ENGV311 2024

LITERARY THEORIES FOR THE SENIOR/FET

TEACHER

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Compiled by: Prof Kotie Kaise, Prof Salome Romylos and Ms Karin Martens
Revised by: Dr Thapelo Mokgadi, Ms Carmenita Bansen and Dr Matthys Uys
School of Language Education, English for Education: General Subject Policy

MEMORANDUM OF UNDERSTANDING

This Memorandum of Understanding (hereinafter referred to as MOU) is an attempt to facilitate

teaching and learning in ENGLISH FOR EDUCATION, and to clarify expectations, obligations,
responsibilities, and duties. It draws from the experiences of lecturers and students working under
lockdown during the Covid-19 pandemic and seeks to address the challenges presented by these
conditions.
Students are requested to read and sign the document. The MOU is consistent with the policies and principles
of North-West University.

1. Completion of assessments
All assignments must be completed as per the module programme. If there are circumstances that
stand in the way of your completing a task, proof of this must be produced. Note that a claim may or
may not be accepted; each instance is considered on its own merits. You must complete
assignments in order to reach the outcomes of your modules. Formative assessments facilitate the
successful completion of summative assessments, and should therefore be completed meticulously,
even if no marks are awarded in some cases. Please note that being enrolled for the module and
completing assignments does not guarantee a pass.

2. Study and completion of EPs

The EP is a core resource in any module. You are expected to study it, and to conduct the requisite research,
follow all links, watch visual materials, and read all suggested materials. It is also compulsory to use the blank
spaces provided for your answers and thoughts on the topics in the EP. Whenever there is a dispute about a
student’s marks or if the student is a border-line case, the EP will be requested to verify whether the student
worked continuously. Study the EP from cover to cover and communicate with your lecturer if there is anything
you do not understand.

3. Due dates and extensions

Deadlines for the submission of assignments are stipulated by lecturers and these should be adhered to
strictly. Extension may be granted in cases with merit and when arranged with lecturers prior to the date of
submission. It remains the prerogative of lectures to grant or deny requests for extension. There may be
unforeseen delays, so sometimes we will have to shift due dates.

4. Missed assignments
If you fail to complete an assignment, be aware that because of schedules and (often) large classes, the
lecturer will in all probability not have the time or space to set an assignment exclusively for the few students
who have not completed the assignment as required. At the end of the semester there will be a second
opportunity task. If your module mark is between 40% and 49%, you will have the option of doing the second
opportunity assignment. This assessment is for students who have not passed, and not for students who are
unhappy with their mark (if it is 50% and over) and want to improve it. It is best to put as much as you can into
your first attempts in all the tasks, to guarantee the mark you are aiming for.

5. Assessments uploaded to platforms as instructed

Submit assignments as per instruction, on the platform the lecturer asks you to use. Work uploaded to the
wrong platform may incur a penalty or may not be marked at all. For example, many of the tasks need to go
through Turnitin, so if you upload them to Dropbox, they are not processed in Turnitin, which means that they
have not been checked for plagiarism or copying. Read instructions carefully and submit in the right place.

6. WhatsApp groups
WhatsApp groups are to be utilised for work related issues and should not be used as platforms for making
derogatory remarks about fellow students, staff, or the university. Use the group as directed by your lecturer.

7. Dissemination of (inaccurate) information on WhatsApp and other groups

It is best to leave the sharing of module information to your lecturers. Very often, inaccurate information is
passed on, with negative consequences. Please avoid in particular the copying and pasting of
communications out of context, in WhatsApp groups. Every student must check eFundi as often as possible
(at least once a day) and read announcements for themselves, to avoid the “broken telephone” effect.

8. Communication with lecturers

The first thing to do is to find out who your module lecturers are as early in the semester as possible. Use the
email address your lecturer has asked you to use, and no other. Keep emails courteous and professional. Do
not contact lecturers on other campuses not your own. Refrain from calling lecturers’ private numbers unless
the lecturer has given you permission to do so.

9. Grievance and query procedure

First, contact your own lecturer if you have a query or complaint. If after you have made every effort to
communicate with your lecturer, but you feel the matter is not resolved, then follow this procedure:
Contact the module leader: this information may be obtained from your lecturer.
If you are still not satisfied, then contact:
The Subject Group Leader: Dr S. Romylos (Potchefstroom: Salome.Romylos@nwu.ac.za); Deputy Subject
Leaders: Ms J Kruger (Vaal) or Dr Sibanda (Mahikeng)
If you are still not satisfied, contact the Director of SLE: Prof. Kaiser (Potchefstroom), Deputy Director: Prof.
LM Hove (Mahikeng) or Dr R. Botha (Vaal). Other lecturers should not be burdened with complaints.
If you skip the line of inquiry and contact for example the Dean, your query is ultimately referred to your
lecturer. Save time and follow the grievance procedure.

10. Time elapsed between query/grievance and response

There cannot always be an immediate response to your query or grievance. It will be addressed when the
relevant parties can manage to deal with it, so your patience would be appreciated.

11. Turnaround time for feedback on tasks and assignments

Lecturers will always endeavour to give timeous feedback after submission of assignments. This is, however,
subject to class size and type of assignment. The normal turnaround time is two weeks. The turnaround time
for large classes (80+) will be longer than two weeks.

12. Problems with electronic devices and access

If your device is not working optimally, make sure that by the time a task is due to be submitted, you have
done everything possible to sort out the problem. Screenshots of technical glitches should be sent to lecturers
on WhatsApp groups as proof of difficulty experienced. Be aware that claims will be checked with eFundi staff.

13. Studying full time and working

If you are a full-time student, whether contact or distance, you are responsible for meeting all the requirements
of your modules. The fact that you are employed cannot be used as a reason for the late or non-submission of
assignments, or for failing to follow announcements and discussions. Students should keep in mind that they
opt for either full-time or part-time. Part-time students are advised at the beginning of their studies not to try to
complete their studies in the shortest possible time. This implies that you have familiarised yourself with the
content, assessment schedule and all other aspects of this choice. The workloads remain the same for all
campuses.

14. Interaction with eFundi

If you experience issues with your access to eFundi, contact eFundi staff on the following:

http://services.nwu.ac.za/ctl/student-efundi-support
The various eFundi Helpdesk numbers below are available between 8:00 AM and 16:45 PM.
Central Helpdesk:
018 285 5930
Mahikeng Campus:
018 389 2312
018 389 2447
Potchefstroom Campus:
018 299 2003
018 285 2295
Vanderbijlpark Campus:
016 910 3035
016 910 3038
It remains your responsibility to ensure that you do everything in your power to ensure connectivity. Some
factors such as load-shedding are beyond your control, but others are not.

