the state symbol after each formula or symbol and enclose them
in brackets.
Ca(s) + HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + H2(g)
3. Balance the equation by making the number of each kind of atoms on
both reactant and product side equal. Adjust the number of molecules
of the reactants and products to balance the number of atoms.

Ca(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + H2(g)

Exercise
1. Write the equation of reaction between the following
a) Sodium + chlorine Sodium chloride
b) Zinc + Sulphur Zinc sulphide
c) Magnesium + Oxygen Magnesium oxide
d) Hydrogen + Chlorine Hydrogen chloride
e) Copper + chlorine Copper chloride

2. Complete and balance the following equations.

a) Pb(s) + O2(g)
b) H2(g) + O2(g)
c) Na(s) + H2O(l)
d) Mg(s)+ CO2(g)
e) Fe(s) + HCl(aq)

ATOMICITY
Atomicity is the number of atoms in a molecule or compound.
A molecule is the smallest particle of an element or compound that can exist on
its own(i.e. in a free and separate state).

A molecule with one atom is referred to as a monoatomic molecule e.g. Helium(He);

argon(Ar);sodium(Na) etc.
A molecule containing two atoms is referred to as a diatomic molecule e.g.
Oxygen(O2); hydrogen(H2); Chlorine(Cl2) etc.
A molecule containing three atoms is said to be triatomic e.g.
Ozone (O3) A molecule containing four atoms is said to be
tetraatomic e.g. Phosphorus (P4) A molecule containing many
atoms is said to be polyatomic e.g. Sulphr (S8).

Example
Find the atomicity of the following elements in the
compound. a) 4CO2 b) 5H2O c) Zn(NO3)2

Solutions

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a) Carbon atoms =4, oxygen atoms ,4x2=8
Total number of atoms =4+8=12.
b) Hydrogen atoms, 5x2=10atoms, oxygen
atoms =5 Total number of atoms
=10+5=15 atoms.
c) Zinc atoms=1, nitrogen atoms =2, and
oxygen atoms,3x2=6
Total number of atoms= 1+2+6=9 atoms

Exercise
Find the number of atoms of each element present in the following
compounds. a) MgCO3 b) Pb(OH)4 c) Ca3(PO4)2 d) (NH4)2CO3 e)
2H2SO4

Sample questions on the atomic structure and the periodic table

Atomic structure and periodic table
1. With an aid of a labeled drawing, describe the structure of an atom showing
the distribution of the different particles that make it up.

2. What are protons, neutrons and electrons? Give a brief detail of each.
3. Differentiate between mass number and atomic number, isotope and
isotopy. Give three elements that show isotopy, write down and name the
isotopes.

4. The figure below shows part of the periodic table. The letters used are not
the correct symbols of the elements.

Which of the elements are metals? Suppose element P reacts with element
T, write the formula of the compound formed between P and T. Which
element in the table is least reactive and explain why. Suggest a compound
formed between any two elements shown, which would conduct electricity,
give a reason for your answer.

5. Silver is an element which exists naturally as a mixture of two isotopic

forms. A and B represent atoms of these isotopes. They occur in equal
numbers. A is and B is . State the number of (a) protons, (b)
electrons and (c) neutrons in atoms A and B. What is the relative atomic
mass of the naturally occurring silver (Ans. 108(Atomic mass).

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6. Elements X, Y, and Z have the following atomic number, 11, 15 and 19
respectively. Write the electronic configuration of the elements. State each
element is a metal or non metal.

7. Metals lose electrons to become stable like the noble gases while non metals
gain electrons, in the process they form ions. Write down the electronic
configuration of the ions formed by magnesium, chlorine and calcium.

ACIDS, BASES AND INDICATORS

ACIDS
An acid is a compound which when dissolved in water produces hydrogen
ions (H+) as the only positively charged ion. There are basically two types
of acids; mineral and organic acids.
a) Mineral acids
These are called mineral acds because they ar derived from
minerals, examples include, the common laboratory acids like
sulphuric acid (H2SO4), hydrochloric acid (HCl), nitric acid (HNO3)
and phosphoric acid(H3PO4). b) Organic acids
These are acids derived from organic compounds and examples
include: ethanoic acid (CH3COOOH) found in vines, citric acid found
in fruits and lactic acid found in milk.

Properties of acids
1. Acids have a sharp sour taste.
2. Acids change colors of indicators e.g. turn blue litmus paper red.
3. Acids ionize in water to produce hydrogen ions (H+).

Sulphuric acid: H2SO4(aq) 2H +(aq) +

(aq) Hydrochloric acid: HCl(aq) H +(aq) +
aq)

4. Most acids are corrosive (i.e. have burning effects) and poisonous
5. Dilute acids react with reactive metals to produce hydrogen gas and a salt.

Acid + Metal Salt + Hydrogen gas

For example
H2SO4(aq) + 2Na(s) Na2SO4(aq) + H2(g)

6. Acids react with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates to liberate carbondioxide

gas. When an acid reacts with a carbonate,a salt, water and carbondioxide gas
are produced.
Acid + Carbonate Salt + Water + Carbondioxide

Example
HCl(l) + Na2CO3(s) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
H2SO4(aq) + 2NaHCO3(s) Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2CO2(l)

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7. Acids react with bases to to form salt and water
Acid + Base Salt + Water

Examples
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H 2O(l)
H2SO4(aq) + CuO(s) CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)

Preparation of acids
1. By the reaction between an acid anhydride (an oxide of a non metal) and
water. Example
Sulphur dioxide + water Sulphurous acid SO 2(g) + H2O(l)
H2SO3(aq) Phosphorus(V)oxide + Water Phosphoric acid
P4O10(s) + 6H2O(l) 4H3PO4(aq)

2. By displacing a weaker acid (more volatile acid) from its salt by a stronger
acid (less volatile acid).
Example
2NaCl(aq) + H2SO4(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + 2HCl(aq)

3. By precipitating an insoluble sulphide from a metallic salt by hydrogen

sulphide.
For example
Pb(CH3COO)2(aq) + H2S(g) PbS(s) + 2CH3COOH(aq)
Lead ethanoate Ethanoic acid

Basicity of an acid
This is the number of hydrogen ions that can be produced when one
molecule of an acid ionizes in water. Acids can be categorized interms
of basicity as: a) Monobasic acid
Is an acid that ionizes to produce one hydrogen ion ( ). Their basicity is one.
Examples
Nitric acid: HNO3(aq) H +(aq) + (aq)

Hydrochloric acd: HCl(aq) H +(aq) + aq)

Ethanoic acid: CH3COOH(aq) H+(aq) + CH3COO-(aq)

b) Dibasic acids
These acids ionize to produce two hydrogen ions ( ) from one molecule. They
have a basicity of two. Examples include;

Sulphuric acid: H2SO4(aq) 2H+(aq) + (aq)

Carbonic acid: H2CO3(aq) 2H+(aq) + (aq)

c) Tribasic acids
These are acids that ionize to produce three hydrogen ions (3 ). They have
basicity of 3. For example:

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Phosphoric acid: H3PO4(aq) 3H+(aq) + (aq)

Strength of acids
Strength of an acid refers to the ease with which an acid ionize to produce
hydrogen ions. According to strength, acids can be categorized as strong or
weak.
1. Strong acid: Is an acid that dissociates completely into ions when
dissolved in water (it ionizes completely in water). Examples include:

Sulphuric acid: H2SO4(aq) 2H+(aq) + (aq)

Hydrochloric acid: HCl(aq) H +(aq) + aq)

2. Weak acid: Is an acid that does not completely ionize in water. Some
of the acid molecules do not ionize, examples include:

Carbonic acid: H2CO3(aq) 2H+(aq) + (aq)

Ethanoic acid: CH3COOH(aq) H+(aq) + CH3COO-(aq)

Uses of acids
i) Acids are used in car batteries ii) Sulphuric acid is
used in the manufacture of soap, detergents and paints. Plastics
e.t.c.
iii) Ethanoic acid is used in the preservation of fruits and vegetables.
iv) Hydrochloric acid in the stomach of human being helps in the
digestion of food. v) Acids are used in the manufacture of
fertilizers e.g. sulphuric acid.
vi) Ascorbic acid in fruits are useful to our
bodies. vii) Nitric acids are used in the
manufacture of explosives.

Bases and Alkalis

A base is a substance which reacts with an acid to form salt and water only.

Bases are mainly oxides of metals like: copper(II)oxide, CuO; zinc oxide,
ZnO;calcium oxide, CaO; magnesium oxide, MgO;or hydroxides of
metals and ammonium groups like sodium hydroxide, NaOH; potassium
hydroxide, KOH; calcium hydroxide,Ca(OH)2 and ammonium hydroxide,
NH4OH.

Bases that are soluble in water are known as alkalis.

Alkalis
An alkali is a base that dissolves in water to produce hydroxide ions ( ) as the
only negatively charged ion. A solution of a base in water is called an alkaline
solution.

19
Examples of alkalis include: sodium hydroxide or caustic soda( NaOH),
potassium hydroxide or caustic potash (KOH), calcium hydroxide or lime
water (Ca(OH)2) and ammonium hydroxide or aqueous ammonia (NH4OH).

Properties of alkalis
1. Alkalis have a bitter
taste
2. Alkalis are soapy and
feel slippery 3. Alkalis
turn red litmus paper
blue
4. Alkalis react with acids to produce salt and water. Acid + Alkali Salt + Water
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
5. Alkalis react with ammonium salts to produce ammonia gas. E.g.
NH4Cl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + NH3(g)
6. Alkalis precipiatate insoluble metal hydroxides from solutions of their salts. E.g.
2NaOH(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) Pb(OH)2(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)

Strength of bases/ alkalis

This is the ease with which a base/ alkali dissociate or ionize. The bases/
alkalis can be categorized as strong or weak.

1. Strong alkali: Is one that ionizes completely in aqueous solution.

Examples include:
Sodium hydroxide: NaOH(aq) Na+(aq) + (aq)

Potassium hydroxide: KOH(aq) K+(aq) + (aq)

2. Weak alkali: This is one that does not ionize completely in aqueous
solution. Some molecules remain unionized in the solution. For
example:

Ammonium hydroxide: NH4OH(aq) (aq) + (aq)

Neutralization reaction
This is the reaction between an acid and a base to produce salt and
water only. The resulting solution is neutral (i.e neither acidic nor
alkaline). Examples of neutralization reactions are:
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

H2SO4(aq) + KOH(aq) K2SO4(aq) +

H2O(l)
Essentially neutralization takes place when a hydroxide ion ( ) reacts
with a hydrogen ion ( ) to form a water molecule (H2O).

(aq) + (aq) H2O(l)

INDICATORS (ACID-BASE INDICATORS)

20
An acid-base indicator is a substance that shows different colors in acidic
and alkaline solutions. Indicators are used to establish substances that
are acidic, alkaline or neutral. The color change of the indicator depends
on the strength of the acid or the base/ alkaline.

Some examples of indicators used in chemistry experiments include:

Litmus paper; Methyl orange; Bromothymol blue; Bromothymol red;
Phenolphthalein; Universal indicators e.t.c.
Color changes of some indicators in acidic, alkaline and neutral solutions
are shown below

Plant extract as a simple acid-base indicators

Preparation of indicators from flowers
Procedure
Collect a handful of flowers with brightly colored petals such as hibiscus and
morning glory.
NB Use only one type of flowers and do not mix them
• Remove the petals from the flowers, put them in a motor and crush them
carefully
• Add a little ethanol to the crushed petals and stir with a pestle
• Carefully decant the mixture and keep the colored solution in a test tube. This
acts as an indicator. Take note of the color of the indicator

Universal indicator
A universal indicator is a mixture of other simple indicators and under
goes a range of color changes in solution of different PH. A universal
indicator shows the extent of alkalinity or acidity (i.e in addition to
showing whether a solution is acidic or alkaline, it shows whether the
acid is weak or strong.) The indicator may be available in solution or
paper form.

Indicator Color in acidic Color in neutral Color in alkaline

solution solution solution
Litmus Red Purple Blue
Methyl orange Pink Orange Yellow
Phenolphthalein Colorless Colorless Pink

PH and PH Scale
The PH of a solution is a number which shows the acidic or basic strength
of the solution.
It can also be defined as the negative logarithm (to base ten) of hydrogen
ion concentration. It is obtained by finding the negative logarithm of
hydrogen ion concentration.

A PH scale measures the strength of an acid or a base/alkali. The PH scale

runs from Zero (O) to fourteen (14).
The following are values on the PH scale for solutions of different PH.
• An acidic solution has a PH less than 7

21
 • A neutral solutions has a PH of 7
• An alkaline solution has a PH greater than 7
Representation on a PH scale
PH 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Weak acid
Strong acid Neutral Weak alkali Strong alkali

Increasing acidity Increasing alkalinity

Color changes on a universal indicator PH scale

PH 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Orange Blue
Red Yellow Green Indigo Violet

To find the PH of a solution using a solution of a universal indicator.

1. Add some drops of the universal indicator to the solution being tested.
2. Match the color change of the solution to the corresponding color on the
universal indicator PH chart.
3. Record the color change and the PH value.

CHEMICAL FAMILIES
Elements in the same group are referred to as chemical families because
of the similarities in their chemical and physical properties. These
elements in the same group have similar chemical properties because
they have the same number of electrons in their outer most energy levels.
The common chemical families are; alkaline metals; alkaline earth
metals; halogens and noble gases.

