International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2024 1

Original article
Exploring the influence of sweet potato powder on the
physicochemical characteristics, oxidative potential and sensory
perception of mayonnaise

Zujaja Umer,1 Aneeka Adris,2 Syeda Urooj Zahra,3 Muhammad Rizwan Tariq,1* Shinawar Waseem Ali,1
Waseem Safdar,4 Gulzar Ahmad Nayik,5* Seema Ramniwas,6 Mohammad Javed Ansari7 &
8
Tahani Awad Alahmadi
1 Department of Food Sciences, University of the Punjab, Quid-i-Azam Campus, Lahore 54590, Pakistan
2 Faisalabad Medical University, Faisalabad 38800, Pakistan
3 Rawalpindi Medical University, Rawalpindi 46000, Pakistan
4 Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Medical Sciences, Rawalpindi 46000, Pakistan
5 Department of Food Science & Technology, Government Degree College Shopian, 192303 Jammu and Kashmir, India
6 University Centre for Research and Development, Chandigarh University, Gharuan, Mohali, Punjab 140413, India
7 Department of Botany, Hindu College Moradabad (Mahatma Jyotiba Phule Rohilkhand University Bareilly), Moradabad, Uttar Pradesh
244001, India
8 Department of Pediatrics, College of Medicine and King Khalid University Hospital, King Saud University, Medical City, PO Box-2925,
Riyadh 11461, Saudi Arabia
(Received 2 January 2024; Accepted in revised form 28 February 2024)

Summary Reduced fat mayonnaise was prepared by substituting oil with sweet potato powder at concentrations of
2%, 4% and 6%. The changes in physicochemical, oxidative, rheological, microbial and organoleptic
properties of functional reduced fat mayonnaise were investigated. The results revealed that sweet potato
powder significantly improved the antioxidant activity (2.63–31.6%), rheological attributes, nutritional
content and shelf life stability of mayonnaise during the storage time of 21 days. Rheological evaluation
illustrated the stabilisation of samples with the addition of sweet potato powder, with a significant reduc-
tion in oil droplet size (6.78–2.16 μm) and an increase in firmness (0.941–1.84 N) and adhesiveness
(41.21–76.78 × 10
3 Nm). Emulsion stability (93.3–99.2%) was significantly (P < 0.05) enhanced by sup-
plementation with sweet potato powder. The presence of carotenoids in sweet potato improved colour
and increased the L* (73.4%) and b* (31.4%) values. Preliminary sensory evaluation demonstrated that
taste, texture, mouthfeel and overall acceptability were perceived better in the samples supplemented with
sweet potato powder. Our findings suggest that sweet potato powder can be a nutrient enhancer and a
considerable alternative to synthetic antioxidants and stabilisers for oil-in-water food emulsions.
Keywords Antioxidants, emulsion, gelling, mayonnaise, restructured, rheology, sweet potato.

vehicle for certain bioactive ingredients because of its

Introduction
per capita consumption and serving frequency (Li
Mayonnaise is one of the best-known condiments used et al., 2014). It is a semi-solid product that is prepared
in several food categories in the form of a creamy using shear force to gently mix ingredients in egg yolk,
sauce that serves as a base for providing taste and sus- mainly oil, spices (mustard), vinegar or lemon juice
pending other ingredients (Wang et al., 2022; Shi and salt, to create a stable emulsion (Flamminii et al.,
et al., 2023; Yalmanci et al., 2023). Its appearance, tex- 2020; Shen et al., 2022). Mayonnaise is highly suscepti-
ture, rheology and creaminess are the key factors ble to lipid oxidation because of the high amounts of
responsible for its popularity among different age polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) in the oil phase
groups of consumers. It can be used as a perfect used for its preparation (Raikos et al., 2015).
Lipid oxidation of food products is a chief concern
*Correspondent: E-mail: rizwan.foodsciences@pu.edu.pk; in the field of food technology, being responsible for
gulzarnaik@gmail.com off-flavours and rancid odours, reducing storage

doi:10.1111/ijfs.17072
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2 Pulse-enriched biscuits for diabetics Z. Umer et al.

