AE/ ME 404

ADVANCED ENGINEERING
MATHEMATICS FOR AE/ME
BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY

ENGR. CARL KARLO C. CARAIG

2023 - 2024
ME 404
Solutions to
Linear Equations

Solutions to Linear Equations

In mathematics, a system of linear equation (or linear system) is a
collection of linear equations involving the same set of variables.
a general system of m linear equations with n unknowns can be written
as
ME 404
Solutions to
Linear Equations

Methods of Solution
Direct Methods
Cramer’s Rule
Matrix Inversion
Gaussian Elimination
Gauss-Jordan
Indirect Method
Gauss-Seidel Iteration
ME 404
Solutions to
Linear Equations

CRAMER’S RULE
This rule states that each unknown in a system of linear algebraic
equations may be expressed as a fraction of two determinants with
denominator D and with the numerator obtained from D by replacing
the column of coefficients of the unknown in question by the constants
b1, b2, . . . bn.
ME 404
Solutions to
Linear Equations

CRAMER’S RULE
Example:
2x + 5y + 2z = 3
3x + 6y + 5z = 2
4x + 5y + 14z = 11
ME 404
Solutions to
Linear Equations

CRAMER’S RULE
Example:
x + y - z =6
3x - 2y + z = -5
x + 3y - 2z = 14
ME 404
Solutions to
Linear Equations

GAUSSIAN ELIMINATION
The Gauss elimination method is the most familiar method for solving a
system of linear equations.
This method consists of two parts: the elimination phase and the
solution phase.
In this method, a system of equations that is given in a general form is
manipulated to be in the upper triangular form, which is then be solved
by using the back substitution.
Gaussian elimination, also known as row reduction, is an algorithm in
linear algebra for solving a system of linear equations.
It is usually understood as a sequence of operations performed on the
corresponding matrix of coefficients.
ME 404
Solutions to
Linear Equations

GAUSSIAN ELIMINATION
There are three types of elementary row operations:
Swapping two rows,
Multiplying a row by a nonzero number,
Adding a multiple of one row to another row.
ME 404
Solutions to
Linear Equations

GAUSSIAN ELIMINATION
x-y+z=8
2x + 3y - z = -2
3x - 2y - 9z = 9
ME 404
Solutions to
Linear Equations

GAUSSIAN ELIMINATION
Example:
x + y - z =6
3x - 2y + z = -5
x + 3y - 2z = 14
ME 404
Solutions to
Linear Equations

GAUSS-JORDAN METHOD
The Gauss-Jordan method is the refinement of the Gauss elimination
method.
Gauss–Jordan elimination is a procedure for converting a matrix to
reduced row echelon form using elementary row operations.
The reduced row echelon form of a matrix is unique, but the steps of the
procedure are not.
ME 404
Solutions to
Linear Equations

GAUSSIAN ELIMINATION
x-y+z=8
2x + 3y - z = -2
3x - 2y - 9z = 9
ME 404
Solutions to
Linear Equations

GAUSSIAN ELIMINATION
Example:
x + y - z =6
3x - 2y + z = -5
x + 3y - 2z = 14
ME 404
Solutions to
Linear Equations

INVERSE OF A MATRIX
The inverse of a square n × n matrix A, is another n × n matrix denoted by
such that AA− 1 A− 1 A I where I is the n × n identity matrix. That is,
multiplying a matrix by its inverse produces an identity matrix.
Not all square matrices have an inverse matrix. If the determinant of the
matrix is zero then it will not have an inverse and the matrix is said to be
singular. Only non singular matrices have inverses.
Methods
By Definition
By Gauss-Jordan Method
By Adjoint of a Matrix
ME 404
Solutions to
Linear Equations

By Definition
ME 404
Solutions to
Linear Equations

By GAUSS-JORDAN
Example:
x + y - z =6
3x - 2y + z = -5
x + 3y - 2z = 14
ME 404
Solutions to
Linear Equations

By ADJOINT OF A MATRIX
ME 404
Solutions to
Linear Equations

MATRIX INVERSION
ME 404
Solutions to
Linear Equations

INDIRECT METHOD
Indirect methods are those that uses iterations to find the approximate
solution.
This is done with an initial vector and then successive approximations
are generated that eventually converges to the actual solution.
Unlike direct methods, the number of operations required by iterative
methods is not known in advance.
ME 404
Solutions to
Linear Equations