Alkaline metals
These are elements of group I in the periodic table. These metals are very
reactive and are kept under oil in the laboratory where they have no
contact with water and air. They include lithium (Li), sodium (Na) and
potassium (K). Atoms of all these elements each have a single electron on
the outer most shell, which is easily lost during chemical reactions
leaving a single positively charged ion. i.e.
Li +
Na +
K +

Physical properties
1. The metals are soft and can be cut with a knife. The softness decreases down
the group.
2. Their melting and boiling points are low. The melting point decreases down
the group.`
3. They have low densities and can float on water.
4. They have shinny surfaces when freshly cut. The shinny surfaces soon
tarnish due to reaction with oxygen to form the oxides.
5. They are good conductors of electricity and heat.

22
6. They do not posses tensile strength to any appreciable extent.

Chemical properties
Reactivity of the alkaline metals increases down the group due to increase
in atomic size.(i.e potassium is the most reactive followed by sodium and
lithium is the least reactive).

1. Reaction with water

All the metals react with cold water to produce hydrogen gas and alkaline
solution of metal hydroxides.
Potassium reacts very vigorously, darts on water and burns with a bright
purple (lilac) flame producing fumes of hydrogen gas and an alkaline
solution of potassium hydroxide.

2K(s) + 2H2O(l) 2KOH(aq) + H2(g)

Sodium melts into a silvery ball, darts on water reacting vigorously with
it producing fumes of hydrogen gas with a hissing sound and an alkaline
solution of sodium hydroxide. The reducing in size as the reaction
proceeds until when it finally disappears.

2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)

Lithium reacts slowly with cold water liberating hydrogen gas.

2Li(s) + 2H2O(l) 2LiOH(aq) + H2(g)

2. Reaction with air

When the metals are heated in oxygen, they burn readily forming oxides
of the metal. Potassium burns with a bright purple flame producing white
solids of potassium oxide.

4K(s) + O2(g) 2K2O(s)

Sodium burns in air with a bright yellow flame forming yellow solids of sodium
peroxide in plenty of air. In limited in air, sodium forms white solids of sodium
oxide.

4Na(s) + 2O2(s) 2Na2O2(s) (In excess air)

4Na(s) + O2(g) 2Na2O(s) (In limited air)

Lithium burns with a red flame forming white residue of lithium oxide.
4Li(s) + O2(g)
2Li2O(s)
3. Reaction with chlorine
The alkaline metals react with chlorine to form metal chloride salts. Eg. Sodium
continuous to burn in chlorine to form white fumes of sodium chloride.

Na(s) + Cl2(g) NaCl(s)

Potassium burns in chlorine to form fumes of potassium chloride.

23
K(s)+Cl2(g) KCl(s)
4. Reaction with acids
Alkaline metals react explosively with acids to liberate hydrogen gas and
forming a corresponding salt. E.g. sodium reacts with hydrochloric acid
to form sodium chloride and hydrogen gas.

2Na(s) + 2HCl(aq) 2NaCl(aq) + H2(g)

Potassium reacts with sulphuric acid to form potassium sulphate and hydrogen gas.
2K(s) + H2SO4(a) K2SO4(aq) + H2(g)

Alkaline earth metals

These are elements in group II of the periodic table. They include
beryllium, magnesium and calcim. These metals have two electrons on
their outer most shell, they lose the two electrons during reactions to
form a dipositive ion (an ion with a charge of +2).

Mg Mg2+ +
Ca Ca2+ +
Be Be2+ +

Physical properties
1. They re harder than group I metals.
2. They are good conductors of electricity and heat.
3. They are silvery grey in color when freshly cut. However the shiny surface slowly
tarnishes on exposure to air forming the metal oxide.
4. Their melting and boiling points are higher than those of group I. This is
because these metals release more electrons into the electron cloud forming a
stronger metallic bond in the metal structure. This explains why they are also
harder than group I metals.

Chemical reactions
Alkaline earth metals are more reactive than alkaline metals. This is
because the valence electrons in alkaline earth metals are held more
strongly due to increased effective nuclear charge making them not easily
to be released. Reactivity of the metals increase down the group due to
increase in atomic size. (calcium is the most reactive followed by
magnesium then beryllium )

1. Reaction with air

The metals burn in air with their characteristic flame forming oxides of
the metal. Magnesium burns in air with a brilliant white flame forming
white ash of magnesium oxide.

2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s)

Calcium burns in air with a bright orange flame forming white ash of calcium oxide.
Ca(s)+O2(g) 2CaO(s)
Both metals also form some nitrides especially if the supply of oxygen is limited.
3Mg(s) + N2(g) Mg3N2(s) (Magnesium nitride)
3Ca(s) + N2(g) Ca3N2(s) (Calcium nitride)

24
When the nitrides are dissolved in water and the solution warmed,
ammonia gas is liberated and an alkaline solution is also formed.
Mg3N2(s) + 6H2O(l) 3Mg(OH)2(aq) + 2NH3(g)
Ca3N2(s) + 6H2O(l) 3Ca(OH)2(aq) + 2NH3(g)

2. Reaction with water

Beryllium does not react with water. Magnesium piece reacts very slowly
with cold water producing small bubbles of hydrogen gas and an alkaline
solution of magnesium hydroxide.
Mg(s) + 2H2O(l) Mg(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)

Magnesium reacts very rapidly with steam to produce white ash of

magnesium oxide and hydrogen gas.
2Mg(s) + 2H2O(g) 2MgO(s) + 2H2(g)

Calcium reacts steadily with water evolving hydrogen gas and calcium
hydroxide. Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)

3. Reaction with chlorine

The metals burn readily in chlorine to form white anhydrous chloride salts.
Magnesium forms magnesium chloride and calcium forms calcium chloride.
Mg(s) + Cl2(g) MgCl2(s)
Ca(s) + Cl2(g) CaCl2(s)
4. Reaction with acids
Calcium reacts vigorously with acids forming a salt and hydrogen gas.
Magnesium reacts steadily with acids forming a salt and hydrogen gas.
E.g. magnesium reacts with sulphuric acid forming magnesium sulphate
and hydrogen gas.

Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)

Halogens
These are group (VII) elements; they are chlorine, bromine, iodine and
fluorine. Halogens exist as diatomic molecules. This is because they lack
one electron to completely fill their outer most energy level hence their
atoms share electrons in order to completely fill the outer most energy
level. These elements react by gaining one electron each forming
negatively charged ions.

F+
Cl +
Br +
I +

Physical properties
1. They are colored (chlorine is greenish yellow gas; fluorine is pale
yellow gas; bromine is a brown volatile liquid and iodine is a shinny
black solid).

25
2. Down the group, physical state changes from gas to liquid to solid.
(fluorine and chlorine are gases at room temperature; bromine is a
liquid and iodine is in solid form, the shinny black iodine solids
sublime into a purple vapor on slight heating).
3. Solubility in water decreases down the group. Fluorine, chlorine and
bromine are soluble and iodine is slightly soluble in water.
4. They have low melting and boiling points because the intermolecular
forces of attraction are weak. The melting and boiling point increase
down the group as the weak vanderwaal‘s forces of attraction increase
with increase in atomic size.

Chemical properties
The order of reactivity decreases down the group.(i.e. fluorine is the most
reactive and iodine in the least reactive). This is because these elements
react by gaining electrons and down the group, the atomic radius
increases there fore, an in coming electron is less readily attracted by the
nucleus. There fore, the smaller the atom, the more readily and strongly
does the nucleus attract an electron to the outer most shell and the more
reactive that atom becomes.

1. Reaction with water

All the halogens dissolve in water forming a mixture of acids. Chlorine
dissolves in water forming a mixture of hypochlorous acid(chloric (I)
acid)(HOCl) and hydrochoric acid(HCl).

Cl2(g) + H2O(l) HOCl(aq) + HCl(aq)

This solution turns blue litmus paper red then bleaches it. The bleaching
action is due to the presence of hypochlorous acid(HOCl) that readily gives
up its oxygen to the dye.
A solution of bromine in water is weakly acidic and weakly bleaching due
to formation of weak hydrobromic acid (HBr) and bromic(I)acid(HOBr)
respectively.

Br2(g) + H2O(l) HOBr(aq) + HBr(aq)

Chlorine is slightly soluble in water forming very weak acids. A solution

of chlorine is too weak to bleach dyes, therefore, bleaching power of the
elements decrease down the group.

2. Reaction with alkalis

Halogen react with alkalis to form a mixture of salts and water. E.g.
chlorine is absorbed by a solution of sodium hydroxide forming a pale
yellow solution of a mixture of sodium chloride(NaCl) and sodium
hypochlorite(NaOCl)

Cl2(g) + 2NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + NaOCl(aq) + H2O(l)

In hot concentrated solution of an alkali (e.g. NaOH), sodium hypochlorite is not

formed but instead sodium hypochlorate is formed(NaOCl3).

26
3Cl2(g) + 6NaOH(aq) 5NaCl(aq) + NaOCl3(aq) + 3H2O(l)

3. Reaction with metals

Metals continue to burn in halogens forming salts. E.g. sodium continues
to burn in a gas jar of chlorine to form dense white fumes which settle as
white solids of sodium chloride. A similar reaction occurs with bromine
and iodine.

2Na(s) + Cl2(g) 2NaCl(s)

2Na(s) + Br2(g) 2NaBr(s)

4. Displacement reaction of halogens

When chlorine is bubbled through a colorless solution of potassium
bromide, the solution gradually change to red-brown as bromine is
displaced from its solution by chlorine.

2KBr(aq) + Cl2(g) 2KCl(aq) + Br2(g)

If chlorine is bubbled through a colorless solution of potassium iodide,the

solution turns dark brown as iodine is displaced from its solution.

2KI(aq) + Cl2(g) 2KCl(aq) + I2(g)

Chlorine being the most reactive displaces all the halogens from their solutions.

Noble Gases (Group (VIII) Elements)

These elements are referred to as inert elements because they are non
reactive. The elements include; helium,neon,argon,krypton,xenon and
radon. Characteristics of these elements include:
1. Their outer most energy levels are completely filled with electrons making
them very stable elements and chemically non reactive. However in spite of
their stable electronic configurations, a few compounds have been formed
from xenon(e.g. Xenon(II)fluoride,XeF2) and krypton(E.g. krypton(II)fluoride,
KrF2)
2. The noble gases exist as monatomic gases.
3. They have very low melting and boiling points due to negligible forces of
attraction between the atoms.
4. Noble gases are colorless
Though nobles gases are non reactive, they are used for a variety of purposes
including the following:
- Argon is filled in light bulbs to prevent the tungsten fillament from reacting with
air.
- Argon provides an inert environment for gas-liquid chromatography, for risky
welding jobs and for some chemical reactions.
- Neon is used extensively in advertising signs and in lasers.
- Helium is used to inflate air ships, weather balloons and aeroplane tyres.
- A mixture of oxygen and helium is used by divers instead of air.

27
Sample questions on Acids, Bases, Indicators and Chemical Families

Acids, bases and indicators

1. Write short notes on: acids, bases, alkalis, indicators and basicity. Illustrate with
examples and equations.

2. Outline three properties typical of acids and three properties typical of alkalis.
(illustrate with equations). Differentiate between: a strong acid and a weak
acid; an alkali and a base.

3. Describe how you can use a named material from the environment to make an
indicator in the laboratory.

4. What is meant by neutralization reaction? Illustrate by use of equations.

Chemical families
1. Describe with equations, the reactions of
a) Alkaline metals with air, water, acids and chlorine.
b) Halogen with water and alkalis.
c) Alkaline earth metals with water.
2. Discuss the displacement reaction of halogens.
3. Mention three examples of noble gases. Outline four uses of noble gases.

WATER AND HYDROGEN

WATER
Water is a chemical compound consisting of oxygen and hydrogen. Its
chemical formula is H2O. Sources of water
1. Rain water
The water originates from rain and it is relatively pure with no dissolved
minerals. However, it contains suspended materials and dissolved gases
such as carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide. Rain water is good for
washing as it forms lather easily with soap and does not contain dissolved
salts. It is also good for drinking since it has a flat taste.
2. Wells and spring water
The water comes from underground and is obtained by drilling the
ground inform of a bore hole or, the water just springs out of the ground.
It is actually rain water that has drained into the ground and collected
into a pool of underground water. It has less suspended materials but
contain dissolved mineral salts making it good for drinking. It may not
be good for washing because of the dissolved mineral salts that delay the
formation of lather.
3. River and lake water
The water is obtained from rivers and lakes. It contains both suspended
materials and dissolved minerals. As water flows in to rivers and lakes,
it gathers floating materials and pollutants such as sewage and industrial
wastes, so it is not good for washing and drinking.
4. Sea and ocean water

28
These provide large sources of water. The water contains a lot of
suspended materials and dissolved substances. The mineral salts
accumulate settle at the bottom of the water and the water may become
saturated with the salt. This is why the water tastes salty.
5. Ice caps
The water is obtained from melting ice and it is relatively pure. The ice formed
at the peaks of mountains melts and the water runs down forming spings.

Uses of water
1. Biological use
All biological processes in living organisms require water as a medium for
the reactions. For example, photosynthesis, excretion, transport of
materials and transmission of impulses.
2. Domestic use
Drinking, cooking, washing, bathing, mopping, construction,
recreation e.t.c. 3. Farm use
Irrigation, for dipping animals, for drinking by animals, for fish farming e.t.c.
4. Industrial use
Water is used as a solvent in many industries, for cleaning, for cooling
purposes especially in power stations, used in steam engines, generating
hydro electricity, transportation using boats, ships e.t.c, for recreation
purposes and construction.