15. Use of nicknames, aliases, and alternative names on official documents

Please use the names on your official documents (ID, passport, etc.) rather than a nickname or alias. The use
of alternative names leads to administrative confusion.

16. Context of “bonus marks”

Bonus marks are awarded for submissions to Voices (creative writing competition).

17. Plagiarism
Plagiarism is a serious academic offence and has dire consequences. Read and digest every communication
regarding plagiarism and the use of AI. There may be various consequences for such transgressions.

18. Participation
Every student should participate in discussions and group work and attend sessions as required. Your lecturer
will inform you if there is a percentage weighting for professional conduct in the module.

PLEASE SIGN and upload to eFundi to relevant slot

I have read and understood the MOU. I undertake to abide by its terms.

Name and title:

Student number:
Signature:
Date:
 Assessment plan
(Identify assignment by colour in the weekly plan)

PARTICIPATION MARK (65%)

Assignment Mark Percentage Submission Date
Semester test 50 15% 3 March
Moot Court 50 30% 14 April
Didactics 20 25% 17 March
Short Stories 40 20% 21 April
Participation, class attendance, EP 10 10 Throughout
activities, etc.
TOTAL: 170 100

EXAMINATION (35%)
You need a participation mark of 40% to qualify for the examination

- Linguistics (50)
- Short stories (50)
= 80 marks

MODULE MARK (100%)

PARTICIPATION MARK = 65%
EXAMINATION MARK = 35%
You need an exam mark of at least 40% to pass the module
Weekly plan:

Preliminary planning
EP activities (self- Date of
Assignments for
Week Presentations directed learning submission of
assessment
activities) assignments
Unit 1: Linguistics After Session 1
Activities 1.1.1 –
Week 1 1.1.3 To be announced 14 Feb
12-18 Feb After Session 2 in class/eFundi 16 Feb
Activities 1.1.4 –
1.1.6
Unit 1: Linguistics Before Session 1 20 Feb
Consolidation 22 Feb
exercise on
semantics
Before Session 2
Week 2 Self-study PPT and To be announced
19-25 Feb complete in class/eFundi
activities 1.2.2 –
1.2.4
After Session
1.2.5.1-1.2.5.2
and 1.3.1
Unit 1: Linguistics Before Session 1 27 Feb - 3 March
Consolidation
exercise on
To be announced
Week 3 pragmatics
in class/eFundi
26 Feb – 3 Mar Session 2
Semester Test
Semester test on
semantics and
pragmatics
Unit 2: Didactics Before Session 1
Prepare 2.1
Session 1 –
Week 4 Discussion of 2.1
4-10Mar and Teaching
literature
Session 2- Teaching
literature
Week 5 Unit 2: Disgrace & Session 1 – Didactics
11-17 Mar Lacuna Teaching assignment on
literature and Lacuna
facilitation of
Assignment 2 17 March 2024

Session 2 -
Activity 2.2 .1 -
World Café
 Before session 2-
activities 2.2.2 -
2.2.4

Week 6 Unit: Disgrace Session 1 –

18-20 Mar Activity 2.3 and
2.4 (Flipped
classroom)

Session 2 - 2.5 in
class

Recess (21 – 31 Mar)

Unit 2: Disgrace and Session 1 - 2.6 and
Lacuna 2.7
Week 7
2 – 7 Apr
Session 2 –
1 April Family Day
Exploring themes
in Lacuna
Unit 2: Short Stories Moot Court
Week 8
Assignment due
8 – 14 Apr
this week
Unit 3: Short Stories Short Stories
Week 9
essay
15 – 21 Apr
21 April
T-Prac (22 April – 17 May)
Week 10 Examination
20 May – 28 May preparation
First examination opportunity (28 May – 25 June)
Second examination opportunity (26 June– 9 Jul)
FINAL MARKS SUBMITTED ON:

UNIT 1: Linguistics: an introduction to semantics and pragmatics

Introduction:
Purpose of this section:
After the PowerPoint sessions and doing self-directed learning (SDL), you should be able to:
● account for the central concepts within semantics
● account for the difference between semantic and pragmatic meanings.

● use correct terminology to describe relevant meaning features of English words and
sentences.
● analyse words and sentences using semantic methods and concepts.

● Recap of linguistics that you have done so far from your first year:

● History of linguistics

● Sociolinguistics

● Phonetics

● Phonology

● Morphology

● Syntax – parts of speech and phrases and clauses

If you look at the main components of linguistics, semantics and pragmatics must still be
addressed in this module:

The schematic representation above shows that the sound patterns of language are studied
at the level of phonology and the organisation of words and sentences is studied at the level
of morphology and syntax. These are in turn organised in such a way that we can convey
meaningful messages and understand messages. ‘How is language organised in order to be
meaningful?’ This is the question we attempt to answer at the level of semantics.

To refresh your knowledge on the scope of linguistics that you have done so far, watch the
YouTube video that is embedded on eFundi: An introduction to linguistics.

1.1 Semantics

1.1.1 Introduction:
Semantics is the study of the meaning of words, phrases and sentences. It is the most
abstract level of linguistic analysis, since we cannot see or observe meaning as we can
observe and record sound.
Ferdinand De Saussure’s book Course in general linguistics (1966) is the cornerstone of
modern linguistics. According to Saussure, a word combines two elements, a sound image,
which is the physical form (signifier), and a sense, which he refers to as a (signified). For
Saussure, words are signs and their relationship to the outside world is symbolic. In the case
of the word tree /tri:/, the word acts as a sign comprising a sound image, or signifier /tri:/,
and a sense image, or signified, which may refer to the object growing in the ground. The
point Saussure tries to make is that there is no direct relation between the sound of a word
and the object it refers to. This reminds somewhat of Juliet’s words in Romeo and Juliet by
Shakespeare:
‘What’s in a name? that which we call a rose

By any other name would smell as sweet’ (Shakespeare, 1597, 2.2: 47-49)