stability and adversely impacting the nutritional qual- studies, sweet potato powder was identified to improve
ity of the product (Kwon et al., 2015). Generally, syn- the sensorial and nutritional attributes of pasta supple-
thetic ingredients, chiefly antioxidants, are commonly mented with sweet potato starch (Kolarič et al., 2020),
used in mayonnaise composition to prevent lipid deg- meat patties with sweet potato powder (Verma et al.,
radation, which is included in the recipe, ensuring a 2015), bioyogurt with skim milk and sweet potato pow-
quality product (Nour, 2021). However, concern der (Omar et al., 2019), prebiotic ketchup with sweet
regarding food products such as synthetic ingredients potato puree (Mirzaie, 2021) and bread enriched with
is increasing because of claims that these sweet potato powder (Yusupova & Yusupov, 2020).
ingredients can affect the health of consumers. Even Therefore, incorporating sweet potato powder into food
though synthetic antioxidants are considered effective emulsions such as mayonnaise can improve its oxidative
and inexpensive, they are not very well perceived by stability, textural properties and shelf life. Thus, sweet
consumers. Consequently, the food industry is pres- potato powder can be used as a low-cost food compo-
ently working on finding substitutes for antioxidants nent, thereby reducing food waste.
that are acquired from natural sources (Park et al., Recognising the nutritional significance of sweet
2019). The terms “mayonnaise” and “functional” do potato, the current study aimed to investigate the
not usually get along; however, if considered from potential application of sweet potato powder as a nat-
another point of view, this combination could lead to ural antioxidant source in the production of reduced
a challenging and innovative functional food product fat mayonnaise. The research aimed physicochemical
(Mirzanajafi-Zanjani et al., 2019). Functional ingredi- and viscoelastic properties of the resulting product and
ents, such as natural extracts and powders, are recog- examined its shelf life stability, microbial safety
nised to enhance oxidative stability and provide a and sensory attributes.
better and healthier substitute for debated synthetic
antioxidants (Flamminii et al., 2020). Previous work
Materials and methods
has been performed on the supplementation of mayon-
naise with pea pod powder (Rudra et al., 2020), water-
Materials
melon rind flour (Evanuarini et al., 2021), apple peel
flour (Evanuarini & Susilo, 2021), beetroot peel pow- Raw sweet potatoes (3000 g) were taken from a local
der (Lazăr et al., 2022), pistachio peel powder with market in Lahore, Pakistan. Eggs (800 g), oil
melon seed by-products (Rahman, 2022) and other (2000 mL), vinegar (130 mL) and spices were pur-
vegetable-based proteins (Cabrita et al., 2023). chased from a supermarket in Lahore, Pakistan. All
Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) is a dicotyledonous chemicals and solvents used in this experiment were of
plant that belongs to the family Convolvulaceae (morn- analytical grade and were purchased from Descon
ing glory). Sweet potatoes are considered an inexpensive Oxychem Ltd. (Lahore, Pakistan) and ICI Pakistan
and excellent novel source of natural health-promoting Ltd. (Karachi, Pakistan).
compounds in the functional food market. These are
regarded as a tremendous source of vitamins, including
Sweet potato powder (SPP) preparation
vitamins E, C, B6 and B12 (Elgabry et al., 2023). One of
the reasons for its popularity is that it is low in fat and Sweet potatoes were washed, trimmed, peeled and sub-
cholesterol and provides large amounts of dietary fibre jected to blanching at 60 °C for 1 min to inhibit the
along with potassium, iron, manganese and copper enzymatic browning reaction and then cut into slices.
(Shekhar et al., 2015). Sweet potato is also rich in carot- Slices were dried in a forced air-drying oven DOF-
enoids and polyphenols such as anthocyanins, which is 230E (Bievopeak, Shadong, China) at 50 °C for 24 h
why they can be considered a novel source of naturally until dehydrated. Dried slices were ground using a
occurring bioactive compounds that can improve qual- flour grinder MC12 (ProXES Stephanplatz, Hamelin,
ity (Ji et al., 2015; De Los Santos-Trinidad et al., 2023). Germany) and sieved to remove any remaining large
Researchers have suggested that sweet potato is an particles until a fine powder was obtained.
example of a bio-fortified staple crop and provides
an option to overcome vitamin A deficiency (Baah
Physicochemical analysis of sweet potato powder
et al., 2022). Compared to food additives, fibre has
some properties of acting as a gelling or thickening Proximate analysis was performed using the standard
agent and stabiliser of foams and emulsions like mayon- methods of the AOAC (2020). Moisture, ash, fat and
naise. In addition, it is a fat mimetic that can increase crude fibre were analysed. Antioxidant analysis was per-
water retention properties due to its swelling capacity formed by assessing DPPH radical scavenging activity
and improve the textural attributes of creams, condi- using the method described previously (Ji et al., 2015).
ments and frozen desserts (Coelho et al., 2017; Mashi- Extracts were prepared using 50% methanol solution.
toa et al., 2023; Silva et al., 2023). In some previous A blank was used to measure control absorption using a

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Pulse-enriched biscuits for diabetics Z. Umer et al. 3