Water cycle
Water cycle is the process by which water circulates round the earth. The
driving force for the cycle is the sun.
The water from the water bodies like seas, lakes, rivers e.t.c. evaporates
into the atmosphere due to the sun heat. The vapor cools in the
atmosphere and then condenses to form clouds which fall as rain. The
rain then flows back into the water bodies.

N.B. Water vapor in the atmosphere may also result from transpiration
processes in plants and respiration processes of all living organisms and
burning of starchy food materials forming carbon dioxide and water
which are expelled in to the atmosphere.

Water pollution
This is the discharge of unwanted materials/ substances into water bodies. The
un wanted materials are generally called pollutants and are harmful to living
organisms.
Examples include; acids, bases, insecticides, fertilizers, sewage, solid
particles, oil e.t.c.

Sources of water pollutants

1. Atmospheric gases like carbondioxide, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and
hydrogen sulphide. These gases dissolve in the rain water making it acidic.
2. Dissolved maerials from rocks and soil.
3. Industrial discharge (effluent)
4. Fertilizers washed from farm lands by running water.

29
5. Insecticides and herbicides resulting from spraying from homes and farms.
6. Soaps, detergents and other chemicals from homes, salons e.t.c.

Water treatment
This is the removal of harmful substances from water making it suitable
for use (domestic use. In Uganda, the treatment of water is done by
Uganda National Water and Sewage Co operation (UNWSC). Processes
involved in water treatment are:
1. Addition of chemicals
Chemicals are added to water to remove harmful substances and
neutralize acids and bases. The chemicals as well remove hardness of
water, precipitate metals and cause suspended solid particles to settle.

2. Filtration
Filtration is carried out to remove the solid particles. Water is made to
pass through wire mesh screens to remove large and floating objects and
then through sand and gravel to filter out smaller solid particles. The last
part of the filter bed consists of sand with some microbes grown to remove
some bacteria that might be harmful.

3. Chlorination and fluoridation

Chlorine or fluorine is added to kill the harmful organisms such as
bacteria. Only a small concentration of chlorine is used because it is
harmful. However, in swimming pools, high concentration of chlorine is
used as the water may contain high bacteria concentration is not meant
for drinking. In some countries, ozone is used instead of chlorine.

Summary of water purification process

Sewage

30
Sewage is running water containing wastes from toilets, bathrooms, sinks,
factories and streets of towns.
Sewage treatment
The reason for treating sewage is to remove harmful pollutants before
allowing the sewage to join water bodies. The following are the processes
involved in sewage treatment:
1. Separation of solid and liquid wastes through sieving and sedimentation.
2. Addition of certain bacteria to the liquid wastes to convert harmful materials
to harmless substances.
3. Addition of chlorine to kill the harmful bacteria
4. The liquid waste (effluent) from the treatment plant is the discharged into the
water body. The solid waste from the treatment of sewage is the called the
sludge and has a number of uses.

Uses of sludge
- It is used as fertilizer because it is rich in nitrogen and phosphorus.
- It is used as a raw material to produce bio gas.
- It is used for road surfacing since it forms hard solids.
- It is used in land reclamation to fill quarries.

Properties of water
Physical properties
1. Pure water is a clear, colorless and tasteless liquid.
2. It boils at 100˚C and melts at 0˚C.
3. It has a density of 1g/cm3 at 4˚C.
4. Pure water is neutral to litmus i.e. has no effect on litmus.
5. Water expands on freezing.
6. It is a universal solvent.

Test for water

Water is chemically tested for using anhydrous copper (II) sulphate of cobalt
chloride paper.
When water is added to anhydrous copper(II)sulphate, it changes color
from white to blue. Or when water is added to cobalt chloride paper, it
changes color from blue to pink.

Chemical properties
1. Reaction with metals
Water reacts with some metals and the vigour depends on the position of the
metal in the electrochemical series.

31
 Potassium
Sodium reacts with cold water
a) Potassium
When a piece of potassium is placed into a trough containing
water, it reacts very vigorously, catches fire and burns with a
purple flame; it darts on the water surface producing a hissing
sound and white fumes of hydrogen gas. It explodes with a pop
sound as it disappears. The resultant solution turns red litmus
paper to blue.

K(s) + H2O(l) KOH(aq) + H2(g)

b) Sodium
Sodium reacts vigorously with water. When a piece of sodium is placed
in cold water, it melts into a silvery ball and darts on the surface of water
as it produces a hissing sound with evolution of a colorless hydrogen
gas. The sodium gradually becomes smaller and smaller as it reacts with
water to produce an alkaline solution of sodium hydroxide.
N.B. Sodium burns with a yellow flame if its movement on water is restricted.

Na(s) + H2O(l) NaOH(l) + H2(g)

c) Calcium
Calcium reacts steadily with water. When a small piece of calcium is
dropped is water, it sinks to the bottom producing streams of bubbles of
a colorless gas (hydrogen gas) and an alkaline solution that turns red
litmus paper blue. The water turns milky as the calcium hydroxide is
slightly soluble in water.

Ca(a) + H2O(l) 2Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)

d) Magnesium
Magnesium sinks to the bottom and reacts very slowly with cold water to
produce very few bubbles of hydrogen gas on the surface of the metal and
an alkaline solution of magnesium hydroxide.

Mg(s) + 2H2O(l) Mg(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)

However, hot magnesium reacts rapidly with steam, burning with a bright white
flame leaving white ash of magnesium oxide. The hydrogen gas produced burns
with a blue

32
flame in air.

Mg(s) + H2O(g) MgO(s) + H2(g)

Note
1. The magnesium metal used is first cleaned to remove the oxide coating due to
corrosion.
2. The cotton wool soaked in water is heated to release steam that reacts with the
heated magnesium.
3. The boiling tube is first heated to drive out all air (oxygen).

e) Iron and zinc

Zinc and iron do not react with cold water but react with steam when heated
to red hot producing their respective oxides and hydrogen gas. Zinc reacts
faster than iron.

Zn(s) + H2O(g) ZnO(s) + H2(g)

Yellow when hot
White when cold
3Fe(s) + 4H2O(g) Fe3O4(s) + 4H2(g)
Triiron tetra oxide
(Blue-black)

Aluminium does not react with water or steam due to the formation of an
insoluble oxide layer which prevents contact between water and the metal
inhibiting any further reaction.

All the other metals below iron do not react with either cold water or even steam.

2. Reaction with oxides

Water reacts with metallic oxides (basic oxides) to form alkaline solutions. E.g.

Na2O(s) + H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq)

CaO(s) + H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(aq)

With non metallic oxides (acidic oxides), water forms acidic solutions. E.g.

SO2(g) + H2O(l) H2SO3(aq)

33
SO3(g) + H2O(l) H2SO4(aq)

CO2(g) + H2O(l) H2CO3(aq)

HARDNESS OF WATER
Water can be classified as hard or soft.
Soft water is one which forms lather readily with soap. Examples of soft water
include:
rain water, distilled water, deionised water.

Hard water
This is water that does not form lather readily with soap. Examples of hard water
include: tap water, sea water, borehole, well water, spring water.

Causes of hardness of water

Hardness of water is caused by the presence of the calcium ion (Ca+) and
magnesium ion (Mg+). These ions reach water when the soluble salts of
calcium and magnesium are dissolved by rain water and carried to water
bodies. The compounds that cause hardness of water include; calcium
hydrogen carbonate (Ca(HCO3)2), magnesium hydrogen
carbonate(Mg(HCO3)2),calcium chloride (CaCl2), magnesium chloride
(MgCl2), Calcium sulphate (CaSO4), Magnesium sulphate (MgSO4).

Effects of magnesium and calcium ions on soap

Soap is a sodium salt of a long chain carboxylic acid. It is known as
sodium stearate (Na-st). Soap reacts with magnesium or calcium ions to
form dirty white solids called scum. So, when hard water is used for
washing, a lot of soap is used because part of the soap initially reacts
with calcium and magnesium ions to form scum.

CaSO4(aq) + 2Na-st(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + Ca-st2(s)

Types of hard water

There are two types of hard water i.e. permanent and temporary hard water.

Temporary hard water

This is a type of hard water whose hardness can be removed by boiling. I.e.
the water can be made soft by boiling.

Causes: it is caused by the presence of dissolved calcium hydrogen carbonate or

magnesium hydrogen carbonate.

Permanent hardness
Is a type of hard water whose hardness cannot be removed by boiling. I.e. the
hard water cannot become soft on boiling.

34
Causes: it is caused by calcium sulphate, calcium chloride, magnesium sulphate
and magnesium chloride.

Distinguishing between permanent hard water, temporary hard

water and soft water Procedure
- Place equal volumes of each unboiled water samples in three different
conical flasks.
- Run soap solution from the burette into each sample while shaking the
conical flask until when lather forms.
- Note the volume of soap solution required to form lather with each of the
unboiled water samples.

Results
The soft water required the least volume of soap solution to form lather
compared to the samples of hard water.

Repeat the above procedure with boiled water sample.

Results
Soft water required the same volume of soap solution to form lather as the
unboiled soft water.

Temporary hard water after boiling required less volume of soap solution
to form lather than the unboiled one. This is because; the water was made
soft by boiling and thus formed lather readily.

Permanent hard water even after boiling required the same volume of
soap solution as the unboiled to form lather. This is because even after
boiling, the water still remained hard and took time to form lather.

Methods of softening water

Removal of only temporary hardness of water
1. Boiling (Physical method)
Boiling decomposes calcium and magnesium hydrogen carbonates to
their respective carbonates, water and carbondioxide gas. The calcium
and magnesium ions are removed from the water as insoluble calcium
and magnesium carbonates. The calcium and magnesium carbonates
may be deposited as solids at the bottom of the boiler and are referred to
as boiler scales of kettle fur.
(boiling)
Ca(HCO3)2(aq) CaCO 3(s) +
CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Disadvantages of boiler scale/fur
- The fur produced is an insulator hence a lot of heat is required for
boiling and this wastes a lot of fuel or electricity.
- The fur produced may also block pipes carrying boiled water and
possibly causing it to burst.
By chemical means the fur can be removed from he kettle by adding mineral acids
like hydrochloric acid and sulphuric acid.

35
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

2. Addition of calcium hydroxide (lime water) (chemical method)

Calcium hydroxide reacts with the soluble magnesium or calcium hydrogen
carbonates to form insoluble magnesium and calcium carbonates.

Ca(HCO3)2(aq) + Ca(OH)2(aq) 2CaCO3(s) + 2H2O(l)

The disadvantage of this method is that when excess lime water is used, the water
becomes hard again.
It has an advantage in that it is cheaper than boiling as calcium hydroxide is
readily available.

3. Addition of aqueous ammonia (ammonium hydroxide solution) (chemical

method)
During the process, the soluble hydrogen carbonates are converted into insoluble
carbonates. This enables magnesium and calcium ions to be removed from the
water.

2NH4OH(aq) + Mg(HCO3)2(aq) MgCO3(s) + (NH4)2CO3(aq) + H2O(aq)

Methods for softening both temporary and permanent hardness

4. Distillation (physical method)

During distillation, the soft water is collected as the distillate and the dissolved
calcium and magnesium ions remain in the distillation flask as residue.
The advantage of this method is that the water obtained is actually pure.
However, it can only be used in small scale because it is expensive.

5. Addition of sodium carbonate solution (washing soda) (chemical method)

Sodium carbonate converts magnesium or calcium ions into insoluble
carbonates.

Na2CO3(aq) + Ca(HCO3)2(aq) 2NaHCO3(aq)

+ CaCO3(s) The method is cheap and easy to carryout on
a large scale.

6. Ion exchange method (permutit) (chemical method)

The calcium and magnesium ions in hard water can be exchanged with
sodium ions using a suitable ion exchange material. This makes the
water to become soft. The common ion exchange materials are zeolites
and permutit. Zeolites are natural occurring forms of sodium aluminium
silicate and permutit is the artificial form. Zeolite/permutit can be
represented by the formula Na2Y.

CaCl2(aq) + Na2Y(aq) CaY(s) + 2NaCl(aq)

MgSO4(aq) + Na2Y(aq) MgY(s) + 2Na2SO4(aq)
Ca(HCO3)2(aq) + Na2Y(aq) CaY(s) + NaHCO3(aq)

36
The method works on the principle of exchange of ions. During the
process, calcium and magnesium ions are removed from water and they
appear as precipitates of aluminium silicate.

The advantage here is that, the permutit can be recovered and used several times.

Advantages of hard water

1. Calcium compounds in water are important in our diet for strong teeth and
bones.
2. Magnesium in hard water is important for photosynthesis since it is used for
the formation of chlorophyll.
3. Calcium in hard water is responsible for the formation of strong shells of many
animals e.g. snails and egg shells.
4. Hard water tastes better and it is used in the brewing industry.
5. Hard water reduces lead poisoning and it is the only type of water transported
by lead pipes.

Disadvantages of hard water

1. It wastes a lot f soap, as more of the soap reacts the calcium and
magnesium ions to form scum. There for lather does not form readily.
2. When hard water ids used for washing, it leaves dirty marks on cloth
due to formation of scum.
3. Hard water forms kettle fur and boiler scales which are insulators, there
fore a lot of fuel or electricity is used during boiling of water.
4. The boiler scales may block the pipes carrying boiling water hence
causing the pipe to burst.