“The signifier and the signified together form the complete sign which refers to the outside
world. Therefore, before you can identify something called /tri:/, you must already know
what one is. Different ideas about what a tree is may come to mind for different people.
These are called references. So, words have two kinds of semantic meaning: first they signify
one or more senses, or signifieds, that is, they have signification. Study the schematic
representations below.
 Signification and reference are semantic relationships which apply to items in our mental
lexicon, but at the same time, not all the words are equally rich in these two linguistic
dimensions. Words like truth, sincerity, disappointment are abstract nouns and have
complex signification. It is difficult to say what they refer to in the outside world. Also words
like of, and, if are weak in both reference and signification when compared to either abstract
or proper nouns.
Activity 1.1.1 Choose an abstract noun and place it in the schematic representation below.
Write down what your mental image is and transcribe the word phonetically to indicate the
sound image. Then say what the word refers to in the real world. Use the diagram below:
Signified

Symbolises
Refers to

Referent
Signifier
 Stands for

1.1.2 Conceptual (denotation) and associative meaning (connotation)

When we study the meaning of words in a language, we are normally interested in
characterising the conceptual meaning and less concerned with associative meaning.
Conceptual meaning covers those basic, essential components of meaning that are
conveyed by the literal use of a word. The word needle in English may include the
components thin, sharp, steel instrument. However, different people may have different
associations or connotations attached to a word like needle. Some of the associations may
be pain, illness, blood, drugs, while others may be thread, knitting, or difficult to find.
In linguistics we need to distinguish between conceptual and associative meaning, or as
Finch (1999) calls it sentence meaning or sense and utterance meaning or force. The study of
sense is the concern of semantics – the meaning of words independent from their
situational context. Pragmatics is concerned with the interpretative strategies we use for
deciding on the meaning of utterances. Poets, novelists and advertisers are interested in
using words in a way that their associative meanings are evoked. Study the dialogue below:
Man: Should I buy you another pair of heels for the occasion?

Woman: High heels are fancy and demand attention.

The only way to know whether the woman’s reply means ‘yes’ or ‘no’ is by knowing the
context. The sense meaning in other words is not enough and we need to know the force.

Activity 1.1.2.1
Words can have positive, negative or neutral connotations. Select one word that family
and friends often use to describe you. Post the word on your study group forum and identify
whether you perceive it as having a positive, negative or neutral connotation. Ask your peers
to provide other connotations for that same word.

Collocations:
Collocate is a verb meaning ‘to go with’, and one of the ways by which we know the
meaning of a word is, as the linguist John Frith says, by knowing the company it keeps’
(Crystal, 1987:105).
Take the adjective ‘clear’ in a dictionary and you will find at least ten different meanings,
depending on the context in which it is used, from clear conscience and clear sky to clear
case. Clear conscience means without guilt, whereas clear in clear case means
‘unmistakable’. However, we see enough commonality of meaning to see an underlying
sense. All the examples have the meaning ‘free from’, whether free from complications – a
clear case – free from guilt – a clear conscience – or free from clouds – a clear sky. The
differences between them come from the words clear is put with.
Activity 1.1.2.2
a) Consider strong, mighty and powerful – they seem interchangeable. However, try
putting them with tea, ocean and language. How should they be paired?
strong

mighty

powerful

b) Similar to the examples used in activity 1.2.1, the adjectives big, great and vast are
synonymous. However, these are usually paired with different words, depending on the
context. Create collocations with these three adjectives by adding at least one noun to
each.

Big

Great

Vast

Stylistic variation
One of the consequences of the way in which English has developed over the past 1,500
years has been the emergence of different registers or styles of English. This has been partly
due to the influx of new words from other languages such as Latin and French and partly
due to the variety of social needs that English has had to fulfil. If we are in a court of law, we
might use the term larceny, whereas when we are with friends, we might use theft. There is
no real difference in conceptual sense; the difference has to do with levels of formality.

When we sort words into linguistic categories, we refer to semantic fields. Study the
semantic field for the word ‘mad’ below. Archaic – words no longer in everyday use or have
lost a particular meaning in current usage but are sometimes used to impart an old-
fashioned flavour; higher academic – in certain formal contexts; neologism - new word, new
expression, new term, new phrase, coinage, newly coined word, made-up word, and
slang/colloquialism
- informal, more common in speech than writing, and is typically restricted to a particular
context or group of people.

Archaism Higher academic Neologism Slang/

colloquialism

Bereft of reason insane crazy daft

unhinged neurotic bananas loony

 demented maladjusted bonkers batty

possessed unbalanced crackers gaga

Activity 1.1.2.3
SCENARIO 1:

● You forgot to submit an assignment that was due a day ago. Write a brief email to
your lecturer to explain the situation.

● SCENARIO 2: Later in the day, you meet up with a friend and explain the situation to
him/her. Refer to the five variables that determine register (see PowerPoint
presentation). Indicate and explain which variables will change with the new
scenario.
Variables Change/stay the same
FIELD

TENOR

MODE
 CONTEXT

FUNCTION

● Reread the email you wrote to your lecturer and highlight at least 4 words that will
differ stylistically in scenario 2. Indicate these words below and provide the
alternative word that will be used in scenario 2.
Word used in scenario 1 Word used in scenario 2

1.1.3 Semantic features

A way in which the study of basic conceptual meaning might be helpful in the study of
language would be a means to account for the ‘oddness’ of certain sentences. Read the
sentences below:
The car kicked the box.

The chair listens to the stereo player.

The ‘oddness’ of these sentences does not derive from their syntactic structure. According to
the basic syntactic rules for forming English sentences, we have well-formed structures.

The car kicked the box

Subject verb object

This sentence is syntactically good but semantically wrong. The kind of noun that can be
subject of the verb kicked must denote an entity that is capable of kicking.

Semantic features analysis can assist learners to form sentences that are not only
syntactically correct, but also semantically correct.

For example, if your learner creates a sentence as indicated above (The car kicked the
box.), you can create a table that will allow the learner to analyse the semantic features of
the sentence:
 Car Man Mothe Leopard
r

Animat + + +
e
-
Human + +
- -
Female +
- - -

EXAMPLE 1:

Now let’s take the verb in the example sentence: The car kicked the box.

Does a noun need to be animate to be able to kick? YES

Does a noun need to be human to be able to kick? NO (a noun can be human to kick, but
need not be)

Does a noun need to be female to be able to kick? NO

This means that a noun that possesses the feature of being animate, can kick. Now let’s
consider the above table.

Is a car an animate object? NO (therefore it cannot kick and does not make sense in the
context of the sentence).

EXAMPLE 2:

Now let’s take the verb in the example sentence: The man gave birth to the baby.

Does a noun need to be animate to be able to give birth? YES

Does a noun need to be human to be able to give birth? NO (a noun can be human to
give birth, but need not be)

Does a noun need to be female to be able to give birth? YES

Thus, if we consider the sentence The man gave birth to the baby, we need to analyse the
features of the subject to determine whether the sentence is semantically correct.