3.9 mL DPPH solution. Reaction mixtures were run until an obscuration rate of 20% was obtained. The
with 3.9 mL of DPPH dye, kept in the dark for 1 h and sample was measured for 15 s. The droplet size was cal-
absorbance was recorded at 517 nm. The results were culated using the volume-weighted mean diameter.
expressed in percentage (%).
Emulsion stability
Mayonnaise preparation
The emulsion stability was analysed according to the
Mayonnaise treatments were prepared using different method described by Sethi et al. (2017), with some
concentrations of sweet potato powder, altering the con- modifications. Samples were weighed and centrifuged
centration of salad oil used. The quantity of salad oil at 4193 g force for 20 min. The precipitated fraction
(canola oil, sunflower oil, corn oil) used was 66%, 64%, was weighed, and the stability percentage was calcu-
62% and 60% (v/w), with SPP concentrations of 0%, lated using the following equation:
2%, 4% and 6% (w/w). The remaining recipe for mayon- F1
naise was generated by adding the given ingredients in the Stability ð%Þ ¼  100
following quantities: whole egg, 26% (v/w); vinegar, 4% F0
(v/w); mustard paste, 1% (v/w); lemon juice, 1% (v/w); where F0 is the initial weight of the sample and F1 is
white pepper, 0.5% (w/w) and salt, 0.2% (w/w). The sam- the final weight of the precipitated fraction.
ples were coded as control, T1, T2 and T3, respectively,
and stored at 4 °C until further analysis was performed at
Texture analysis
storage intervals of 0, 7, 14 and 21 days.
A texture analyser (TA.XT2i, Stable Microsystems Ltd,
Godalming, UK) was used to evaluate the texture profile
Physicochemical analysis
of mayonnaise samples following the methodology
The proximate composition of the samples was esti- described by Wang et al. (2022) with slight modifications.
mated according to the AOAC (2020) methods. The A 5-kg load cell was used for force exertion along with a
parameters considered were moisture content, ash con- disc with a diameter of 35 mm and a back extrusion cell.
tent, fat content, crude fibre content and titratable Samples were filled up to a height of 50 mm in cylinders.
acidity. pH was measured using a digital pH meter The first cycle was performed using a 40-mm sample
(Inolab pH 720, WTW 82362). Antioxidant activity depth and crosshead velocity 1 mms
1. Texture expert
was analysed using the same methodology described in (version 1) software was used to obtain the negative force
Physicochemical analysis of sweet potato powder and area and back extrusion force using the force – time
results were expressed in percentage (%). curve.

Viscosity Dynamic viscoelastic properties

Viscosity measurements were performed following the The viscoelastic characteristics were evaluated accord-
methodology described by Nidhal et al. (2022), using a ing to Katsaros et al. (2020) with slight modifications. A
DV-I viscometer (LVDVE 230) (Brookfield Viscome- cone and plate geometry sensor equipped with a rheom-
ters Ltd., Harlow, UK) equipped with spindle no. 4 eter (Physica MCR 150, Anton Paar GmbH, Ostfildern,
with a rotational speed of 30 rpm. All measurements Germany) was used to analyse rheological parameters
were recorded at room temperature. The reading on (Dia: 50 mm; Cone angle: 21). The linear viscoelastic
the display panel was noted, and viscosity was range was identified using strain sweep (0.1–100%) with
recorded in centipoise (CPS) units. the frequency fixed at 10 rad s
1. Subsequently, a
dynamic frequency sweep was performed throughout
a frequency range between 0.1 and 100 rad s
1 while
Particle size measurement
maintaining a constant strain of 0.5% inside the linear
Particle size was measured by following the methodol- zone. The dynamic moduli G0 , G00 and tan δ as a func-
ogy described by Santipanichwong & Suphanthar- tion of frequency were recorded in the mechanical spec-
ika (2007), with slight modifications. Sodium dodecyl tra. The loss tangent, Tan δ, represents a G00 to G ratio.
sulphate (0.2%) 200 mL was added to mayonnaise sam-
ples (0.1 g) and dispersed completely. A particle size
Colour measurements
analyser (Mastersizer 2000, Malvern Instruments Ltd,
Malvern, UK) was used to evaluate the particle size of Colour scores of mayonnaise samples were analysed
the mayonnaise samples. The sample solution was dis- following the methodology described by Lazăr
persed in Milli Q (Milli-q® benchtop water purification, et al. (2022) using a Minolta colorimeter CR-300
Sigma Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA) at 17 700 g force (Konica Minolta Business Technologies, Inc.,

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4 Pulse-enriched biscuits for diabetics Z. Umer et al.