Exercise
1. Explain why soap does not form lather readily at first with hard water and then
eventually forms the lather?
2. Explain what is meant by hardness of water. What are the causes of temporary
and permanent hardness of water?. How do these compounds that cause
hardness of water reach the water?
3. A white precipitate is formed when
i) Carbondioxide is blown into lime water ii) Temporary
hard water is boiled iii) Washing soda is added to water
containing dissolved magnesium chloride.

HYDROGEN
Hydrogen is the smallest element and the lightest gas. Hydrogen usually
does not occur is Free State but in combined states as water, acid,
hydrocarbons and other organic compounds.

Laboratory preparation of hydrogen

Hydrogen is prepared in the laboratory by the action of either dilute
hydrochloric acid or dilute sulphuric acid on zinc granules or zinc metal.
(zinc granule are used instead of pure zinc because some impurities in
the zinc granules act as catalysts). Set up

37
Place some zinc granules in the flask and add to it a little copper (II)
sulphate solution. The copper (II) sulphate acts as a catalyst in the
preparation of hydrogen gas. Arrange the apparatus as shown above and
add dilute sulphuric acid/ hydrochloric acid to the zinc granules through
the funnel.

Effervescence occurs as hydrogen gas is produced. The gas is then collected

over water. However, if the gas is required dry, it is passed through a wash
bottle containing concentrated sulphuric acid and collected by upward delivery
method or the gas is passed through a U-tube containing fused calcium
chloride to dry the gas. Equation

Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)

Test for hydrogen

When a burning splint is brought into a gas jar of hydrogen, the splint will be
extinguished with a ―pop‖ sound.

Properties
of hydrogen
a) Physical
properties
- It is the lightest gas known (lighter than air)
- It is colorless, odourless and tasteless
- It is slightly soluble in water
- It is a neutral gas (has no effects on indicators) b) Chemical properties
1. Combustion (burning) of hydrogen
Hydrogen burns in air with a faint blue flame to produce water vapor.
The gaseous product can be condensed in a cool environment to form a
colorless liquid the turns white anhydrous copper (II) sulphate to blue
indicating that it is water.

38
2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H 2O(g)

2. Reduction action of hydrogen

Hydrogen is a reducing agent. It removes oxygen from the oxides of some
metals (less reactive metals) like lead and copper forming the metal and
the hydrogen gas itself is oxidized to water.

Reduction of copper(II)oxide
Copper (II) oxide
Dry hydrogen
Faint blue flame of hydrogen

Combustion tube
Heat Colorless liquid

When dry hydrogen gas is passed over heated copper (II) oxide in a
combustion tube, a red glow spreads through the copper (II) oxide and the
oxide turns from black to brown as the oxide is reduced to copper metal
(brown in color). The hydrogen itself is oxidized to water which collects as a
colorless liquid.

CuO(s) + H2(g) Cu(s) + H2O(l)

Hydrogen also reduces lead (II) oxide and triirontetraoxide to lead and iron
respectively.
Precautions
1. Dry hydrogen gas must be used.
2. The combustion tube must be in a slanting position so as to prevent the
water formed from running back to the hot part of the tube.
3. Hydrogen should be passed through the combustion tube to expel out
air before heating the oxide.
4. Hydrogen should be passed through the tube for some times after heating
.This prevents re oxidation of the copper.
5. The excess hydrogen should be burnt to prevent explosion with air.

Reduction is the addition of hydrogen to a substance or the removal of

oxygen from a substance.

39
Oxidation is the removal of hydrogen from a substance or the addition of
oxygen to a substance.

3. Reaction with chlorine

A mixture of chlorine and hydrogen appears not to react at room
temperature, but when exposed to sun light or heated, the mixture explodes
forming misty fumes of hydrogen chloride gas.

H2(g) + Cl2(g) 2HCl(g)

4. Reaction with reactive metals

Hydrogen reacts with highly reactive metals to form hydrides. For example,
sodium reacts with hydrogen to form sodium hydride.

Na(s) + ½H2(g) NaH(s)

Uses of hydrogen
1. Hydrogen is a very light gas and therefore used to fill balloons.
2. Hydrogen with oxygen form oxy-hydrogen flame which is very hot and
used for welding and cutting metals.
3. Hydrogen is used in the manufacture of ammonia by Haber process.
4. Hydrogenation of vegetable oil makes it hard and used for making
margarine and cooling fats like blue band and kimbo.
5. It is used in the manufacture of hydrogen bombs.
6. Hydrogen is also used as fuel for rockets.

Sample questions on water and hydrogen

1. Briefly describe the water cycle. Mention the major sources of water. How is
waater beneficial to you and to the community from where you come?
2. What is water pollution? What are the main sources of water pollution? How do
the pollutants mainly reach the water bodies?. Describe briefly the effects of water
pollution to living organisms in water bodies.
3. In an attempt to make water available for domestic use, water is treated. Explain
in detail the steps taken in water purification processes.
4. Describe the reactions of sodium, potassium, magnesium and calcium with water
stating clearly the conditions under which the reactions take place.
5. What is meant by soft and hard water? Give examples of each. Explain the types
of hard water that you know giving the causes of each; outline the physical and
chemical methods of softening each type of hardness. (Where appropriate use
equations to illustrate). Mention the advantages and disadvantages of hard
water.
6. Describe the aid of a labeled drawing how hydrogen gas is prepared in the
laboratory. How do you confirm that the gas produced in your description is
hydrogen gas?

40
7. How do you show that water is an oxide of hydrogen? Describe the reduction
reaction of hydrogen using of copper(II) oxide (What are the precautions for the
reaction). Outline at least five uses of hydrogen gas.

SALTS
A salt is a compound formed when either all of part of the ionisable hydrogen
of the acid is replaced by a metallic ion or ammonium ion. Or
A salt is an ionic compound consisting of a positive metallic or ammonium
ion and a negative ion derived from an acid.

Salts get their names from the acids they are derived from. Examples are in
the table below.
Acid Salt Example
Hydrochloric acid (HCl) Chlorides Sodium chloride (NaCl)
Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) Sulphates Ammonium sulphate (NH4)2S04
Carbonic acid (H2CO3) Carbonates Calcium hydrogen carbonate, Ca(HCO3)2
Nitric acid (HNO3) Nitrates Barium nitrate,Ba(NO3)2
Phosphoric acid (H3PO4) Phosphates Sodium phosphate,Na3PO4
Ethanoic acid (CH3COOH) Ethanoates Sodium ethanoate,CH3COONa
Sulphurous acid (H2SO3) Sulphites Sodium sulphite. Na2SO3

Types of salts a) Normal salt

This is a salt produced when all the ionisable hydrogen of the acid is replaced
by a metallic or ammonium ion. These salts do not contain ionisable
hydrogen. Examples include; sodium chloride, NaCl; ammonium nitrate,
NH4NO3; Magnesium sulphate, MgSO4; lead (II) bromide, MgBr2 and sodium
phosphate, Na3PO4.

All normal salts have PH of 7 except salts formed from

i) Strong bases and weak acids e.g. sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) and
potassium ehanoate (CH3COOK). These salts in solution have PH
value more than 7.
ii) Strong acids and weak bases e.g. ammonium chloride (NH4Cl). The
salts have a PH value less than 7 in solution.

b) Acid salts
An acid salt is a salt formed when only part of the ionisable hydrogen of the
acid is replaced by ammonium or metallic ion. These salts contain ionisable
hydrogen and examples include: sodium hydrogensulphate, NaHSO 4;
calcium hydrogencarbonate, Ca(HCO3)2; and potassium hydrogen
carbonate, KHCO3.

These acid salts behave like salts because they contain metallic ion and a
negative ion derived from an acid; they behave like acids because the
negative ions are capable of further ionization to yield hydrogen ion(H +) (i.e
+ ).

41
c) Basic salts
Basic salt are formed when insufficient acid is present to neutralize the
available base. E.g. basic zinc chloride (Zn(OH)Cl) and basic magnesium
chloride (Mg(OH)Cl).

All monobasic acids form normal salts while dibasic and tribasic acids form
both normal and acid salts.

Naming of salts
Salts are named by adding the name of the radical or ion of the acid after
the name of the metal or ammonium. Examples are:
Name of metal/ammonium Name of acid radical Name of salt
radical (negative ion)
Sodium Chloride Sodium chloride, NaCl
Aluminium Sulphate Aluminium sulphate,
Al2(SO4)3
Ammonium Nitrate Ammonium nitrate
NH4NO3
Potassium Carbonate Potassium carbonate,
K2CO3

SOLUBILITY OF SALTS
Solubility is the amount of solute in grams required to saturate 100g of
solvent (water) at a particular temperature.

A salt is described as soluble if it can dissolve in a given solvent and

insoluble if it cannot dissolve in the solvent. Salts have varying degree of
solubility in water as described below:

All ammonium, sodium, and potassium salts are soluble

in water. All nitrate salts are soluble in water.
All chloride salts are soluble in water except silver chloride, lead (II) chloride
(sparingly soluble) and mercury (I) chloride.
All sulphate salts are soluble in water except lead (II) sulphate and barium
sulphate. Calcium sulphate is sparingly soluble in water.
All carbonate salts are insoluble in water except sodium, potassium and
ammonium carbonates.

Determining the solubility of a salt e.g. sodium

chloride Procedure
- Take about 50cm3 of distilled water in a beaker.
- Add sodium chloride crystals to the water a little at a time while stirring
continuously until when no more salt dissolves. The solution formed is
saturated.

42
- Weigh a clean evaporating dish and pour into it a little of the clear salt
solution.
- Weigh the evaporating dish with the salt solution and evaporate the
solution to dryness carefully through a water bath.
- Allow the evaporating dish to cool and reweigh the dish with the dry salt.

Results
Mass of empty dish= a g
Mass of dish + saturated solution = b g
Mass of dish + dry salt = c g

Calculations
Mass of saturated solution = (b-a) g
Mass of dry salt = (c-a) g
Mass of water (solvent) = (b-a)-(c-a)
= b-a-c+a
= (b-c) g
(b-c) g of water dissolves (c-a) g
of NaCl 1 g of solvent dissolves
g of NaCl

100g of solvent dissolves x 100 g of NaCl

There fore, the solubility of NaCl at room temperature is x 100

g/100 g of water.

Examples
1. 30g of sodium chloride crystals were dissolved in 75 g of water at 80 .
Calculate the solubility of sodium chloride at this temperature.
Solution
75 g of water dissolves 30 g of NaCl

1 g of solvent dissolves g of NaCl

100g of solvent dissolves ( x 100) g of NaCl
=40g

There fore, the solubility of NaCl at 80 temperature is 40g/100 g of water.

2. 12.0g of potassium chlorate was carefully evaporated to dryness, 2.4 g of

potassium chlorate crystals were left on the evaporating dish. Calculate
the solubility of potassium chlorate in grams per 100g of water at room
temperature.

Solution
Mass of solvent = mass of solution–mass of solute

43
 =(12.0-2.4)g = 9.6g of solvent (water)

9.6 g of water dissolves 2.4g of potassium chlorate

1 g of solvent dissolves g of potassium chlorate
100g of solvent dissolves ( x 100) g of potassium chlorate
=25g
There fore, the solubility of potassium chlorate at room temperature is
25g/100 g of water.

3. 75g of a saturated solution contains 30g of salt. Calculate,

i) The solubility of the salt
ii) The percentage of salt in the saturated solution

Solution
i) Mass of solvent = masss of solution- mass of solute
=(75-30)g = 45g of solvent

45 g of solvent is saturated by 30g of salt

1 g of solvent is saturated by g of salt

100g of solvent saturated by ( x 100) g of salt
=66.67g
There fore, the solubility of the salt at room temperature is 66.67g/100 g of
water.

ii) Percentage of salt = x 100

x 100
=40%

Exercise
1. In an experiment to determine the solubility of potassium nitrate at 20˚C,
the following results were obtained.
Mass of evaporating dish + saturated solution = 100.7g
Mass of evaporating dish = 65.3g
Mass of dish + dry salt = 73.8 g
Use the data above to calculate the solubility of potassium nitrate at
20˚C. Clearly show your working.

Factors that affect the rate of solubility of salts

1. Amount of solvent
Solubility of most salts increase with increase in the amount of solvent used.

2. Nature of solvent/solute
Solubility of a salt may increase or decrease depending on the nature of
solvent or solute.

44
 3. Temperature
Solubility of most salts increase with increase in temperature. For example,
potassium chlorate and potassium nitrate. Solubility of a few salts like
calcium chloride and calcium sulphate decrease with increase in
temperature. The solubility of sodium hydroxide and gases as well also
decrease with increase in temperature.

Solubility curve
A solubility curve is a graph that shows how the solubility of a salt varies
with temperature. The graph is obtained by plotting solubility (on the vertical
axis) against temperature (on the horizontal axis).
Solubility curve of some common salts
Potassium nitrate

Potassium chloride

Solubility Sodium chloride

1g/100g of water

Potassium chlorate

Calcium sulphate

Temperature /˚C

The solubility of potassium chloride, potassium nitrate and potassium

chlorate increase with increase in temperature. The solubility of potassium
nitrate increases most rapidly, followed by potassium chlorate then
potassium chloride.
The solubility of sodium chloride increases very slightly with increase in
temperature. The solubility of calcium sulphate decreases with increase in
temperature.