We indicated that a noun needs to be animate and female to be able to give birth.

Is a man an animate subject? YES

Is a man a female subject? NO

This sentence is thus semantically incorrect, due to the fact that the verb (giving birth) does
not denote an entity that is capable of giving birth.

1.1.4 Semantic roles

We need to also look at the roles that words fulfil in sentences. Once you have studied the
roles, you will note that linguists employ thematic roles to describe aspects of the interface
between semantics and syntax, in particular to characterise the links between the
semantic classification of its participants that is inherent in a verb’s meaning and the
grammatical relations it supports. Take the sentence: Joan felt the heat as soon as the
aircraft door was opened. There is clearly a relationship between experiencer and a
perception. Grammatically, the verb feel is transitive, taking a subject and direct object.
Thus, there is a conventional linkage between the participant roles and the grammatical
relations. Predicting such linkages, and more general patterns, is one of the primary
functions of semantic roles. The following are roles that words can take in a sentence:
Agent: the entity that performs the action.
E.g. Sally sends the letter.
The fox jumped out of the ditch.

Although agents are typically humans, they can also be non-human forces, machines, or
creatures, e.g. The wind blew the kite.

Patient: the entity undergoing the effect of an action (usually undergoes a change in state).

E.g. Enda cut back these bushes.

The sun melted the ice.

Theme: the entity that is moved by an action, or whose location is described.
E.g. Roberto passed the ball wide.

The book is in the library.

Beneficiary: an entity for whose benefit the action was performed.

E.g. Robert filled in the form for his grandmother.

They baked me a cake.

Instrument: if an agent uses another entity in performing an action, that other entity takes
the role of instrument.
E.g. She cleaned the wound with an antiseptic wipe.

They signed the treaty with the same pen.

Experiencer: When the noun/noun phrase describes an entity as the person who has a
feeling, perception or state, it fills the semantic role of experiencer. If we feel, know or enjoy
something, we are not really experiencing an action. We are in the role of experiencer. The
experiencer is not in control of the action.
E.g. Did you feel sad?
Kevin felt ill.
Mary saw the smoke.

Leila heard the door shut.

Location: where an entity is (under the bed, in the closet), or the place in which something is
situated or takes place.
E.g. The monster was hiding under the bed.

The band played in the hall.

Goal: where an entity moves to (to Italy), or the entity towards which something moves,
either literally or metaphorically.
E.g. Sheila handed her licence to the policeman. (literally)
Pat told the joke to his friends. (metaphorically)

Source: where an entity moves from (from Greece).

e.g. The plane came back from Greece.

We got the idea from a French magazine.

E.g. Gina raised the car with a jack.

Agent Theme Instrument

Activity 1.1.4
1.1.4.1 Identify the different semantic roles in the sentence below:
She borrowed a magazine from George and she hit the bug with the magazine.

Role

Word/s

1.1.4.2 On the basis of your knowledge of the semantic roles, assign a single semantic role
(also called thematic roles) to each of the bold sections in the sentences.
a. Fred shattered the rock.
b. I forgot the address.
c. The arrow flew through the air.
d. The key opened the lock.

1.1.4.3 Create your own sentence containing at least 7 thematic roles. Post your sentence on
your study group forum on eFundi and ask your peers to identify the semantic/thematic roles
in your sentence.
1.1.5 Lexical relations
Not only can words be treated as ‘containers’ of meaning, or as fulfilling semantic roles, but
they can have ‘relationships’ with one another. One may ask why studying lexical relations is
important. There are a number of reasons.

● Lexical relations are central to the way speakers and hearers construct meaning.

● In everyday conversations, speakers are required to explain words according to their

relationships, e.g. conceal = hide (synonyms); shallow or deep (antonyms). So the
meanings of words are understood, not according to what they mean, but in terms
of their relationships.
● Knowledge of vocabulary items is not enough for the development of learners’ lexical
competence. It also requires understanding of the different relations between them.
● In communication, lexical relations are considered an effective way of explaining the
meaning of words in various ways, and thus a better way of communication might be
achieved.
Synonymy: Two words with very closely related meanings, which are often, but not
always intersubstitutable.
E.g. What was his answer? Or What was his reply?
But: Sandy had only one correct answer on her test. But not Sandy had only one reply on her test.

Activity 1.1.5.1

a) Watch the PowerPoint presentation for this week and classify the synonyms according
to the four dimensions in which they can differ, namely dialectical, stylistic, emotive and
collocational.

Synonyms Dimension

Heavy (rain) and weighty

Emphatic and sensitive

 Daddy and father

Post and mail

Tons of… and Large quantities of…

b) Study the pairs of words and say whether they imply absolute or near synonymy. Use
sentences to support your answer.

● Absolute and complete

● Mother and mum

● Light and airy

Antonymy: Two words with opposite meanings. E.g. small/big; fast/slow. There are two
kinds of antonyms:
1. Gradable: can be used in comparative constructions. E.g. I am taller than you.
Note: the negative of one member does not necessarily imply the other; not old does not
necessarily mean young.
The opposite is a matter of degree rather than absolute. E.g. wide and narrow; old and
young; hot and cold.
2. Non-gradable: comparative constructions are not used. We do not say He is dead, but
his friend is deader. Although we can use the ‘negative test’ to identify non-gradable
antonyms, we usually avoid describing one member of an antonymous pair as the
negative of another. E.g. the word untie does not mean tie. It actually means do the
reverse of tie. While ‘undress’ can be treated as the opposite of ‘dress’, it does not mean
‘not dress’. It actually means do the reverse of dress. Such pairs are called reverses. E.g.
enter/exit, pack/unpack, etc. Reverses imply movement or orientation in opposite
directions, e.g. rise and fall or push and pull. By extension, the term is also applied to any
process which can be reversed, e.g. inflate and deflate, expand and contract.
Relational or converse antonyms: there is a relationship in which the two opposites
must both exist, e.g. husband and wife; prey and predator.

Activity 1.1.5.2:
a) Study the pairs of antonyms and say whether they are gradable, non- gradable,
relational/converses or reverses.

Antonyms Type
 1.Brother and sister

2.Right and left

3.Interesting and boring

4.Pass and fail

5.Rich and poor

6.Expand and contract

7.Employer and employee

b) Complete the quiz on the following link and post your score on the eFundi chatroom, if you
wish:
https://www.britannica.com/quiz/antonyms-and-synonyms

Hyponymy: When the meaning of one form is included in the meaning of another. These
words are in some hierarchical relationship. Examples are the pairs: animal/dog,
dog/poodle, vegetable/carrot, flower/rose, etc.