Germany). The colour scores were obtained in L* Grabowski et al. (2008), whose study reported signifi-
(lightness), a* (redness/greenness) and b* (yellowness/ cant numbers of nutrients in SPP.
blueness) according to the CIELAB scale.
Physicochemical analysis of mayonnaise
Microbiological analysis
Proximate composition
Mayonnaise samples were evaluated for their microbial The proximate composition of the functional mayonnaise
load using the total plate count method, as described samples supplemented with sweet potato powder is given
by Levkane et al. (2008) with slight modifications. in Table 1. The results revealed that moisture was signifi-
Nutrient agar medium was used for the preparation of cantly affected (pp <0.05) by sweet potato powder con-
the plates, and sample dilutions were prepared up to centration and storage time. Moisture content decreased
105. The plates were inoculated and incubated at with increasing storage time and SPP concentration.
37 °C for 48 h under aerobic conditions, and the colo- Moisture was observed to be 27.8–23.5% on day 0 and
nies were counted after 2 days. Results were recorded decreased to 23.2–18.2% on day 21. The results were
in cfu × 105 mL
1. found to be in accordance with Evanuarini &
Susilo (2020), who reported that moisture decreased with
the addition of banana peel powder in mayonnaise at con-
Sensory analysis
centrations of 1, 3 and 5%. Fat content showed a signifi-
An organoleptic evaluation was performed according cant decrease (P < 0.05) with SPP addition; on the
to the method described by Anamaria (2018), with contrary, storage time showed a non-significant effect. The
some modifications. A hedonic assessment was used in least fat was observed in the sample with 6% SPP (61.5%).
the questionnaire with the scales that were 9-point Ash and crude fibre content were significantly
anchored with 1 = dislike extremely and 9 = like improved (P < 0.05) by the enrichment of sweet
extremely. Thirty trained panellists evaluated the prod- potato powder; however, storage time had a non-
uct, and every panellist presented approximately 10 g significant (P > 0.05) effect on fibre and mineral con-
of each sample. The subjects were first asked to evalu- tents. Ash content increased from 1.06% to 2.94%
ate the appearance and rate the colour of the sample, and crude fibre from 0.19% to 1.81%. The sample dis-
then to smell the sample and rate aroma liking, and played maximum mineral and fibre content with 6%
finally to taste the sample and rate overall liking, taste, sweet potato powder. In another study on cookies sup-
mouthfeel and texture liking. plemented with sweet potato flour at concentrations of
10, 20 and 30%, it was observed that mineral contents
increased with increasing sweet potato powder concen-
Statistical analysis
trations (Liu et al., 2013).
The fundamental aim of the study was evaluated using The addition of SPP to mayonnaise showed a signif-
descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation) icant decrease (P < 0.05) in the pH of mayonnaise
and inferential statistics (analysis of variance). All samples, which can be attributed to the high pH and
parameters of each sample were analysed in triplicate alkaline nature of sweet potato (He et al., 2020). A sig-
(n = 3) and mean value was derived. Statistical analy- nificant decrease (P < 0.05) was observed in the titrat-
sis of the data was carried out using the software SPSS able acidity of the mayonnaise samples with increasing
version 25.0. Multiple comparisons were conducted SPP concentration. pH values were observed in the
using two-way ANOVA and LSD post hoc analysis. A range of 4.36–4.77 for fresh samples and decreased to
P-value of 0.05 was considered statistically significant 3.93–4.42 on day 21. The acidity of mayonnaise sam-
for all findings. ples was observed to be 0.68 for the sample with 6%
sweet potato powder and increased to 0.79 on day 21.
The increase in acidity and pH decline during storage
Results and discussion
at 4 °C might be due to the growth of lactic acid bac-
teria and continued acid production during storage
Physicochemical analysis of sweet potato powder
(Pradhananga & Adhikari, 2016). Moreover, the
The proximate composition of sweet potato reduction in pH might have occurred due to the
powder showed high levels of nutrients and antioxi- hydrolysis of triglycerides, thus increasing the content
dant activities. The moisture in SPP was observed of free fatty acids (Tavakoli et al., 2021).
3.47  0.02% and fat was 0.71  0.03%. Ash and
crude fibre contents were found to be 4.07  0.04% Antioxidant activity
and 7.51  0.02% respectively, along with a significant The antioxidant activity analysed using the DPPH
antioxidant activity of 54.8  0.05%. The results radical scavenging activity is presented in Figure S1.
observed were found to be in agreement with those of As predicted, the antioxidant activity of mayonnaise

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Pulse-enriched biscuits for diabetics Z. Umer et al. 5

Table 1 Proximate composition (g/100 g) of sweet potato powder enriched mayonnaise samples during 21 days of storage