GAUSS-SEIDEL METHOD
A modification of the Jacobi method
Named after Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855) and Philipp L. Seidel (1821–
1896)
This modification is no more difficult to use than the Jacobi method, and
it often requires fewer iterations to produce the same degree of
accuracy.
With the Gauss-Seidel method, on the other hand, you use the new
values of 𝑥𝑖 as soon as they are known.
That is, once you have determined 𝑥1 from the first equation, its value is
used in the second equation to obtain the new 𝑥2. Similarly, the new 𝑥1
and 𝑥2 are used in the third equation to obtain the new 𝑥3, and so on.
ME 404
Solutions to
Linear Equations

GAUSS-SEIDEL METHOD
ME 404
Finding the Root
of an Equation

INCREMENTAL SEARCH METHOD

In this method, we determine the values of f(x) for successive values of xi
at some interval to be searched until a sign change occurs between xi
∆ ∆
and (xi+ x) if f(xi) ∙ f(xi+ x) < 0.
The sign change generally indicates that a root has been passed. A closer
approximation to the value of the root may then be obtained by
reverting to the last x value preceding the sign change and beginning
with this value again determining the values of xi using smaller
increment that was used initially, until the sign of f(x) changes again.
This procedure is repeated with progressively smaller increments of x
until a sufficiently accurate value of the root is obtained.
ME 404
Finding the Root
of an Equation

INCREMENTAL SEARCH METHOD

Steps/Algorithm
∆
Set the value of x and xi and get fxi .
∆ ∆
xi+1 will assume the value of xi + x, then get f(xi + x).
∆
Determine the sign of f(xi) ∙ f(xi+ x)
If positive, then
∆
xi will assume the value of xi + x
Repeat step 2
If negative, then
∆ x will assume a smaller value and repeat step 1
ME 404
Incremental
Search Method

EXAMPLE
Find the root of the following functions of x. Use 1 x10^-6 as tolerance. If ∆x is
small enough (following the tolerance), then stop.
ME 404
Finding the Root
of an Equation

BISECTION METHOD
If a function f(x) is continuous between a and b, and f(a) and f(b) are of
opposite signs then there exists at least one root between a and b.
Let f(a) be negative and f(b) be positive, then the root lies between a and
b and the approximate value is given by Xo = (a+b)/2
If f(Xo) = 0 then the Xo is the root, otherwise the root lies between Xo and
b or a and Xo, depending on whether f(Xo) is negative orpositive,
respectively. Then as before, we bisect the interval and repeat the
process until the root is known to the desired accuracy.
ME 404
Bisection
Method

EXAMPLE
Find the root of the following functions of x. Use 1 x10^-6 as tolerance. If ∆x is
small enough (following the tolerance), then stop.
ME 404
Finding the Root
of an Equation

FALSE POSITION METHOD

The idea for the Regula Falsi method is to connect the points ( a, f(a)) and
( b, f(b) ) with a straight line.
Since linear equations are the simplest equations to solve, find the
regula-falsi point (xrfp) which is the solution to the linear equation
connecting the endpoints.
ME 404
Finding the Root
of an Equation

FALSE POSITION METHOD

ME 404
False Position
Method

EXAMPLE
Find the root of the following functions of x. Use 1 x10^-6 as tolerance. If ∆x is
small enough (following the tolerance), then stop.
ME 404
Finding the Root
of an Equation

NEWTON RAPHSON METHOD

It is a calculus based method and is one of the most popular root solving
methods. In this method, information about a function fx and its first
derivative f'x are used to improve estimates of a root.
The method is very useful for improving a first approximation which
might have been obtained by other searching methods described
earlier.
ME 404
Finding the Root
of an Equation

NEWTON RAPHSON METHOD

Steps/Algorithm:
Assume x
Evaluate fx
Evaluate f'x
∆ x= fx / f'x
∆
xnew = x - x
Repeat the process until ∆x is approximately equal to the desired
tolerance.
ME 404
Newton Raphson
Method

EXAMPLE
Find the root of the following functions of x. Use 1 x10^-6 as tolerance. If ∆x is
small enough (following the tolerance), then stop.
ME 404
Finding the Root
of an Equation

SECANT METHOD
A major disadvantage of the Newton Method is the requirement of
finding the value of the derivative of f(x) at each approximation
There are functions for which this job is either extremely difficult (if not
impossible) or time consuming.
A way out is to approximate the derivative by knowing the values of the
function at that and the previous approximation
Knowing f(xk) and f(xk−1 ), we can approximate f’ (xk)
ME 404
Secant
Method

EXAMPLE
Find the root of the following functions of x. Use 1 x10^-6 as tolerance. If ∆x is
small enough (following the tolerance), then stop.
 ME 404

THANK YOU
BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY

ADVANCED ENGINEERING
MATHEMATICS FOR ME/AE

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