Activity 1.1.5.3
Watch the PowerPoint presentation and answer the following questions:

a) Suggest a reason why the studying of word relationships (especially hyponyms) may be
beneficial in your classroom.

b) Work in your study groups (I suggest you use Google Docs or Google Sheets, so that all of
you can work on the same document at different times) and create a word search activity
with 10 words. The clues for the word search should be different superordinates, while
the words to be found should be the hyponyms of these superordinates. See the example
below:
 O P R Z G Q W N O

K D E I T C A U F

H A I E H H I L G

X D A I S Y R Y S

C H M P O K J Z H

T J A R U T P S E

U I X G V E O D M

1. Flower
2. Parent

Post the link to your word search on your general discussion forum on eFundi. Make sure that
your settings allow for anyone with the link to view the word search. Be sure to indicate the
correct words for your lecturer to assess, as indicated above.

Prototypes:
While the words canary, cormorant, dove, duck, flamingo, parrot, pelican and robin are all
equally co-hyponyms of the superordinate bird, they are not all considered to be equally
good examples of the category bird. According to some researchers, the most characteristic
instance of the category bird, is robin. The idea of the characteristic instance of a category,
is the prototype (the resemblance to the clearest example). Consider ostrich and penguin as
hyponyms of bird compared to sparrow and pigeon. This is however one area where
individual experience can lead to substantial variation.

Activity 1.1.5.4
Refer to the word search that you created for activity 1.1.5.3 and in your groups decide on one
prototype for each clue (superordinate). Also decide on a hyponym that is least likely to be
used as a prototype for the superordinate. Paste your answers in the spaces below:

Superordinate Prototype Hyponym

least likely to
be used as
prototype
 Homophones and homonyms

Activity 1.1.5.5
a) How would you explain the difference between a homophone and a homonym to your
learners? Use examples.

b) Identify two sentences from your prescribed text (Disgrace) that each contains a word
that has a homophone. Write down the sentence (include the page number), highlight or
bold the word and then use its homophone in a sentence of your own.

Sentence from Disgrace Use the homophone in a sentence

c) Identify two sentences from your prescribed text (Disgrace) that each contains a
homonym. Write down the sentence, highlight or bold the homonym and use its
counterpart in a sentence of your own.

Sentence from Disgrace Use the homonym in a sentence of your own

 d) Identify (highlight or bold) all the words that are homonyms in the following sentence:
Ghosts are like elevators because they lift the spirits.

Polysemy
One form having multiple meanings that are all related by extension.
Polysemy can be defined as one form (written or spoken) having multiple meanings that are
all related by extension. Examples are the word head, used to refer to the object on top of
your body, froth on top of a glass of beer, person at the top of a company or department,
and many other things. Other examples of polysemy are foot (of person, of bed, of
mountain) or run (person does, water does, colours do). Polysemy and homonymy are
usually difficult to discern – this could be referred to as lexical ambiguity.

Activity 1.1.5.6
a) Explain your understanding of the difference between polysemy and homonymy. Use
examples.

b) Refer to the sentence in question d of activity 1.1.5.5. You highlighted/bolded the

homonyms in that sentence. Do you think that one or more of the homonyms you have
identified, could be argued to represent polysemy instead of homonymy? Substantiate your
view.
 Metonymy
Another type of relationship between words is based simply on a close connection in
everyday experience. This close connection can be based on a container-contents relation
(bottle/water, can/juice), a whole-part relation (car/wheels, house/roof), or a
representative- symbol relationship (king/crown, the President/the White house).
It is our familiarity with metonymy that makes us understand, e.g. The White House
understands instead of The President understands.

Activity 1.1.5.7
One of your learners understands that “wheels” is a hyponym for “car” and “roof” is a hyponym
for “house”. Therefore, your learner is very confused when you mention that these pairs of
words represent hyponymy. Explain to your learner why her understanding is incorrect. Use
examples.

1.1.6 Processes of semantic change: self-study

As we can see from our discussion so far, words do not have an absolute sense, as their
meanings differ across cultures and across time. Conceptual sense is the most stable, but
even here there are a variety of ways in which the meaning of a word may change over
time. This branch of semantics that has to do with these changes of words over time, is
called diachronic semantics. There are a few of these processes, namely extension,
limitation, pejoration and amelioration.

Activity 1.1.6
a) Explain each of the concepts below in your own words:

Amelioration:
 Pejoration:

Limitation:

Extension:

b) Match each example below to the process it represents.

Example Semantic process

1. The word “hound” in Old English referred A. Limitation

to a dog in general.

2. Gossip originally meant “god-relative”. B. Extension

3. In Old English, “knight” meant a lesser C. Amelioration

nobility serving a king.

4. Previously, “virtue” was associated only D. Pejoration

with males.
Consolidation exercise: Semantics (35)

Read the extract from Disgrace and answer the questions that follow.

The auditorium of the student union is in 2.1 darkness. Unnoticed, he takes a seat in the
2.2 back row. Save for a balding man in a janitor's uniform a few rows in front of him, he
is the only spectator. Sunset at the Globe Salon is the name of the play they are
rehearsing: a comedy of the new South Africa set in a hairdressing salon in Hillbrow,
Johannesburg. On stage a hairdresser, flamboyantly gay, attends to two clients, one black,
one white. Patter passes among the three of them: jokes, insults. Catharsis seems to be
the presiding principle: all the coarse old prejudices brought into the light of day and
washed away in gales of laughter. A fourth figure comes onstage, a girl in high platform
shoes with her hair done in a cascade of ringlets. 'Take a seat, dearie, I'll attend to you in a
mo,' says the hairdresser. 'I've come for the job,' she replies - 'the one you advertised.'
Her accent is glaringly Kaaps; it is Melanie. Ag, pick up a broom and make yourself useful,'
says the hairdresser. She picks up a broom, totters around the set pushing it before her.
The broom gets tangled in an electric cord. There is supposed to be a flash, followed by a
screaming and a scurrying around, but something goes wrong with the synchronization.
The director comes striding onstage, and behind her a young man in black leather who
begins to fiddle with the wall-socket. 'It's got to be snappier,' says the director. 'A more
Marx Brothers atmosphere.' She turns to Melanie. 'OK?' Melanie nods. Ahead of him the
janitor stands up and with a heavy sigh leaves the auditorium. He ought to be gone too.
An unseemly business, sitting in the dark spying on a girl (unbidden the word letching
comes to him). Yet the old men whose company he seems to be on the point of joining,
the tramps and drifters with their stained raincoats and cracked false teeth and hairy
earholes - all of them were once upon a time 2.3 children of God, with straight limbs and
clear eyes. Can they be blamed for clinging to the last to their place at the sweet banquet
of the senses? Onstage the action resumes. Melanie pushes her broom. A bang, a flash,
screams of alarm. 'It's not my fault,' squawks Melanie. `My gats, why must everything
always be my fault?' Quietly he gets up, follows the janitor into the darkness outside.