Mayonnaise samples
Proximate
composition Control T1 T2 T3

Moisture
0 days 27.8a  0.05 26.8b  0.02 24.7d  0.06 23.5f  0.04
7 days 26.8b  0.05 24.3de  0.05 23.7ef  0.05 22.8gh  0.02
14 days 25.7c  0.05 23.4fg  0.05 23.2fg  0.05 22.4hi  0.05
21 days 23.2fg  0.06 22.0i  0.06 20.4j  0.05 18.2k  0.05
Fat
0 days 71.4a  0.05 69.6b  0.10 65.5c  0.05 61.6d  0.08
7 days 71.6a  0.00 69.4b  0.05 65.6c  0.10 61.6d  0.10
14 days 71.4a  0.02 69.6b  0.05 65.4c  0.10 61.5d  0.03
21 days 71.4a  0.05 69.5b  0.06 65.6c  0.06 61.7d  0.02
Ash
0 days 1.06e  0.01 1.65d  0.05 2.13c  0.01 2.94ab  0.03
7 days 1.03e  0.01 1.63d  0.02 2.11c  0.03 2.92ab  0.02
14 days 1.05e  0.03 1.63d  0.02 2.08c  0.03 2.91b  0.02
21 days 1.04e  0.02 1.65d  0.01 2.10c  0.06 2.95a  0.04
Crude fibre
0 days 0.19e  0.01 1.10d  0.01 1.54c  0.04 1.81b  0.01
7 days 0.18e  0.01 1.10d  0.01 1.52c  0.05 1.83b  0.02
14 days 0.18e  0.01 1.12d  0.03 1.52c  0.03 1.88a  0.02
21 days 0.18e  0.00 1.10d  0.01 1.51c  0.03 1.82b  0.02
pH
0 days 4.36g  0.02 4.43e  0.02 4.65b  0.02 4.77a  0.02
7 days 4.33g  0.02 4.39f  0.01 4.46d  0.02 4.68b  0.02
14 days 4.22h  0.02 4.35g  0.01 4.42e  0.01 4.55c  0.03
21 days 3.93k  0.02 4.04i  0.01 4.14j  0.02 4.25h  0.02
Acidity
0 days 0.95d  0.01 0.81g  0.01 0.76h  0.02 0.68k  0.01
7 days 1.01c  0.01 0.86f  0.01 0.77h  0.01 0.69k  0.01
14 days 1.04b  0.02 0.87f  0.01 0.80g  0.01 0.71j  0.01
21 days 1.08a  0.01 0.89e  0.01 0.81g  0.02 0.73i  0.01

Mean values  SD (n = 3) with different letters in a row are significantly different (P < 0.05). Control: Mayonnaise without SPP; T1: Mayonnaise with
2% SPP; T2: Mayonnaise with 4% SPP; T3: Mayonnaise with 6% SPP.

samples was significantly improved (P < 0.05) by the (pp <0.05). Viscosity improved from 3253 to 5067 cp.
addition of SPP. The enhanced antioxidant activity of Maximum viscosity was observed for the T3 sample
samples supplemented with SPP may be due to the with 6% SPP. The enhancement in viscosity was due
elevated levels of bioactive compounds found in sweet to the presence of copious amounts of starch and fibre
potato. Antioxidant activity was found to be in the in sweet potato powder, which is why it is used as a
range of 2.6–31.6% for the fresh sample. The highest gelling agent, a thickening agent and an emulsifier in
DPPH radical scavenging activity (31.6%) was foods (Evanuarini et al., 2021). Another study per-
observed for sample T3 enriched with 6% sweet formed using pistachio peel powder and melon seed
potato powder. The present study’s findings were sim- product flour as functional ingredients in mayonnaise
ilar to another study in which sesame sprout powder demonstrated that viscosity increased with increasing
was used to improve the oxidative stability and concentration of both ingredients (Rahman, 2022).
DPPH radical scavenging activity of mayonnaise Emulsion stability is of paramount importance in
(Shabbir et al., 2015). determining the shelf life of many commercial prod-
ucts (Taslikh et al., 2022). The mean values of tripli-
cates observed for the emulsion stability of
Viscosity and emulsion stability
mayonnaise enriched with SPP are provided in
The viscosity measurements of all mayonnaise samples Fig. 1b. SPP led to a significant increase in the emul-
during 21 days of storage are provided in Fig. 1a. The sion stability of samples. Mayonnaise emulsion was
analysis of variance showed that adding SPP signifi- found to be very stable to centrifugal force, and it
cantly increased the functional mayonnaise viscosity was observed at 93.3% for the control sample, which

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6 Pulse-enriched biscuits for diabetics Z. Umer et al.

Figure 1 Mean values  SD (n = 3) of (a) Viscosity and (b) emulsion stability of mayonnaise samples supplemented with sweet potato powder
during a storage time of 21 days. Control (T0): Mayonnaise without SPP; T1: Mayonnaise with 2% SPP; T2: Mayonnaise with 4% SPP; T3:
Mayonnaise with 6% SPP.