Uses of solubility curves

1. It can be used to find the solubility of a salt at a given temperature.
2. It gives the temperature at which a given amount of salt saturates 100g
of solvent.
3. It can be used to explain the trend of solubility of salts.
4. A solubility curve can be used to calculate the mass of salt obtained by
cooling a solution from a higher temperature to a lower temperature.

Mass of salt= (solubility at a higher temperature – solubility at a lower temperature)

For example, if a salt P with solubility of 180g/100g of water at 90˚C was

cooled to a temperature of 30˚C where its solubility is 25g/100g of water.
Calculate the mass of salt formed formed after cooling the solution.

Solution
Mass of salt= (solubility at a higher temperature – solubility at a lower
temperature)
= (180-45)g
= 155g

45
Application of solubility
1. Solubility is used to separate soluble salts from a mixture by fractional
crystallization.
2. It is used in the extraction of salts from large water bodies like lakes and
seas.

Exercise
1. a) Describe an experiment that you would carryout to determine the
solubility of potassium nitrate at 15˚C.
b) Determine the solubility in water of substance S at room
temperature from the following data.

Mass of evaporating basin 25g

Mass of evaporating basin + Saturated solution of S 55g
Mass of evaporating basin + Solid S 30g

2. a) Define the term solubility?

b) The table below shows the solubility (ies) of salt P in water at
different temperatures.
Temperature/˚C 10 20 30 40 50 60
Solubility, g/100g of water 18 20 24 30 38 50
i) plot a graph of solubility of P against temperature ii) use your
graph to determine
a) solubilities of P at 25˚C and 45˚C
b) the mass of crystals deposited when a solution of P is cooled
from 50˚C to 25˚C
iii) Calculate the mass of P that would dissolve in 45g of water at
25˚C

PREPARATION OF SALTS
The method of salt preparation depends on whether the salt is soluble in
water or not. Soluble salts are prepared by crystallization and
neutralization. Insoluble salts are prepared by precipitation or double
decomposition. Other salts are prepared by direct synthesis.

Preparation of soluble salts

Soluble salts are prepared using dilute acids and metals, metals oxides,
metal hydroxides and metal carbonates.

General procedure
1. Place some dilute acid in a beaker
2. Warm the acid and add the metal, metal oxide, metal hydroxide and
metal carbonate bit by bit until in excess to ensure that the acid is
completely used up.
3. Filter the excess metal, metal oxide, metal hydroxide or metal
carbonate and collect the filtrate.

46
 4. Saturate the filtrate by evaporating and allow the solution to cool as
it cools to form the salt crystals.
5. Filter the crystals and wash them with water.
6. Dry the crystals in an oven, or under sun shine or between filter
papers.

1. Preparation of salts from metals and dilute acids

Salts prepared by this method are soluble salts of iron, magnesium,
aluminium and zinc. (I.e. metals higher than lead and lower than calcium
in the reactivity series.)

N.B. Nitrates cannot be prepared using this method because dilute nitric
acid being an oxidizing agent, does not react with metal to liberate hydrogen
gas.

Example
Laboratory preparation of zinc sulphate crystals from zinc
metal/powder
- Put dilute sulphuric acid in a beaker and heat it gently until when it‘s
hot.
- Add zinc powder to the hot acid bit by bit while stirring until when the
zinc powder is in excess.
- Filter off the excess zinc powder to obtain zinc sulphate solution as the
filtrate.
- Saturate the filtrate by evaporating.
- Allow it to cool and form crystals of the salt.
- Filter the crystals and wash them with distilled water.
- Dry the crystals either in qaan oven of under the sun or between filter
papers.
Equation
H2SO4(aq) + Zn(s) ZnSO 4(aq) + H2(g)

Other salts formed in similar ways are:

Zinc chloride
Hydrochloric acid + zinc Zinc chloride + Hydrogen gas
HCl(aq) + Zn(s) ZnCl 2(aq)

Iron (II) sulphate

Sulphuric acid + Iron Iron (II) sulphate + Hydrogen
gas H2SO4(aq) + Fe(s) FeSO 4(aq) + H2(g)

2. Preparation of salts from metal oxides and dilute acids

Example
Preparation of copper (II) sulphate from copper (II) oxide in the
laboratory - Put dilute sulphuric acid in a beaker and heat it gently
until when it‘s hot.
- Add copper (II) oxide to the hot acid bit by bit while stirring until when
the copper (II) oxide is in excess.

47
- Filter off the excess copper (II) oxide to obtain copper sulphate solution
as the filtrate.
- Saturate the filtrate by evaporating.
- Allow it to cool and form crystals of the salt.
- Filter the crystals and wash them with distilled water.
- Dry the crystals either in an oven or under sunshine or between filter
papers. Equation
H2SO4(aq) + CuO(s) CuSO4(aq) + H2O(g)

Other examples of salts formed from metal oxides are:

Magnesium chloride
Hydrochloric acid + Magnesium oxide Magnesium chloride + Water
2HCl(aq) + MgO(s) MgCl 2(aq) + H2O(l)

Copper (II) nitrate

Copper (II) oxide + Nitric acid Copper (II) nitrate +
Water
CuO(s) + HNO3(aq) Cu(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(g)

Aluminium sulphate
H2SO4(aq) + Al2O3(s) Al2(SO4)3(aq) + H2O(g)

3. Preparation of salts from insoluble metal

carbonates Example
Preparation of lead (II) nitrate from lead (II)
carbonate - Pour dilute nitric acid in a beaker
and warm it gently.
- Add lead (II) carbonate a little at a time. Effervescence occurs as
carbondioixde is evolved.
- Continue adding the carbonate until when it is in excess and no more
effervescence occurs.
- Filter off the excess carbonate to get a colourless filtrate.
- Evaporates the filtrate by heating gently to obtain a saturated solution.
- Cool the saturated solution to obtain white crystals of lead (II) nitrate
salts.
- Wash the crystals with cold distilled water and dry either on sun shine,
in an oven or between filter papers.

Equation
Lead (II) nitrate
Lead (II) carbonate + Nitric acid Lead (II) nitrate + Water +
carbondioxide
HNO3(aq) + PbCO3(s) Pb(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(g) + CO2(g)

Other salts prepared in similar ways are:

Barium chloride
Hydrochloric acid + Barium carbonate Barium chloride + Water +
carbondioxide
2HCl(aq) + BaCO3(s) BaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

48
Copper (II) sulphate
Sulphuric acid + copper (II) carbonate Copper (II) sulphate + water +
carbondioxide H2SO4(aq) + CuCO3(s) CuSO 4(aq) + H2O(g)
+ CO2(g)

4. Preparation of salts from metal hydroxides

Example
Preparation of lead (II) nitrate starting from lead (II)
hydroxide - Pour dilute nitric acid in a beaker and
warm it gently.
- Add lead (II) hydroxide a little at a time while until when it is in excess. -
Filter off the excess hydroxide to get a colorless filtrate.
- Evaporates the filtrate by heating gently to obtain a saturated solution.
- Cool the saturated solution to obtain white crystals of lead (II) nitrate
salts.
- Wash the crystals with cold distilled water and dry them either on sun
shine, in an oven or between filter papers.
-*
Equation
Pb(OH)2(s) + 2HNO3(aq) Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2H2O(l)

Other salts prepared in similar ways are:

Iron (II) nitrate
Iron (II) hydroxide + Nitric acid Iron (II) nitrate + Water
Fe(OH)2(s) + HNO3(aq) Fe(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(g)

Copper (II) chloride

Hydrochloric acid + Copper (II) hydroxide Copper chloride + Hydrogen
gas
2HCl(aq) + Cu(OH)2(s) CuCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l)

Zinc sulphate
Zinc hydroxide + sulphuric acid zinc sulphate + water
Zn(OH)2(s) + H2SO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

Laboratory preparations of salts whose carbonates, oxides and

hydroxides sare insoluble
These salts include potassium, sodium and ammonium salts. The salts can
be prepared by titration method (neutralization).
Neutralization is a reaction between an acid and a base to produce a salt
and water only.
General procedure
- Put a known volume of hydroxide of a metal in a conical flask.
- Add 2 or 3 drops of an indicator.
- Run a suitable acid from the burette until when the color of the mixture
just changes. Note and record the volume of acid used.
- Measure accurately the same volume of hydroxide as before and titrate
with exactly the same volume of acid as recorded above.

49
 NB. An indicator is not used in the second titration, since the volume of
acid required to neutralize the fixed volume of base was already got.
- Stir and heat the solution to make it saturated.
- Allow the hot saturated solution to cool as it forms salt crystals.
- The crystals are filtered off, washed with cold distilled water and dried
in an oven, under sun shine or between filter papers.

Preparation of sodium chloride crystals in the laboratory

Procedure
- Put a known volume of sodium hydroxide in a conical flask.
- Add 2 or 3 drops of an indicator.
- Titrate the sodium hydroxide with hydrochloric acid from the burette
until when the end point is reached (when the indicator changes color).
Note and record the volume of acid used.
- Measure accurately the same volume of sodium hydroxide as before and
titrate with exactly the same volume of hydrochloric acid as recorded
above without using an indicator.
- Stir and heat the solution to make it saturated.
- Allow the hot saturated solution to cool as it forms salt crystals.
- The crystals are filtered off, washed with cold distilled water and dried
in an oven, under sun shine or between filter papers.

Equation
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

Other salts prepared in similar ways are:

Ammonium sulphate ((NH4)2SO4)
Ammonium hydroxide + sulphuric acid ammonium sulphate
2NH4OH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) (NH4)2SO4(aq) + H2O(l)

Potassium nitrate, KNO3

Potassium hydroxide + nitric acid potassium nitrate +
water
KOH(aq) + HNO3(aq) KNO3(aq) + H2O(l)

Sodium sulphate
Sodium hydroxide + sulphuric acid sodium sulphate + water
2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

Preparation of insoluble salts

Insoluble salts are prepared by double decomposition or precipitation
method. In this method, two soluble salts are mixed to form two new salts
by exchange of radicals. One of the new salts formed is a soluble salt and
one is an insoluble salt that appear as precipitates. The precipitate is filtered
off and washed then dried.
Precipitation is the formation of solids when solutions are mixed.
A precipitate is the solid formed when two or more solutions are mixed.

50
Example
Preparation of barium sulphate (by reacting barium nitrate and
sodium sulphate) Procedure
- Put a solution of barium nitrate in a beaker and add a solution of sodium
sulphate to it. A white precipitate of barium sulphate immediately
appears, - Filter off the precipitate and wash with distilled water.
- Dry the precipitate (salt formed) under sun shine, in an oven or between
filter papers.
Equation
Ba(NO3)2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) BaSO4(s) + NaNO3(aq)

This method can be used to prepare salts such as lead sulphate, aluminium
chloride, silver chloride, silver carbonate and barium sulphate.

Preparation of lead (II) sulphate (by reacting lead (II) nitrate and
sulphuric acid)
Procedure
- Add dilute nitric acid to lead (II) nitrate solution in a beaker and stir the
mixture. White precipitates of lead (II) sulphate is formed.
- Filter off the precipitates and wash with distilled water to remove traces
of the acid.
- Dry the precipitates in a steam oven or leave it to dry in air.

NB. If any of the compounds to be used in the preparation of the salt is

insoluble in water, it must first be made to dissolve in a mineral acid. For
example, in the preparation of lead (II) sulphate using lead (II) oxide, the lead
(II) is first divvolved in nitric acid to form lead (II) nitrate.
Equation
PbO(s) + 2HNO3(aq) Pb(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l)

The lead (II) nitrate formed reacts with sulphuric acid to form lead (II)
sulphate. Pb(NO3)2(aq) + H2SO4(aq) PbSO4(s) + HNO3(aq)

Preparation of salts by direct synthesis

Salts consisting of two elements (binary salts) can be prepared by direct
synthesis/ direct combination.
Example:
In the preparation of sodium chloride from sodium and chlorine, burning
sodium is lowered in a gas jar of chlorine. Sodium continues to burn in
chlorine forming white fumes which settle into white solids (sodium
chloride).
Equation
2Na(s) + Cl2(g) 2NaCl(s)

Other salts prepared by direct synthesis include:

Magnesium chloride
Mg(s) + Cl2(g) MgCl2(s)
Potassium chloride
2K(s)+Cl2(g) 2KCl(s)

51
Iron (III) chloride
2Fe(s) + 3Cl2(g) 2FeCl3(s)
Zinc bromide
Zn(s)+Br2(g) ZnBr2(s)
Effects of heat on salts
1. Carbonates
Potassium and sodium carbonates are very stable and are not decomposed
by heat. But if the salts are hydrated, they lose their water of crystallization.
In such a process, salts lose their crystalline nature and become amorphous.

Na2CO3.10H2O(s) Na2CO3(s) + 10H2O(g)

(Crystalline solid) (Powdery solid)
All the other metallic carbonates decompose upon heating to give the oxide
of the metal and carbondioxide gas.
Example
When white zinc carbonate is heated, it produces a colorless gas that turns
lime water milky leaving a yellow residue when hot which turns white on
cooling.

ZnCO3(s) ZnO(s) + CO2(g)

(white solids) (yellow solids Colorless gas that
turns lime when hot but water milky
turns white on cooling)

When lead (II) carbonate is heated, a brown residue (when hot) which
becomes yellow on cooling and a colorless gas that turns lime water milky
are produced.