(Coetzee, 1999:9)

1. Why is it important for prospective teachers to have knowledge of

semantics? (2)

2. Provide the antonym for each of the bolded words and mention the type
of antonym each represents. (3)

3. Words can have positive, neutral or negative connotations. Complete the

following table by selecting words from the extract that fit in the blank
spaces. (5)
Positive Neutral Negative

1
 3.1 Fly on the
wall

Bearded 3.2

Travellers 3.3

Crystalline 3.4

Secret agent 3.5

4. Exercises such as these (question 3) can be beneficial for the learners in

your classroom. Name one task/assessment/skill that could improve if
learners are expected to complete a similar activity before, during or
after completion of the task/assessment/skill.
(1)

5. Select any one word from the extract and create two collocations with
this word. (2)

6. Consider the sentences below. How would you describe the register of
the sentences? Refer to the function of this excerpt as substantiation for
your answer. (2)
A fourth figure comes onstage, a girl in high platform shoes with her hair done in
a cascade of ringlets. 'Take a seat, dearie, I'll attend to you in a mo,' says the
hairdresser. 'I've come for the job,' she replies - 'the one you advertised.' Her
accent is glaringly Kaaps; it is Melanie.

7. Semantic features analysis can be used very effectively in the English

classroom, especially to help learners categorise information. You wish to
assist your learners to make sense of the difference between specific
semantic roles. The semantic features analysis below could be used in such
an instance. Complete the semantic features analysis below:
(4)
Age The Patie Experien
nt me nt cer

Undergo
es or
experien
ces an
action

Is part of
performi
ng the

2
action

8. Identify the semantic roles of the bolded words/phrases (refer to all

semantic roles, not merely those mentioned in the previous question).
(3)
8.1 Ahead of him 8.2 the janitor stands up and with a heavy sigh leaves 8.3 the
auditorium.

9. Consider this sentence from the extract: 'Take a seat, dearie, I'll attend to you in
a mo,' says the hairdresser.
Provide a synonym for the bolded word and state the type of synonym
(dialectical, stylistic, collocational or emotive). Explain your answer.
(2)
10. Select any one hyponym from the extract. Also specify the superordinate and
prototype (not obtained from the text).
(2)
11. Consider the following sentence:
The director comes striding onstage, and behind her a young man in black leather
who begins to fiddle with the wall-socket.

Identify all homophones, homonyms and instances of polysemy in the

above sentence. Rewrite the word and which of the above it represents
(note that not all of these necessarily appear in the sentence and that any
of these may appear more than once). (4)
12. Identify and explain the metaphor in the following sentence. Also explain
the connection between studying semantics and exploring metaphorical
language (why could figures of speech, such as metaphors, be classified as
a topic of study under semantics)? (3)
Can they be blamed for clinging to the last to their place at the sweet banquet of
the senses?

13. Consider the sentence below. Explain the denotation and connotation of
this sentence.
(2)
Catharsis seems to be the presiding principle: all the coarse old prejudices brought
into the light of day and washed away in gales of laughter.

3
 1.2 Pragmatics

https://www.thoughtco.com/pragmatics-language-1691654

Watch David Crystal explaining what pragmatics is on the YouTube video

embedded on eFundi:
Answer the pertinent question on eFundi in response to the video.

1.2.1 Introduction
“Pragmatics studies the factors that govern our choice of language in
social interaction and the effects of our choice on others.” David Crystal
In other words, Pragmatics may be called speaker meaning, as
communication depends not only on recognising the meaning of words, but
also on recognising what speakers mean by their utterances. When someone
speaks to us, we assume that the person is wishing to communicate. This is
called communicative intention. Similarly, when we are speaking, we
4
assume that our audience wishes to understand us. In other words,
communication is based on cooperation between speaker and listener. This
is called the cooperative principle. So, learning to cooperate is part of our
communicative competence. It involves strategies for making ourselves
understood. Pragmatics has to do with ‘force’ meaning, which implies a
context, instead of ‘sense’ meaning which is largely decontextualised
(semantics). The problem is that the range of contexts in which something
may be uttered is infinite.
1.2.2 Grice’s maxims
Why do we need pragmatics?
Pragmatics is needed if we want a fuller, deeper and generally more
reasonable account of human language behaviour.
Pragmaticians found out rather quickly that the truth value of a sentence,
taken in its abstract form, was of little interest to the users of language,
who would rarely utter something in order to be proven true or false.
Usually, it is much more interesting to find out why people say something
than whether what they say is true or false; the latter consideration
belongs in rather special surroundings, such as a philosophical debate or
the courtroom. Pragmatics rests on understanding, but even more on
cooperation.
Grice (1991) identified four maxims of the cooperative principle:
Quantity: when we speak to someone, we feel obliged to give enough
information for the person to understand us. Being able to judge the
boundary between too little and too much is part of our communicative
competence. Politicians often under-report issues in order to avoid
embarrassment. Consider the following example (not related to politics):
Mom: Who has eaten the biscuits?

John: I’ve had some.

Quality: in a sense underlies all other maxims in that it assumes that we
are speaking what we believe to be true.
Relation: we organise our utterances in such a way as to ensure their
relevance to the conversation. Some people change the subject or go off
on a tangent during conversations. Consider the example below:
Wife: Where’s my chocolates?

Husband: The children were in your room this morning.

Or
I’ve got a train to catch.

5
Manner: We are obliged to order our utterances in an orderly manner. Be
specific, avoid ambiguity and obscurity and be brief. Good evidence for
this maxim is what you get penalised for when you write essays. If you are
vague or ambiguous (i.e. not clear) you can lose marks; if you are over-
wordy you can lose marks; if you do not present what you say in the most
sensible order for your argument you can lose marks. Although you don't
lose marks in conversation, you can lose friends if you do not abide by
these maxims.