increased to 99.2% with the addition of sweet potato dispersed and continuous phases, droplet size and vis-
powder. The improvement in stability could be attrib- cosity of the continuous phase (Kumar et al., 2021).
uted to the SPP’s high oil absorption capacity. The
higher viscosity of the continuous phase could also be
Changes in the oil droplet size
responsible for the resistance to the separation of oil
droplets. The alterations in the size of fat globules in mayon-
The emulsion stability reduced to 87.7% for the naise samples supplemented with SPP during the stor-
control sample and 93.3% for a sample with 6% SPP age time of 21 days are illustrated in Figure S2. It
on day 21. The decline in stability was slightly less in significantly reduced (P < 0.05) the oil droplet size of
samples supplemented with SPP than in the control. mayonnaise samples. The particle size of the control
The decrease in storage days could be because of the mayonnaise increased significantly (P < 0.05) during
emulsion destabilisation mechanism due to creaming, the 21 days of storage, whereas the droplet size of the
which was proposed to be dependent on several fac- supplemented samples increased comparatively lower
tors, namely, the pressure difference between the than that of the control sample. The largest particle

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Pulse-enriched biscuits for diabetics Z. Umer et al. 7

size was observed in the full-fat control sample, which

was 6.78  0.02 μm, and it increased up to
13.31  0.03 μm on 21 days of storage. Compara-
tively, during the storage time of 21 days, the particle
size of T3 showed negligible change. The increase in
the particle size of T1 (4.67 μm–5.54 μm) and T2
(3.22 μm–4.32 μm) was comparatively less than that of
the control sample. Typically, solubilisation is consid-
ered to be the reason for the emulsion droplet size
reduction with time. In tests on emulsions using non-
ionic emulsifiers, droplet shrinkage owing to solubilisa-
tion was observed (Katsaros et al., 2020). Similar
results were observed by Santipanichwong &
Suphantharika (2007), who conducted a study on the
addition of colourants in mayonnaise. The oil droplet
size was affected non-significantly (P > 0.05), but the
particle size increased during the storage time of
2 months.

Textural attributes
The textural properties of the mayonnaise samples sup-
plemented with sweet potato powder in terms of nega-
tive force area and back extrusion force are depicted in
Fig. 2. The back extrusion force indicating firmness (N)
and opposing force area indicating adhesiveness
improved significantly (P < 0.05) with increasing con-
centrations of SPP. At the same time, storage time sig-
nificantly (P < 0.05) reduced the firmness and
adhesiveness of the samples. Maximum force was
exerted on the sample with 6% SPP (1.84 N), whereas
the control sample required a minor force (0.91 N). The Figure 2 Mean values  SD (n = 3) of changes in instrumental tex-
ture attributes; back extrusion force and negative force area of may-
reduction with storage was comparatively higher in con-
onnaise samples supplemented with sweet potato powder during a
trol samples than in SPP-enhanced samples, which storage time of 21 days. Control (T0): Mayonnaise without SPP; T1:
remained constant for a sample with 6% SPP. This Mayonnaise with 2% SPP; T2: Mayonnaise with 4% SPP; T3: May-
aspect is due to the added plant material’s stabilising onnaise with 6% SPP.
compounds, such as sweet potato starch.
and the data observed for SPP-supplemented samples
depicted that both storage and loss moduli were signifi-
Viscoelastic properties
cantly (P < 0.05) improved with increasing concentra-
The viscoelastic response vs. angular frequency of all tion of SPP.
mayonnaise samples supplemented with sweet potato
powder on days 0 and 21 is presented in Fig. 3. Accord-
Colour parameters
ing to the mechanical spectra observed, the storage
modulus (G0 ) was significantly (P < 0.05) larger than The CIELAB colour system was used to record the
the loss modulus (G00 ), and both moduli were essentially chromatic data expressing the results as L*, a* and
independent of the frequency. Throughout the frequen- b*, and the observed colour scores are presented in
cies observed, no crossover between the two moduli was Table 2. Colour scores of mayonnaise samples
observed. Additionally, the loss tangent (tan δ) observed showed significant variation with the addition of
for all samples was in the range of 0.39–0.30, and this SPP. Mayonnaise without SPP (control) produced a
range was reduced to 0.33–0.27 on day 21. A previous greenish shade (a* of
0.22) and a slight hint of yel-
study reported that a poor gel-like quality characterises lowish shade (b* of 22.54), suggesting the absence of
this behaviour and the rheological attributes of other carotenoids in the sample. The yellowness b* showed
products and condiments (Worrasinchai et al., 2006). a significant increase with increasing powder concen-
The control sample demonstrated a two-fold greater G0 tration, whereas the lightness L* and greenness
value (550 Pa) with a comparable G00 value (220 Pa), * values decreased. An increase in the b* value from

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8 Pulse-enriched biscuits for diabetics Z. Umer et al.

Figure 3 Mean values  SD (n = 3) of frequency dependence of storage and loss moduli (G0 and G00 ) and loss tangents (tan δ) of SPP supple-
mented mayonnaise samples measured at day 0 and day 21 of storage at 25 °C and 0.5% strain. Control (T0): Mayonnaise without SPP; T1:
Mayonnaise with 2% SPP; T2: Mayonnaise with 4% SPP; T3: Mayonnaise with 6% SPP.

