Folding and Falting- Chapter 4:

Key Words:
Denudation: The breakdown of rock by weathering and erosion.
Fault line: A fracture in the earth’s surface.
Fault plane: The plane along which the faulted block of rock moves upwards or
downwards.
Fault scarp: A step/cliff or cliff-like feature on the earth’s surface caused by
faulting.

Rock Structures Formed by Tectonic Forces:

Tectonic forces occur within the earth's crust causing the earth’s surface to move
horizontally and vertically.

Tectonic Forces:

● Tension happens where plates separate at divergent plate boundaries.

● Rocks lengthen through elasticity or break apart.
● Compression happens where plates collide at convergent plate
boundaries.
● Rocks are squeezed or shortened, causing them to fracture.
● Shearing happens where plates slide past one another at transform plate
boundaries.
● The forces exerted act parallel to each other but in opposite directions.

Elements of a Fold:
The extent to which the rock surface has been compressed will determine the
type of fold.

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Types of Fold:
Simple (symmetrical) fold:
The limbs on either side of the fold have the same steepness and length.
Equal pressure has been applied from both sides.
Asymmetrical fold:
The limbs on either side of the fold are different in steepness and length. One
limb is steeper and shorter than the other, as more pressure has been applied
from one side than the other.

Continental – Oceanic Convergence

• Oceanic plate subducts beneath the continental plate.
• As it subducts it puts huge pressure on the continental plate – forcing it to
buckle and fold into anticlines and synclines.
• E.G. Andes Mts – formed from the subduction of the Nazca plate under the
South American Plate
Continental – Continental Convergence
• Neither plate subducts, instead the movement is upwards.
• The collision causes increased pressure which produces heat and that
causes layers of the rock to become ductile.
• The ductile rock buckles upwards into steep anticlines and synclines.

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• EG. Himalaya Mts – boundary of the Eurasian and Indo-Australian plate.

Alpine Folding:
• This was the last of the major mountain building periods and it reached its
peak around 30 million years ago, when the African Plate moved north and
converged with the Eurasian Plate.
• While subduction did not occur, as both were continental plates, sediments
in the Mediterranean Sea were uplifted to form the Alps and Apennines.
• The Himalayas, Rockies and Andes were also formed during this period.

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“Explain how the study of plate tectonics has helped us to understand the
global distribution of fold mountains.”- 30 marks

“Explain how the study of plate tectonics has helped us to understand the
global distribution of fold mountains.”- 30 marks

Faulted Structures:
Faulting occurs when rocks are put under stress at divergent, convergent or
transform plate boundaries.
Compression, tension and shear forces lead to fractures/fault lines forming
along a line of weakness in the surface rock of the earth’s crust.

Processes of Faulting:
Tension
• Occurs when rocks are pulled apart from both sides
• The rock is stretched or breaks apart as a result.
• This cause the crust to sink downwards.
• Tension is the key process involved in the formation of a normal fault.
Compression
• Occurs when rock is pushed together from both sides.
• When this happens, the rock is shortened or fractures.
• This causes the crust to push upwards.
• Compression is the key process in the formation of a reverse fault.

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Processes of Faulting:
Shearing
• Occurs then layers of rock are moved sideways in opposite directions.
• Causes the crust tear apart.
• Shearing is the process associated with the formation of a transform fault.

Parts of a Fault:
A Scarp – is the cliff formed by the vertical displacement of the rock.
The Throw – is the distance the crust has moved upwards or downwards.
The Heave – is the horizontal movement of the rock.
The Fault Plane – is the surface which the faulted rock slides along. The section
of the rock that slides is called the hanging wall. The section of the rock that
does not move is called the footwall.

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Types of Faults:

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Transform Faults:
• Also known as tear faults – they occur when two sections of the crust
move sideways at transform plate boundaries.
• The movement is not smooth and sections can become stuck. When
this happens, pressure builds up, eventually resulting in an
earthquake.
• The San Andreas Fault is the largest transform fault on the Earth. It
lies between the North American and Pacific plates.

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CASE STUDY: EAST AFRICAN RIFT VALLEY:
• Created over the last 20 million years, the East African Rift Valley stretches
approximately 4,800 km from Syria to the Zambezi River in Africa.
• Movement of convection currents in a magma plume under the earth’s crust
caused the African continent to bulge, stretch and split.
• Two normal faults were created by the forces of tension and the centre
portion of land slipped into the earth’s crust forming a flat-floored rift valley.
• Rifting processes continue with the valley widening at a rate of 4 mm per
year.
• Features that have formed in the valley as a result of the rifting process
include:
o Volcanoes (e.g. Mount Kilimanjaro) formed as magma forced its way through
fissures on the earth’s surface.
o Lakes (e.g. Lake Tanganyika) have been created on the rift valley floor.

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Other Structures:
Tectonic forces also formed some other rock structures of the Irish landscape.
Dome Structures:
• When layers of rocks arch upward to form a circular type structure it is
referred to as a dome. They can be formed in one of two ways:
• when compressional force is exerted on a plate;
• when rising magma raises rock upwards.
• The oldest rocks become exposed at the centre of the dome when it is worn
down by years of denudation.
• Dome structures formed in Ireland include the Slieve Bloom Mountains in
Laois and Offaly.
Horizontal structures
Some rock structures are gently uplifted without any tilting, folding or faulting
taking place.
This is seen in sedimentary rock structures where the strata remain in a
horizontal line (e.g. Loop Head, County Clare.)

“Explain how one of the following influences the development of

landforms: Folding /Faulting.”- 30 marks