Activity 1.2.2

a) Mention which one of Grice’s maxims has been flouted in the

conversation below? Provide a reason for your answer.
Speech therapist: So you like ice-cream. What are your favourite flavours?
Child: Hamburger… fish and chips.

b) For each example below, state which maxim the speaker ntends to opt out of:
Example (statement) Maxim

1. I’m sure you already know this,

but…

2. This is a bit confused, but…

3. People say…

4. So, to cut a long story short…

5. I know this is irrelevant, but…

c) Reread the email you wrote for scenario 1 of activity 1.1.2.3 in your EP.
Analyse your email and determine whether any maxims were flouted.
Write a paragraph for each one of Grice’s maxims, explaining whether or
not the maxim was flouted in your email and why you say so.

Grice’s maxim of quantity:

6
 Grice’s maxim of quality:

Grice’s maxim of manner:

Grice’s maxim of relation:

1.2.3 Implicature, presupposition and entailment

Implicature is something meant, implied, or suggested distinct from what

is said. It was coined by H. P. Grice in 1975 to refer to what the speaker
suggests or implies with an utterance, even though it is not literally
expressed. Grice distinguished conversational implicatures, which arise
because speakers are expected to respect general rules of conversation,
and conventional ones, which are tied to certain words. E.g., John is
meeting a woman this evening.
The woman John is meeting is not his sister, his mother or his wife.
The word ‘implicature’ is derived from the verb ‘to imply’. Etymologically,
‘to imply’ means ‘to fold something into something else’ (from the Latin
‘plicare’ to fold); hence, that which is implied, is ‘folded in’ and has to be
‘unfolded’ in order to be understood.

Presupposition is what a speaker assumes is true or known by a listener

(or reader). If someone tells you that Your brother is waiting outside, there
is an obvious presupposition that you have a brother. This technique is
often used by prosecutors as a useful device for interrogation.
E.g. Mary’s dog is cute.

Presupposes that Mary has a dog

Note if we change the sentence into the negative, the presupposition remains, and we
7
call that
constancy under negation.
E.g. Mary’s dog isn’t cute.
There is still the presupposition that Mary has a dog.
Entailment: is something that logically follows from what is asserted in an
utterance. It occurs when one may draw necessary conclusions from a
particular use of a word, phrase or sentence. Entailment phrases are
relations between propositions, and are always worded as, "if A, then B,"
meaning that if A is true, then B must also be true. Another way of
phrasing this is, "if A is true, then B must necessarily be true”. It’s the
sentences, not speakers, that have entailments. Entailments also depend
on the meaning of the sentence, not the meaning of the context.
1.8.3.1 Watch the YouTube video embedded on eFundi with regards to entailment.

Test for entailment:

1. Take any proposition and call it A
2. Assume any proposition B that is entailed by A
3. Then make B negative
4. Conjoin A and not B by using logical and or but
If the result is a contradiction, then A does entail B holds BUT
if result is fully plausible (no contradictions), then A does not
entail B.
Example:
1. A = All dogs are purple – STATEMENT 1
2. B = My dog is purple – STATEMENT 2
3. My dog is not purple – negative
4. All dogs are purple but/and my dog is not purple.
This is a contradiction, therefore B is correctly entailed by A.
Activity 1.2.3
a) Do research on the meaning of “entail” and use your findings to explain what is
meant with “entailment”.

8
b) In your own words, explain the difference between presupposition and
entailment and use examples to clarify the difference.

c) Study the cartoon below and say how implicature is evident.

https://dept.english.wisc.edu/rfyoung/pragmatics.html

9
 d) Identify the presuppositions in the following sentences. Also test for
constancy under negation for each.
● The burglar realised that he had been filmed on closed circuit television.

● John hasn’t driven a car since he had the accident.

e) For each of the sentences below, test for entailment and for
presupposition. Clearly state whether b is correctly entailed by a, or
whether b is a presupposition of a.
SCENARIO 1:
Sentence a: John has three girlfriends.
Sentence b: John has four girlfriends.
SCENARIO 2:
Sentence a: All of her children believe in marriage.
Sentence b: Some of her children believe in marriage.
f) Explain how the following sentence could be classified as conventional
implicature:
John is rich but humble.

1.2.4 Context and deixis

Read the sentence below and say what you understand just by hearing it.
Use the space below to write your understanding.
They’ll have to bring it back next week because he isn’t here today.

Our understanding of much of what we read and hear is tied to the processing
10
of aspects of the physical context, particularly the time and place, in which we
encounter linguistic expressions. However, there are very common words in
our language that can’t be interpreted at all if we don’t know the context,
especially the physical context, of the speaker.

Expressions like tomorrow and here can only be understood in terms of the
intended speaker’s meaning. They are technically known as deictic
expressions, from the Greek word deixis, which means pointing.
We use deixis to point to things (it, this, these) and people (her, him, them,
those boys), sometimes called person deixis. Words and phrases used to point
to a location (here, there, near that) are examples of spatial deixis. Words like
yonder is still used, but words like hither and thence are considered archaic.
Those used to point to time (now, then last week) are examples of temporal
deixis.
In the previous paragraph, we spoke about single acts of reference. However,
in most of our speaking and writing, we have to keep track of who or what we
are talking about for more than one sentence at a time. For example, after an
initial introduction of some entity, speakers will use various expressions to
keep reference.
Look at the following sentences:
In the scene, a boy and a girl were trying to catch a snake. The boy was
cornering the snake with a stick, while the girl was holding a canvas bag.
He said something to her and they both started running away from the
thing.
The initial introduction in English is often indefinite (boy, girl, man,
woman) and the pronouns (it, he, her, they) are examples of subsequent
reference to already introduced referents, generally known as anaphoric
reference. The initial expression is called the antecedent and the second
or subsequent expression is the anaphor.
In other words, boy and girl are antecedents and he and she are anaphors
in the previous sentences.
Activity 1.2.4
a) Look at the sentences below and write the antecedents and anaphors
down in the space below. Comment on the use of anaphor in the
sentences. The example is taken from the short story On her knees by
Tim Winton.

11
My mother had a kind of stiff-necked working class pride. After the old
man bolted she became a stickler for order. She believed in hygiene,
insisted upon rigour. She was discreet and deadly honest, and those lofty
standards, that very rigidity, set her apart. Carol Lang went through a
house like a dose of salts. She earned a reputation in the riverside suburbs,
where, in time, she became the domestic benchmark.

b) Study the sentence below and say how it differs from the initial
antecedent-anaphor pattern.
I turned the corner and almost stepped on it. There was a large snake in
the middle of the path.