22.5 to 27.8 indicated a slightly buoyant yellow col- samples supplemented with sweet potato powder. The
our in the sweet potato powder samples. The intense total plate count observed for the control sample was
yellow colour of the T3 sample was ascribed to the 2.38 × 105 cfu mL
1, and similar data were observed
copious amount of carotenoids (yellow–orange pig- for samples treated with SPP.
ment) in sweet potato powder (Grabowski et al., The increase in the microbial population of samples
2008). In contrast, the L* value of the samples treated with SPP over time was relatively less than that
depicted a significant (P < 0.05) decrease from 73.4 of the control sample, which can be attributed to low
to 70.7, resulting in a product with a darker colour. moisture in samples treated with SPP. According to
Mayonnaise is prone to lipid oxidation, which leads the guidance note No. 3 of Ireland, the prepared
to quality deterioration and changes in colour. This mixed mayonnaise and vegetable salads belonging
is because oxidation reactions can cause the break- to category D are considered acceptable till cfu 106–
down of pigments, resulting in a decrease in the a* 107 mL
1 (Levkane et al., 2008). The number of
value. Similar results were reported by a study using cfu mL
1 observed for all samples was much lower
brewer’s yeast as a fat replacer in mayonnaise, which than the maximum allowable level. In a study per-
depicted that the a* value of mayonnaise was formed on porridge made from sweet potato, similar
observed as unfavourable for most of the samples, results were also obtained. The microbial load of sam-
indicating a slight green colour of mayonnaise sam- ples increased with storage time at 4oC and was found
ples (Worrasinchai et al., 2006). to be maximum on 60 days but remained at acceptable
levels (Darshane, 2021).
Microbiological analysis
Organoleptic evaluation
The data presented in Figure S3 reveal the impact of
sweet potato powder on the microbial load of mayon- The sensory attributes of mayonnaise enriched with
naise samples. No significant variation (P > 0.05) was different sweet potato powder concentrations are
observed in the bacterial population of mayonnaise shown in Fig. 4. The sensory characteristics of the

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Pulse-enriched biscuits for diabetics Z. Umer et al. 9

Table 2 CIELAB colour parameters of mayonnaise samples enhanced to varying degrees with sweet potato powder

Mayonnaise samples
CIELAB colour
parameters Control T1 T2 T3

L*
0 days 73.46a  0.05 71.56d  0.05 70.94e  0.10 68.56h  0.01
7 days 72.60b  0.01 70.46g  0.10 68.61h  0.10 66.93i  0.01
14 days 71.93c  0.05 68.61h  0.05 66.62j  0.05 65.41k  0.01
21 days 70.71f  0.01 66.72j  0.01 64.73l  0.01 64.24m  0.01
a*
0 days
0.22b  0.05
0.65f  0.03
0.76i  0.05
0.88k  0.01
7 days
0.21ab  0.05
0.58e  0.01
0.71h  0.05
0.81j  0.05
14 days
0.19a  0.01
0.49c  0.15
0.68g  0.03
0.78i  0.05
21 days
0.19a  0.02
0.46c  0.07
0.54d  0.01
0.67fg  0.07
b*
0 days 22.54n  0.04 24.86k  0.07 25.29j  0.02 27.83e  0.06
7 days 23.44m  0.01 25.74h  0.06 26.83f  0.03 28.87d  0.02
14 days 24.16l  0.03 26.68g  0.02 28.94d  0.03 29.68c  0.05
21 days 25.57i  0.07 27.85e  0.06 30.24b  0.03 31.40a  0.06

Mean values  SD (n = 3) with different letters in a row are significantly different (P < 0.05). Control: Mayonnaise without SPP; T1: Mayonnaise with
2% SPP; T2: Mayonnaise with 4% SPP; T3: Mayonnaise with 6% SPP.