PbCO3(s) PbO(s) + CO2(g)

(white solids) (Brown solids Colorless gas that turns lime
when hot but water milky
turns cooling) yellow on

When copper (II) carbonate is heated, black solids of copper (II) oxide is
formed and a colorless gas that turns lime water milky evolved.

CuCO3(s) CuO(s) + CO2(g)

(white solids) (black solids) Colorless gas that
turns lime water milky

Ammonium carbonate decomposes to give ammonia gas, carbondioxide and

water vapor.

(NH4)2CO3(s) 2NH3(g) + H2O(g) + CO2(g)

Hydrogen carbonate of metals decompose to form carbonate of metals,

carbondioxide gas and water vapor.
Example

52
2NaHCO3(s) Na2CO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

2. Sulphates
Sulphates of sodium and potassium donot decompose on heating. When
hydrated sulphates of potassium or sodium is heated, it loses its water of
crystallization and becomes amorphous.

K2SO4.10H20(s) K2SO4(s) + 10H2O(g)

Sulphates of heavy metals decompose to give metal oxides and white fumes
of sulphur trioxide gas. When heated more strongly, the sulphur trioxide gas
decomposes to give sulphur dioxide and oxygen gas.
Examples
When hydrated copper (II) sulphate crystals are heated, they lose their water
of crystallization and changes from blue crystals to white powder. The water
condenses as a colorless liquid on the cooler parts of the test tube.

CuSO4.5H2O(s) CuSO4(s) + 5H2O(g)

(blue crystals) (white powder)
On further heating,the white powder gives off white fumes of a gas (SO 3) and
a black residue (CuO) is left.

2CuSO4(s) 2CuO(s) + SO3(g)

(white powder)
(black solids)
When green solid of iron (II) sulphate is heated, it loses it water of
crystallization and changes from green to dirty-yellow anhydrous solids.

FeSO4.7H2O(s) FeSO4(s) + 7H2O(g)

(Green solids) (Dirty yellow solids)
When heated more strongly, it gives off sulphur dioxide (a colorless gas that
turns potassium dichromate solution from yellow to green), white fumes of
sulphur trioxide and brown residue of iron (III) oxide is left.

2FeSO4(s) Fe2O3(s) + SO3(g) + SO2(g)

(dirty yellow) (brown solids)

3. Nitrates
All nitrates decompose upon heating.
Sodium and potassium nitrates melt into colorless liquids then decompose
upon heating to give their corresponding nitrites that form yellow solids on
cooling and oxygen gas.

2NaNO3(s) 2NaNO2(s) + O2(g)

(white crystals) (yellow powder)

All nitrates from calcium down to copper decompose to give their

corresponding oxides, brown fumes of nitrogen dioxide gas and oxygen gas.
Examples
2Zn(NO3)2(s) 2ZnO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)

53
(White crystals) (Yellow-hot; white-cold) (Brown fumes)

2Pb(NO3)2(s) 2PbO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)

(White crystals) (Brown-hot; yellow-cold) (Brown fumes)
N.B. Lead(II)nitrate decomposes with a cracking sound.

2Cu(NO3)2(s) 2CuO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)

(Green crystals) (Black powder) (Brown fumes)

Mercury (II)nitrate and silver nitrate decompose to give their corresponding

metals, brown fumes of nitrogen dioxide gas and a colorless gas that relights
a glowing spling (oxygen gas).
2AgNO3(s) Ag(s) + 2NO2(g) + O2(g)
(White crystals) (Grey solids) (Brown fumes)
Hg(NO3)2(s) Hg(l) + 2NO2(g) + O2(g)

Ammonium nitrate sublimes upon heating to give dinitrogen oxide and water
vapor.

NH4NO3(s) N2O(g) + 2H2O(g)

4. Chlorides
Metallic chlorides are not affected by heat because hey are very stable.
However, if they are hydrated, the lose their water of crystallization.
For example
MgCl2.7H2O(s) MgCl2(s) + 7H2O(g)

Ammonium chloride sublimes on slight heating and on further heating, it

decomposes to give ammonia and hydrogen chloride gases.
Equation
NH4Cl(s) NH4Cl(g) NH3(g)
+ HCl(g)
Effects of heat on hydroxides
Hydroxides of sodium and potassium are not decomposed by heat. If they
are in solid forms, they absorb moisture and melt to form solutions.
However, the hydroxides of other metals decompose to give the
corresponding oxides and water vapor.
Example
Zn(OH)2(s) ZnO(s) + H2O(g)
(white crystals) (yellow-hot; white-cold)
Pb(OH)2(s) PbO(s) + H2O(g)
(white crystals) (brown-hot; brown-cold)
.
Sample questions on salts
1. Briefly explain what is meant by the following and in each case give an
example (formula and name): salt, acid salt, normal salt and basic salt.

2. What is solubility of a salt? Describe with the aid of a labeled drawing

how you can determine the solubility of sodium chloride at 40˚C

54
3. (a) State one method for preparing: (i) lead (II) nitrate other than from
lead (II) carbonate (ii)lead (II) sulphate. Describe how a pure dry sample
of lead (II) nitrate can be prepared in the laboratory, starting from lead
(II) carbonates.

4. Describe what would be observed and write equations when each of the
following salts are heated: (a) lead(II) carbonate (b) lead(II) nitrate (c)
sodium carbonate crystals (d) zinc carbonate (e) ammonium carbonate (f)
hydrated copper(II) sulphate (g) sodium nitrate (h) zinc nitrate crystals
(i) silver nitrate and ammonium nitrate.

5. Describe in detail how you would prepare pure dry samples of (a) zinc
sulphate from zinc carbonate (b) lead(II) sulphate from lead(II) nitrate (c)
sodium chloride by action of an acid and a base.

6. Write down the formula of the precipitate which is produced when pairs
of aqueous solutions are mixed as follows: (i) Ba(NO ) and Na SO ; (ii) H S
3 2 2 4 2

and Pb(NO ) ; (iii) NH4Br and AgNO3; (iv) CaCl2 and K2CO3.
3 2

BONDING AND STRUCTURE

BONDING
Bonding is the chemical combination of atoms or elements to form
compounds. The force of attraction holding atoms or elements together in a
molecule/crystal is referred to as a chemical bond. Chemical bonding
/combination occurs mainly in four forms as:
1. Ionic/electrovalent bonding-this involves transfer of electrons from a
metal atom to a non metal atom. It occurs between metals and non
metals.
2. Covalent bonding-this involves sharing of electrons between two or
more non metal atoms/elements. The atoms/elements involved
contribute to the bonding electrons.
3. Dative/co-ordinate bonding-this involves sharing of the bonding
electrons which are donated by one molecule or atom involved.
4. Metallic bonding-this occurs between atoms of metal elements.

Electrovalent/ ionic bonding

This involves transfer of electrons from a metal to a non metal. The number
of electrons lost by the metal atom or gained by non metal atom is equivalent
to its valency. The loss of electrons from a metal atom leads to formation of
a positively charged ion (cation) and the gain of electrons by a non metal
atom leads to the formation of a negatively charged ion (anion). The
positively charged ion and the negatively charged ion are attracted to each
other and the force of attraction holding them together is known as
electrovalent/ionic bond. The compounds formed are referred to as ionic/
electrovalent compounds. Metal atoms lose electrons so as to gain stable

55
electronic configuration of noble gases and non metal atoms also gain
electrons to become stable.

Formation of some ionic compounds

Sodium chloride
When sodium burns in chlorine to form sodium chloride, the sodium atom
loses an electron and forms a positively charged sodium ion(Na +) while the
chlorine atom gains the electron and forms a negatively charged chloride ion
( ).

Illustration +
–

(2:8)
(2:8:8)
Na (2:8:1) Cl (2:8:7)

The positively charged sodium ion and negatively charged chlorine ion are
attracted to each other by a strong force called ionic bond.

Magnesium oxide
Magnesium atom loses two electrons to the oxygen atom and forms a
positively charged magnesium ion ( ) while the oxygen atom forms a
negatively charged oxide ion ( ). These two oppositely charged ions are
then attracted to each other. Illustration
2+ 2–

(2:8) (2:8)
Mg (2:8:2) O (2:6)

Calcium chloride
During the formation of calcium chloride, calcium atom loses two electrons
which are gained by two chlorine atoms. This leads to the formation of
and two which are then attracted to each other.

56
Illustration

2+

Cl (2:8:7)

(2:8:8)
Ca(2:8:8:2)
Cl (2:8:7) 2 (2:8:8)

Covalent bonding
This type of bonding occurs between non metal elements/ atoms to form
compounds. Covalent bonding involves mutual sharing of electrons between
elements in which each of the atoms involved gives equal number of
electrons to be shared. On sharing the electrons, the atoms attain stable
electronic structure of noble gases. The compound formed are called
covalent compounds. Covalent bonds may by classified as single, double,
triple or quadruple depending on the number of electrons shared.

a) Single covalent bond: this is formed when one pair of electron is

shared. Each of the atoms involved contribute an electron for the bond
formation.
Example
i) Hydrogen molecule (H2)

H H H–H or H2
Covalent bond

ii) Water molecule (H2O)

O
H O or H2O
H H
iii) Ammonia (NH3)

57
 N or NH3

H H H
N

3H

iv) Methane (CH4)

C or CH4

C H H H

4H

N.B. The pair of electron on the outer most energy level that does not take
part in bonding is the lone pair or non bonded pair.

b) Double covalent bond

This is formed when two pairs of electrons are shared between two bonded
atoms. Example
i) Oxygen (O2)

O=O or O2

O
O

ii) Carbon dioxide (CO2)

O=C=O or CO2
C

2O

c) Triple covalent bond

58
This involves sharing of three pairs of electrons between atoms.
Example
i) Nitrogen molecule (N2)

NΞN or N2

ii) Hydrogen cyanide (HCN)

H–CΞN

d) Quadruple covalent bond

This is formed by sharing four pairs of electrons. It occurs between carbon
atoms.
Illustration

Dative/ co-ordinate bond

This involves sharing of electrons but the shared pair of electrons is donated
by one atom/ molecule. Here, one molecule/ atom donates the pair of
electrons to be shared with an ion or another atom. Normally it is atoms/
molecules with lone pair of electrons that form this bond-by donating the
lone pair of electrons to be shared with another atom/ion. The bond may be
represented by an arrow originating from the donor atom (atom that donates
electrons to be shared) to the atom accepting the electrons.

Example
i) Formation of ammonium ion ( )
During the formation of ammonium ion, ammonia reacts with an acid. The
nitrogen in ammonia has a lone pair of electron which it donates to be
shared with the hydrogen ion (proton) from the acid.

59
 NH3 +
Illustration
H
Lone pair donated to be shared with Or
Dative bond
H N H

H
ii) Formation of phosphorus (V) trichloride oxide.
This is formed between phosphorus (III) chloride which donates the lone pair
of electron to be shared and oxygen atom.
Illustration using outer most shell

Cl Cl
Cl

Cl Cl Cl P O

Cl
Cl
O Cl
PCl3

Metallic bonding
This is the type of bonding in metals due to the attraction between metal
ions and the valency electrons within the structure of the metal (metal
lattice). In the structure of a metal, the loosely held valency electrons
(electrons in the outer mos energy level) are released in to a general pool and
the atoms become positively charged. These electrons move freely around
the ions formed and are termed as mobile/delocalized electrons. The ions
formed and the electrons attract each other forming metallic bond.

The strength of metallic bond increases with increase in the number of

electrons released in to the electron cloud. Thus the bond is very strong in
metals like iron and aluminum that release up to three electrons each to the
electron pool and weak in metals like sodium and potassium that only
release one electron each to the electron pool. Illustration

Moving electrons

Positively charged ion

Exercise
1. Draw diagrams to show the arrangement of electrons in the following
compounds

60
 a) KCl b) Na2O c) MgCl2 d) CS2

2. Draw diagrams to show the arrangement of electrons in the energy levels

of atoms in the following molecules. Use only the outer most electrons to
illustrate. a) Ethane (C2H4) b) Ethyne (C2H2)

STRUCTURE OF COMPOUNDS/SUBSTANCES
Different types of binds give rise to different types of structures. This is
illustrated in the table below.
Bonding Structure
Ionic/ electrovalent Giant ionic structure
Covalent Simple molecular structure Giant molecular
structure
Metallic Giant metallic

Giant ionic structure

This is a giant structure consisting of a regular arrangement of a large
number of oppositely charged ions resulting into a three dimensional
crystal. Each ion is surrounded by a number of oppositely charged ions and
they are held together by strong electrostatic forces of attraction. The
number of ions surrounding a given oppositely charged ion is known as the
co-ordination number. The examples of structures include: sodium
chloride and magnesium chloride. Structure of sodium chloride

Sodium ion Chloride ion

Each sodium ion is surrounded by six chloride ions and each chloride ion is also
surrounded by six sodium ions. The co-ordination number is there fore 6:6.

Properties of ionic compounds

1. They are solids with a regular shape. This is because of the strong
electrostatic forces of attraction keeping the ions closely packed.
2. They have high melting points. This is due to the strong electrostatic
force af attraction between oppositely charged ions.
3. They do not conduct electricity in solid states but do conduct in their
molten states or solution form. This is because in solid states, the ions
are localized and the electrons are not mobile but in molten form, the
ions and electrons are free to move (electrons become delocalized) and
thus conduct electricity.
4. They have high density as the ions are closely packed.
5. Ionic compounds are soluble in water and other polar solvents but they
a re insoluble in organic solvents like benzene. Ionic compounds dissolve

61
 in polar solvents like water as the ions are attracted by the polar
molecule.