mayonnaise samples improved significantly quantities of ash, antioxidants, stability, viscosity and
(P < 0.05) with increasing concentrations of SPP. crude fibre content during 21 days of storage, and for
The samples treated with SPP were perceived better the control sample, indicating significant quantities of
and scored higher than the control sample. Supple- fat, L* and moisture. Blue indicates a negative value.
mentation of mayonnaise with SPP led to the devel- A minimum quantity was observed for the moisture
opment of an attractive yellow colour. It helped in content of the T3 (6% SPP) sample on day 21, fol-
giving the mayonnaise a characteristic mouthfeel lowed by the viscosity, acidity and pH of the control
because of its good particle size and absorbing sample on day 21.
properties in the presence of starch. Thus, the T2
treatment with 4% SPP received the highest sensory
Correlation and principle component analysis (PCA)
scores and was perceived best, followed by T1 with
2% SPP. In another study by Omar et al. (2019) on A regression analysis was performed to evaluate the
bioyogurt prepared with sweet potato powder (SPP) correlation among the results of the assays on mayon-
and skim milk retentate (SMR), when results of sen- naise samples supplemented with SPP (Figure S5). A
sory evaluation were observed, it was reported that highly significant correlation was observed between the
sweet potato powder improved the organoleptic sensory parameters (aroma, mouthfeel, texture colour
attributes of yogurt and the highest scores were taste and acceptability). Correlation among parameters
found for the treatment with 3% SPP and also revealed that fibre, ash, antioxidants and viscosity
40% SMR. were positively correlated, followed by fat acidity and
a* (redness) value of mayonnaise samples. A positive
correlation was also reported between pH and emul-
Heat map and hierarchical analysis
sion stability in a review of the influence of ingredients
A heat map was constructed to further analyse all on mayonnaise structure and stability (Taslikh et al.,
parameters related to storage time and SPP concentra- 2022). A slightly negative correlation was observed
tion (Figure S4). The heat map classifies the data and between organoleptic properties and acidity, a* (red-
makes the results more intuitive through colour com- ness/greenness), b* (yellowness/blueness) and the total
parison. Several different clusters were observed for plate count of the samples. A significant negative cor-
different parameters, indicating variations among relation was observed among viscosity parameters, ash
them. Overall, the darkest red colour, indicating maxi- antioxidants with fat content, acidity, moisture, a*
mum quantity, was observed for the acidity of the con- and L*.
trol sample on day 21, along with some sensory PCA is characterised by simplifying multiple vari-
attributes (taste, colour aroma) of T2 with 4% SPP. A ables into a few comprehensive variables, thus fully
slightly lighter red colour was observed for parameters reflecting general information (Sebzalli & Wang, 2001).
of the T3 sample with 6% SPP, indicating higher Using signal intensities, PCA was established to

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10 Pulse-enriched biscuits for diabetics Z. Umer et al.

Figure 4 Mean values  SD (n = 3) of consumer acceptability scores of mayonnaise samples supplemented with sweet potato powder during
21 days of storage. Control (T0): Mayonnaise without SPP; T1: Mayonnaise with 2% SPP; T2: Mayonnaise with 4% SPP; T3: Mayonnaise
with 6% SPP.

highlight the differences in the considered parameters. Conclusion

The PCA of SPP-supplemented mayonnaise samples
is provided in Figure S6. PCA indicated the highest This study introduces an innovative method for reduc-
quantity of viscosity on day 14 for the sample with ing sweet potato waste and enhancing the quality of
2% SPP. Significantly high scores were observed for mayonnaise by incorporating sweet potato powder.
T2 (4% SPP) on days 0 and 7, and a similar trend The inclusion of sweet potato powder improved the
was shown for T3 (6% SPP) on days 7 and 14. T1 antioxidant activity, nutritional profile and shelf life
and T2 showed relatively fewer amounts on days 21 stability of mayonnaise while simultaneously reducing
and 14 respectively. The most negligible quantities its fat content. The high concentrations of carotenoids
were observed for the control sample on days 0, 7 and anthocyanins in sweet potato powder significantly
and 21. contributed to the enhanced antioxidant activity,

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Pulse-enriched biscuits for diabetics Z. Umer et al. 11

colorimetric scores and sensory attributes of mayon- Ethical approval

naise samples without affecting their microbial safety.
The high starch content of sweet potato powder also Ethics approval was not required for this study.
positively influenced the viscosity and emulsion stabil-
ity of mayonnaise, resulting in a superior texture. Peer review
Mayonnaise with 4% sweet potato powder (T2) exhib-
ited the highest sensory scores, signifying its superior The peer review history for this article is available at
taste, while the treatment T3, incorporating 6% sweet https://www.webofscience.com/api/gateway/wos/peer-
potato powder, demonstrated the maximum nutri- review/10.1111/ijfs.17072.
tional value. These findings suggest that sweet potato
powder can be used as a natural antioxidant and func-
Data availability statement
tional ingredient in low-shelf life products and oil-in-
water food emulsions, including salad dressings, cus- The data that support the findings of this study are
tards and condiments, while simultaneously augment- available from the corresponding author upon reason-
ing their nutritional value. able request.

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1316. Figure S4. Heat map illustrating the correlation of
Yusupova, G.G. & Yusupov, R.K. (2020). The effect of sweet potato all parameters in sweet potato powder-supplemented
powder on the physical, chemical and organoleptic indicators of mayonnaise samples during 21 days of storage.
bread quality. E3S Web of Conferences, 161, 01054. Figure S5. Correlation among different parameters
of sweet potato powder-supplemented mayonnaise
Supporting Information samples.
Figure S6. Principle component analysis (PCA) of
Additional Supporting Information may be found in different parameters of sweet potato powder-supple-
the online version of this article: mented mayonnaise samples during 21 days of storage.

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