A polar compound is a covalent compound in which charge separation exist

between atoms. This is due to the differences in electro negativity between
the atoms.

Electro negativity is the tendency of an atom to attract bonding electron

towards itself. Electro positivity is the tendency of an atom to push away
bonding electrons from itself.

For example, in a water molecule oxygen is more electro negative and

attracts the bonding electrons towards itself giving it a partial negative
charge. Hydrogen attains a partial positive charge.

Structure of a water molecule

δ-
O
δ+ δ+
H H

NB Most metals are malleable and ductile. This is because, since the
bonding agent in a metal is a moving electron cloud, the ions of the metal;
usually slide relative to one another under stress (without shattering the
lattice and produce a new position of stability).

Simple molecular structures

The structure consists of simple independent molecules joined together by
weak intermolecular forces of attraction. E.g. Vander Waal‘s force of
attraction. The atoms in the molecule are held together by strong covalent
bond. Compounds with this structure exist as gases, liquids or solids with
low melting points. Examples include iodine, carbon dioxide , ammonia and
water.

Structure of iodine
I–I-----------I–I---------- --I–I

Strong covalent bond holding iodine atoms together

Weak Vander Waal‘s force holding iodine molecules together

Illustration of weak hydrogen bond in water

62
Properties of simple molecular structures
1. They have low melting and boiling points because the molecules are held
by weak intermolecular forces of attraction.
2. They are non conductors of electricity because they do not have mobile
electrons/ ions.
3. Most of them are gases and liquids. Very few are solids.
4. They have low densities as the molecules are not closely packed.
5. They dissolve in organic solvents.

Giant atomic/molecular structure

Compounds with such structures consist of molecules /atoms linked
together by strong covalent bonds resulting into a giant three dimensional
or three dimensional structures like in graphite and diamond respectively
(see details under Carbon and its compounds)

Properties of giant molecular structures

1. They have high melting and boiling pints because of great energy needed
to break the bonds.
2. They do not conduct electricity except graphite which has delocalized
electrons.
3. They are insoluble in water.

Giant metallic structure

Giant metallic structure consists of very many metal ions surrounded by a
sea /cloud of electrons. These electrons are released by metal atoms.

Properties of giant metallic structures

1. They are solids with high melting and boiling points except mercury
which is a liquid.
2. They conduct electricity in both liquid and solid states due to the
presence of mobile electrons.

Sample questions on bonding and structure

Bonding and structure
1. Describe briefly what is meant by the following types of bonding:
electrovalent, covalent, coordinate and metallic. Use examples to
illustrate how the above bonds are formed between any two named atoms
or molecules.

63
2. Explain what is meant by metallic bond. Explain why a typical metal is
(a) a good conductor of electricity (b) a good conductor of heat (c) in some
conditions at leas malleable and ductile.

3. The compounds named below are all covalent compounds. With the aid of
the table of electron structures, give a diagram for a molecule of each of
these compounds showing the outer most electron shells only: (i) tetra
chloromethane CCl4, phosphorus(III) chloride PCl3 (iii) silane SiH4 (iv) tri
chloromethane CHCl3 (v) phosphine PH3 and (vi) dichloromethane CH2Cl2

4. Explain briefly why ammonia and oxygen molecules participate readily

in coordinate bonding. Give an example for the formation of an ion by
ammonia by this means. Show by means of electronic diagram the
formation of a coordinate linkage between phosphorus tri chloride and
oxygen.

5. By means of electronic diagrams, show the structure of (a) calcium atom

(b) chlorine atom (c) calcium chloride. State the differences between
electrovalent and covalent compounds.

6. Describe how structures of the following compounds account for their

property in term of electrical conduction (a) copper (b) graphite (c)
diamond

7. With the aid of well labeled drawings explain the structure of the
following: Graphite, diamond, sodium chloride and chlorine molecule.

CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS

Carbon is an element in period II and group IV in the periodic table. It has
atomic number of six.

Occurrence of carbon
Carbon occurs in both free states and combined states. In combined states,
it occurs as coal, mineral oils, carbonates (e.g. lime stone, marble and sea
shells) and all living things (animals and plants). As an element it occurs in
both natural (as diamond and graphite) and synthetic forms (as coke,
charcoal and carbon fiber).

Allotropes of carbon
Allotropy is the existence of an element in two or more forms in the same
physical state.

Allotropes are various forms in which elements exist without change in

physical state. Different allotropes of the same element always have
different crystalline structures and physical properties but the same
chemical properties.

64
Allotropes of carbon are: diamond and graphite. Another form of carbon is
amorphous carbon.

Diamond
In diamond, the structure consists of infinite number of carbon atoms. Each
of the carbon atoms is joined to four other carbon atoms by covalent bonds
resulting into a tetrahedral arrangement. This gives a diamond crystal a
giant three dimensional structure. Diamond has no mobile electrons so
cannot conduct electricity.
Structure of diamond
Carbon atom

Strong covalent bond between

carbon atoms

Physical properties of diamond

- Diamond is the hardest natural substance known. This is because the
carbon atoms are closely parked and are joined by strong covalent bonds.
- Diamond has a very high melting pint because of the strong covalent
bond between the carbon atoms.
- It has a very high density (3.5g/cm3) because of the closely packed
carbon atoms.
- Diamond is transparent, sparkling and glitters.
- Diamond does not conduct electricity because it has no mobile electrons.

Uses of diamond
1. Diamond is very hard and used as drilling devices, rock borers and
glass cutters.
2. Diamond is used jewellery because its sparkling appearance.
3. Diamond is bright and used to make laser beams.

Graphite
Graphite consists of infinite number of carbon atoms each covalently bonded
to three other carbon atoms forming hexagonal rings that are arranged in
layers. Each layer is a giant two dimensional structure. The different layers
are held by weak Vander Waal‘s forces of attraction, making them to slide
over each other thus they are slippery and soft. Some electrons in a layer
are mobile making them to conduct electricity.

Structure of graphite

65
 Covalent bond
Upper layer of hexagonal
rings Weak Vander Waal’s force
of attraction

Lower layer of hexagonal

rings Carbon atom

Graphite consists of infinite number of carbon atoms each covalently bonded

to three other carbon atoms forming hexagonal rings that are arranged in
layers. Each layer is a giant two dimensional structure. The different layers
are held by weak Vander Waal‘s forces of attraction, making them to slide
over each other thus they are slippery and soft. Some electrons in a layer
are mobile making them to conduct electricity.

Physical properties of graphite

- Graphite conducts electricity because they have free mobile electrons.
- The melting point of graphite is high because of the strong covalent bond
between the carbon atoms.
- Graphite is soft and slippery because its layers are held by weak Vander
Waals force of attraction.
- Graphite is opaque and dark in color and shinny.

Graphite is less resistant to chemical attack than diamond because of the

open spaces between the layers. The density of graphite is 2.3g/cm3

Uses of graphite
1. Graphite is soft and can mark there fore used to make pencil ―leads‖.
Graphite is mixed with clay to make pencil leads.
2. Graphite is a good conductor of electricity and thus used as electrodes.
3. It is soft and greasy, therefore used as lubricants especially in small
bearings like those in dynamos.
4. Graphite is used to make brushes for electric motors.
5. Graphite (black lead) is used as a protective coating on iron to prevent
rusting.

When 1g of both diamond and graphite burns in oxygen, they form 3.67g of
carbon dioxide only. This shows that they are allotropes.

Amorphous carbon
Amorphous carbon is black and has the lowest density. It is non
crystalline and fairly conducts electricity. Amorphous carbon exist in
several forms like wood charcoal, animal charcoal, sugar charcoal, lamp
black and coke. i) Wood charcoal
It is formed when wood is heated in limited supply of air (destructive
distillation of wood). It is a black porous solid and a very good absorbent of
gases.
ii) Animal charcoal

66
This is made by heating animal refuse and bones in limited supply of air.
Animal charcoal has a property of absorbing coloring matter and is used to
remove brown color from sugar during its manufacture.
iii) Sugar charcoal
This is a very pure form of carbon made by removing elements of water from
sugar. E.g. when cane sugar is dehydrated by concentrated sulphuric acid,
sugar charcoal is formed.
iv) Lamp black
This is formed by burning oils (e.g. turpentine, petroleum, kerosene) in
limited supply of air. It is used for making ink for printing and shoe polish.
v) Coke
This is an impure form of carbon made by heating coal in the absence of air
(destructive distillation of coal). It is used as a reducing agent in the
extraction of metals like iron and zinc from their ores. Coke is also used as
fuel.

Chemical properties of carbon

All allotropes of carbon have similar chemical properties but different
physical properties.

1. Reaction of carbon with oxygen

Carbon burns is excess oxygen to for carbon dioxide gas. In the process great
heat is generated.

C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)

When carbon burns in limited amount of oxygen, carbon monoxide forms.

C(s) + ½O2(g) CO(g)

Reaction of carbon in a deep, brightly glowing coke/coal fire.

In region A, plenty of air is available. Carbon burns to carbon dioxide.

C(s)+O2(g) CO2(g)

In region B, ascending carbon dioxide is reduced by red hot coke to carbon

monoxide.

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CO2(g) + C(s) 2CO(g)

At the surface, the hot carbon monoxide burns in air to form carbon dioxide
with a flickering blue flame.

CO(g) + ½O2(g) CO2(g)

2. Reaction of metal oxides with carbon

Carbon readily removes oxygen from (reduces) oxides of metals lower than it
in the reactivity series. Thus it acts as a reducing agent. Examples of oxides
reduced by carbon are: zinc oxide, ZnO; lead (II) oxide, PbO; copper (II) oxide,
CuO; iron (II) oxide, FeO and iron (III) oxide, Fe2O3.

2ZnO(s) + C(s) 2Zn(s) + CO2(g)

2PbO(s) + C(s) 2 Pb(s) + CO2(g)
2CuO(s) + C(s) 2Cu(s) + CO2(g)

3. Reaction with acids

Carbon reduces nitric acid and sulphuric acid to nitrogen dioxide and
sulphur dioxide gases respectively. The carbon itself is oxidized to carbon
dioxide gas.

C(s) + 4HNO3(aq) 4NO2(g) + CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

C(s) +2 H2SO4(aq) 2SO2(g) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

4. Reaction with steam

If steam is blown through red hot charcoal, a mixture of carbon monoxide
and hydrogen gases are formed. This mixture is called water gas.

H2O(g) + C(s) CO(g) + H2(g)

OXIDES OF CARBON

CARBON MONOXIDE (CO)

Occurrence
Carbon monoxide is a poisonous gas and is commonly present in coal gas
and other gaseous fuels. It is also produced in car exhaust fumes due to
partial combustion of carbon.

Laboratory preparation
This can be done by the action of concentrated sulphuric acid on any of the
following compounds.
1. Methanoic acid (HCOOH)
Concentrated sulphuric acid is a very strong dehydrating agent and
removes water from methanoic acid forming carbon monoxide and water.

Conc. H2SO4
HCOOH(l) CO(g)
+ H2O(l) No heating is required.

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2. Sodium methanoate (HCOONa)
Here, concentrated sulphuric acid dehydrates sodium methanoate to form
water, sodium hydrogen sulphate and carbon monoxide.

HCOONa(s) + H2SO4(aq) NaHSO4(aq) + CO(g) H2O(l)

3. Oxalic acid (ethanedioic acid-H2C2O4)

Set up of apparatus

Equation
Conc. H2SO4
H2C2O4(s) CO2(s) + CO(g) + H2O(l)
In this preparation, the products formed are passed through
concentrated potassium hydroxide solution to remove traces of carbon
dioxide.

2KOH(aq) + CO2(g) K2CO3(aq) + H2O(l)

If the carbon monoxide is required dry, it is passed through a bottle

containing conc. Sulhuric acid and collected by use of a syringe or upward
displacement of air.

Physical properties of carbon

monoxide - It is colorless,
odourless and tasteless.
- It is insoluble in water.
- It is denser than air.
- It is neutral to litmus paper

Chemical properties
a) Reaction with air
Carbon dioxide burns in air with a pale blue flame to produce carbon
dioxide.

CO(g) + ½O2(g) CO2(g)

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b) Reducing action of carbon monoxide
Carbon dioxide is a powerful reducing agent and it reduces the oxides of
metals (iron (illustrated in extraction of iron), lead and copper) to respective
metals upon heating.

CuO(s) + CO(g) Cu(g) + CO2(g)

(Black solids) (Brown solids)
PbO(s) + CO(g) Pb(s) + CO2(g)
(Yellow solids-cold) (Grey solids)

Poisonous nature of carbon monoxide

Blood contains haemoglobin which combines with oxygen to form
oxyhaemoglobin. The oxyhaemoglobin transports and supplies the oxygen
to all parts of the body. However, when carbon monoxide is inhaled, it
combines with haemoglobin to form carboxyhaemoglobin. This stops the
blood from absorbing oxygen and may lead to death.

Haemoglobin has a higher affinity for carbon monoxide than oxygen. Carbon
monoxide is even more dangerous because it has no colour and smell.

Uses of carbon monoxide

- It is used extensively in the extraction of metals as a reducing agent e.g.
extraction of iron in a blast furnace.
- It is used as fuel in form of producer gas and water gas.
- It is used in the manufacture of methanol used in anti freezer mixture in
cold countries to prevent ice from forming in car radiators.
- It is used in the manufacture of synthetic petrol.

CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2)

Carbon dioxide occurs in air and occupies 0.03% by volume. Carbon
dioxide forms from rocks as a result of volcanic eruption; occurs in mines
as ―choke damp‖ and it is always present in natural drinking water
because it is slightly soluble in it.

Laboratory preparation
It is prepared by the action of dilute hydrochloric acid on marble chips (a
form of calcium carbonate)

Set up of apparatus

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Arrange the apparatus as shown above with the calcium carbonate in the
flask. Run dilute hydrochloric acid in to the flask through a funnel.
Observation
Effervescence occurs as a colorless gas is given off.

Equation
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Ionic equation
(aq) + 2 (aq) CO2(g) + H2O(l)

The gas may be collected over water as it is only slightly soluble in water. If
the gas is required dry, it is collected by down ward delivery method.

If a pure dry sample of carbon dioxide is require, the gas is first passed
through a wash bottle containing concentrated solution of potassium
hydrogen carbonate to remove traces of hydrogen chloride gas (water placed
in a wash bottle can also be used). It is then passed through a U tube
containing fused calcium chloride to dry the gas. The gas is then collected
by down ward delivery method since it is denser than air.

Sulphuric acid is not used in the preparation of carbon dioxide because the
salt formed (calcium sulphate) forms a coating on the surface of calcium
carbonate and this prevents further reaction between the acid and the

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calcium carbonate as the calcium sulphate coating is insoluble. The reaction
there fore stops prematurely.

Other reactions that produce carbon dioxide include: fermentation;

combustion of hydrocarbons; respiration and action of heat on carbonates
and hydrogen carbonates.

Properties of carbon dioxide

Physical properties
- It is colorless, odourless and tasteless.
- It does not burn and does not support burning. Because of its density, it
is also used as a fire extinguisher as it displaces oxygen that supports
burning. Illustration

Air

Carbon dioxide

Burning candle

- It is denser than air that is why it is collected by down ward delivery

method. Under high pressure, carbon dioxide is quite soluble in frizzy
drinks (effervescent drinks)
- It is slightly soluble in water forming a weakly acidic solution of carbonic
acid.

CO2(g) + H2O(l) H2CO3(aq)

- It turns moist blue litmus paper pink indicating that it is weakly acidic.

Chemical properties
1. Carbon dioxide does not support burning. However when a piece of
burning magnesium is lowered into a gas jar of carbon dioxide, it
continues to burn forming black specks of carbon mixed with white
solids of magnesium oxide.

2Mg(s) + CO2(g) 2MgO(s) + C(s)

In this case, magnesium reduces carbon dioxide to carbon ant it self is
oxidized to magnesium oxide.

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2. Carbon dioxide turns lime water (calcium hydroxide) milky. This is due
to the formation of insoluble calcium carbonate (white precipitates)

Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g) CaCO3(g) + H2O(l)

(White precipitate)
However, when excess carbon dioxide is bubbled, through the solution
(lime water), the white precipitates dissolve making the solution to
appear clear. This is due to the formation of calcium hydrogen carbonate
which is a soluble compound.

CaCO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) Ca(HCO3)2(aq)

3. When carbon dioxide is bubbled through a solution of fairly concentrated

sodium hydroxide, the solution remains clear due to the formation of a
soluble sodium carbonate.

2NaOH(aq) + CO2(g) Na2CO3(aq) + H2O(l)

This reaction is sometimes used to remove carbon dioxide from a mixture

of gases. However, when excess carbon dioxide is bubbled through the
above solution, white precipitates appear due to formation of insoluble
sodium hydrogen carbonate.

Na2CO3(aq)+H2O(l)+CO2(g)
2NaHCO3(s)
(White precipitate)
4. When carbon dioxide gas is bubbled through a solution of potassium
hydroxide, there is no observable change as the products formed are all
soluble.

2KOH(aq) + CO2(g) K2CO3(aq) + H2O(l)

(Soluble)
K2CO3(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) 2KHCO3(aq)
(Soluble)

Uses of carbon dioxide

- It is used as a fire extinguisher as it does not support burnng and is
denser than air.
- It is used in the manufacture of effervescent drinks. This is because the
solution of the gas in water has a pleasant taste (the taste of soda water).
- Solid carbon dioxide (dry ice) is used as a refrigerating agent for
perishable goods.
- Carbon dioxide is used in the manufacture of baking powder.
- Solid carbon dioxide (dry ice) is fired into the cloud where it cools to form
rain. This happens in places where there is unreliable rain fall.

Test for carbon dioxide

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When carbon dioxide gas is passed through a solution of calcium hydroxide
(lime water), the solution becomes milky. This is due to the formation of
calcium carbonate which is insoluble.

Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g) CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)

(White precipitate)

CARBONATES AND HYDROGEN CARBONATES

These are salts derived from carbonic acid.

a) A part from potassium, sodium and ammonium carbonates, all other
carbonates are insoluble in water.
b) All solid hydrogen carbonates are soluble in water except sodium
hydrogen carbonate which is only slightly soluble. Hydrogen carbonates
of metals lower than magnesium in the reactivity series do not exist.
Hydrogen carbonates of calcium and sometimes magnesium only exist in
solution form.

2. Action of heat on carbonates and hydrogen carbonates

a) Carbonates of sodium, potassium and lithium are not decomposed by
heat. However if they are hydrated, they only lose their water of
crystallization. E.g.

Na2CO3.10H20(s) Na2CO3(s) + 10H2O(l)

(White crystals) (White powder)
b) All the other metal carbonates decompose when heated to form the oxide
of the metal and a colorless gas that turns lime water milky (carbon
dioxide) e.g.

CuCO3(s) CuO(s) + CO2(g)

(Green powder) (Black powder)
ZnCO3(s) ZnO(s) + CO2(g)
(White powder) (Yellow-hot; white-cold)
c) Ammonium carbonate sublimes when heated and forms ammonia,
carbon dioxide and water vapor.

(NH4)2CO3(s) 2NH3(g) + H2O(g) + CO2(g)

d) All hydrogen carbonates decompose to give corresponding carbonates,
carbon dioxide gas and water vapor. E.g.

2NaHCO3(s) Na2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(g)

3. Action of dilute acids

All carbonates and hydrogen carbonates react with dilute acids to liberate
carbon dioxide gas, water and corresponding salts. E.g.

2HCl(aq) + CaCO3(s) CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

H2SO4(aq) + 2NaHCO3(s) Na2CO3(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

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N.B. Dilute sulphuric acid reacts with calcium carbonate and lead (II)
carbonate at a very slow rate as the resulting salts formed (calcium sulphate
and lead(II) sulphate) are insoluble and there fore tend to form coatings
around the carbonates inhibiting further reactions between the carbonates
and the acid.

The reaction between dilute hydrochloric acid and lead (II) carbonate also
forms an insoluble salt (lead (II) chloride) which also forms coating stopping
further reactions.

Dilute nitric acid reacts with all carbonates to form soluble nitrate salts.

Testing for carbonates and hydrogen carbonates

a) If the sample is a solid

Add a little dilute acid to the solid substance under test.
Observation
Effervescence occurs and a colorless gas that turns lime water milky (carbon
dioxide) is given off.
Conclusion
This shows that a carbonate or hydrogen carbonate is present.

b) Carbonate in solution form

To 2cm3 of test solution add 3 drops of lead (II) nitrate solution followed by
excess dilute nitric acid.
Observation
White precipitate is formed and the precipitate dissolves in excess nitric acid
with effervescence.

N.B. Sometimes barium nitrate solution or barium chloride solution may be

used in place of lead (II) nitrate solution.

Na2CO3(s) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) PbCO3(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)

PbCO3(s) + HNO3(aq) Pb(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

Sodium carbonate
Laboratory preparation
Set up

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Procedure
- Bubble carbon dioxide through a fairly concentrated sodium hydroxide
solution until in excess. White precipitate of sodium hydrogen carbonate
is formed according to the equation below

2NaOH(aq) + CO2(g) Na2CO3(aq) + H2O(l)

Na2CO3(aq)+H2O(l)+CO2(g) 2NaHCO3(s) (White precipitate)

The white precipitate of sodium hydrogen carbonate is filtered off, washed
and dried.
- The sodium hydrogen carbonate is heated strongly until no further water
vapor and carbon dioxide are given off. This leaves a white powder of
calcium carbonate.

2NaHCO3(s) Na2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(g)

Commercial preparation of sodium carbonate (Solvay process)

Very concentrated brine (28% sodium chloride) is saturated with ammonia
gas in a tower to form ammonia gas in a tower to form ammoniacal brine.
The ammoniacal brine is run downwards from the top of the tower while
carbon dioxide (formed from decomposition of calcium carbonate) is forced
to rise up the tower from the base of the tower.

The tower is fitted with perforated mushroom shaped baffles at intervals that
delay the flow of ammoniacal brine and also offer surface for the reaction.

The ammoniacal brine reacts with carbon dioxide to form sodium hydrogen
carbonate as precipitates since it is not very soluble in water. Precipitation
is assisted by cooling the lowest third of the chamber.

NaCl(aq) + NH4OH(aq) + CO2(g) NaHCO3(s) + NH4Cl(aq)

Sodium hydrogen carbonate is filtered from the white sludge at the base of
the tower and washed to remove ammonium compounds. The sodium
hydrogen carbonate is the heated to form sodium carbonate.

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2NaHCO3(s) Na2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(g)

The anhydrous sodium carbonate formed ha a wide market.

The Solvay tower

Ammoniacal brine

Circular metal baffles

Sodium hydrogencarbonate

Carbon dioxide
Suspension of sodium hydrogen
carbonate
If crystalline form (washing soda) is required, the anhydrous solid is
dissolved in hot water, crystallization takes place as the solution cools. The
crystals are removed and allowed to dry.

Na2CO3(aq) + 10H2O(l) Na2CO3.10H2O(s)

Sodium carbonate decahydrate, Na2CO3.10H2O are large translucent

crystals. When the crystals are exposed to air, they lose mass and become
coated with fine powder which makes is opaque. Each molecule of washing
soda gives to the atmosphere 9 molecules of water of crystallization.

Na2CO3.10H2O(s) Na2CO3.H2O(s) + 9H2O(g)

(Sodium carbonate monohydrate)
Such lose of water of crystallization to the atmosphere is termed as
efflorescence. The substance that loses its water of crystallization is known
as an efflorescent substance.

Uses of sodium carbonate

1. Manufacture of glass. Ordinary bottle glass is made by fusing together
sodium carbonate, calcium carbonate, silicon dioxide (sand) and a little
carbon (reducing agent). Broken glasses are added to assist fusion.
2. Manufacture of water glass that is used to preserve eggs, used in fire
proofing and production of cement.
3. Sodium carbonate is used in the manufacture of soap powders.
4. Sodium carbonate in used in domestic water softening. Calcium ions (
) which is the principal cause of hardness in water is precipitated
from the water as calcium carbonate by adding sodium carbonate.

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The carbon cycle
The balance of processes which give out carbon dioxide and those which use
carbon dioxide is called the carbon cycle. Summary of the carbon cycle is
given below.

Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is added from: respiration of plants and

animals; decay/ decomposition of plants and animals; heating of lime stone
(to give quick lime) in lime kilns; water (if the percentage in air drops); and
combustion of coal (formed as a result of slow decomposition of plants and
animals over millions of years), petroleum oil and natural gas.

The processes that remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere are:
photosynthesis by green plants; and dissolution in water.

Animals obtain carbon from plants by feeding on food such as starch made
by plants..

Effects of carbon dioxide on atmospheric temperature

The sun emits radiations that pass through the atmosphere of the earth with
little absorption and warms up the surface of the earth (ground). The warm
surface of the earth (ground) reflects back the radiations inform of infrared
radiations. The infrared radiation is absorbed by gases like carbon dioxide
and methane which radiate some heat back to the ground leading to
warming up of the earth. The warming up of the earth is known as green
house effect. The gases like carbon dioxide and methane that cause the
warming up of the earth are referred to as green house gases.

When more green house gases are released into the atmosphere, much heat
accumulates and this leads to general rise in temperature of the world. The
general rise in temperature of the world is known as global warming.

Sample questions on Carbon and its compounds

78
1. Define the terms allotrope and allotropy. Name two crystalline forms of
the allotropes of carbon and describe their structures. Outline three
differences between the two allotropes. Mention two uses of each
allotrope. How do you prove that the allotropes consist solely of carbon?

2. Amorphous carbon exists in several forms name them and briefly

explains how each form is obtained and give at least one use of each form
of amorphous carbon.

3. With the aid of equations describe the reactions of carbon with oxygen,
acids, steam and metallic oxides.

4. Describe carefully how you would prepare and collect carbon monoxide
free from carbon dioxide. Give three ways in which this gas is different
from carbon dioxide. Describe the reducing action of carbon monoxide on
copper(II) oxide. Explain briefly how water gas and producer gas are
obtained. How can exhaust fumes of cars act as poison?.

5. By means of a labeled drawing, and equation, show how a sample of

carbon dioxide can be made and collected in the laboratory. Describe
briefly without using diagrams how you can convert carbon dioxide to
carbon monoxide. Mention two large scale uses of carbon dioxide.

6. Explain with equations the observations made when carbon dioxide is

bubbled through calcium hydroxide (lime water) and sodium hydroxide
until in excess.

7. Describe how sodium carbonate is prepared in the laboratory and in large

scale from the Solvay process. Equations and drawings must be used to
illustrate.

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