The pattern used above is called cataphora and is much less common than anaphora.
c) Read the extracts from Disgrace and find two examples each of person, spatial and
temporal deictic expressions, as well as one anaphoric and one cataphoric
reference. Use the table below.

That is how it begins. Next morning, with surprising dispatch, a memorandum

arrives from the office of the Vice-Rector (Student Affairs) notifying him that a
complaint has been lodged against him under article 3.1 of the university’s Code
of Conduct. He is requested to contact the Vice-Rector’s office at his earliest
convenience. […] Melanie would not have taken such a step by herself, he is
convinced. She is too innocent for that, too ignorant of her power. He, the little
man in the ill-fitting suit, must be behind it, he and cousin Pauline, the plain one,
the duenna. They must have talked her into it, worn her down, then in the end
marched her to the administration offices. […]

He calls the Vice-Rector’s office and is given a five o’clock appointment, outside
regular hours. At five o’clock, he is waiting in the corridor. Arum Hakim, sleek and
youthful, emerges and ushers him in. There are already two persons in the room.
[…] ‘It’s late, David, we know why we are here,’ says Hakim, so let’s get to the
point. How can we best tackle this business?’[…]

12
He has known Hakim for years, they used to play tennis together in his tennis-
playing days, but he is in no mood now for male chumminess. The case is
supposed to be confidential, but of course it is not, of course people talk. Why
else, when he entered the common room today, did a hush fall on the chatter?
(Coetzee, 2000:41-43).

Chapter 1 (pg. 1)

For a man of his age, fifty-two, divorced, he has, to his mind solved the problem of
sex rather well. On Thursday afternoons he drives to Green Point. Punctually at
two p.m. he presses the buzzer at the entrance to Windsor Manor, speaks his
name, and enters. Waiting for him at the door of No. 113 is Soraya.

Chapter 1 (pg.6)

Then one Saturday morning everything changes. He is in the city on business; he is

walking down St. George’s Street when his eyes fall on a slim figure ahead of him
in the crowd. It is Soraya, unmistakably, flanked by two children, two boys.

Chapter 1 (pg. 9)

There is still Soraya. He ought to close that chapter. Instead, he pays a detective
agency to track her down. Within days he has her real name, her address, her
telephone number. He telephones at nine in the morning, when the husband and
children will be out. Soraya?’ he says. ‘This is David. How are you?

Expressions/ Examples (write full sentence)

references

Person deixis

Spatial deixis

Temporal deixis

Anaphora

13
 Function of anaphora?

Cataphora

Function of
cataphora?

1.2.5 Speech acts

Speech acts, coined by Austin in the 1960s, refer to utterances and the way in
which these form part of our deeds (actions). Thus, speech acts do not refer
to merely uttering a sentence, but rather to how that utterance influences the
actions of the speaker.
Austin (1962) distinguishes between performatives and constatives. Consider
the sentences below and see if you can formulate the difference between
utterances and constative utterances:
Performative utterances
- I now pronounce you husband and wife
- I command you to surrender immediately.
- I apologise for being late.
Constative utterances
- The children are chasing squirrels in the park.
- My daughter is called Elizabeth.
- She is the first female to win the tour.

The performative utterances describe an action carried out by the

speaker, whereas the constative utterances make statements or observations.

Activity 1.2.5.1
Do research on the three facets of a speech act and write down what you
understand about each facet:
A locutionary act:

An illocutionary act:

A perlocutionary act:

14
Illocutionary speech acts have further been classified into five categories. In
1962, Austin classified speech acts into five types. Since then, there have been
many attempts to systematise and strengthen the original Austinian taxonomy.
The most influential of these attempts is Searle’s (1975) neo-Austinian
typology of speech acts.
Searle’s classification of speech acts into five categories (also called
illocutionary points), are explained below:

REPRESENTATIVES
These utterances express the speaker’s belief about what is being stated.
These include asserting, claiming, concluding, reporting and stating, e.g. The
soldiers are struggling on through the snow (it is a report/account of the
soldiers’ actions and the speaker’s beliefs about these).

DIRECTIVES
In these instances, the speaker expresses his/her wish for the addressee
to do something. These include, advice, commands, orders, questions and
requests, e.g. Don’t use my electric shaver (the speaker expresses what he
wishes the addressee to do/not to do in the future).

COMMISSIVES
Commissives commit the speaker to some future course of action. Thus,
the speaker expresses his/her intention to do something. These include offers,
pledges, promises, refusals and threats, e.g. I’ll be back in five minutes (the
speaker expresses what he intends to do in five minutes).

EXPRESSIVES
These utterances express a psychological state or attitude in the speaker, such
as joy or sorrow. These include apologising, blaming, congratulating, praising
and thanking, e.g., Well done, Elizabeth! (The speaker expresses his joy by
congratulating Elizabeth on her achievement).

DECLARATIONS
These speech acts effect immediate change in some current state of affairs.
With these utterances, the speaker brings about changes in the world. These
include declaring war, firing from employment and nominating a candidate,
e.g. Chairman: The meeting is adjourned OR President: I declare a state of
national emergency.
Adapted from Yule (2006)

Activity 1.2.5.2
15
Below are five pictures. Provide a sentence for each of these pictures. Your
sentences should be classifiable into the five illocutionary points discussed in
this section. You should have one sentence per illocutionary point (any picture
can be used for any type of speech act. Share and discuss your sentences and
which pictures they match on your study group forum on eFundi.

Picture A

https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikihow.com%2FAddress-a-Judge-in-
Court&psig=AOvVaw1iOvZEC15dIaNDZik-Xkjb&ust=1611670029137000&source=images&cd=vfe&ved=0CAIQjRxqFwoTCPiwsfCgt-
4CFQAAAAAdAAAAABAD

Picture B

https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dailymail.co.uk%2Fnews%2Farticle-2280074%2FSurfing-internet-long-
periods-time-cause-withdrawal-symptoms-similar-people-comedown-
ecstasy.html&psig=AOvVaw1Sws87GTEtWICAnfiJ1WOd&ust=1611670117103000&source=images&cd=vfe&ved=0CAIQjRxqFwoTCPjlwpyht-
4CFQAAAAAdAAAAABAD

16
 Picture C

https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.humanesociety.org%2Fresources%2Fhow-help-frightened-
cat&psig=AOvVaw3YdrFPGu39B7UTX5xKyRh0&ust=1611670211517000&source=images&cd=vfe&ved=0CAIQjRxqFwoTCNDH_sm
ht-4CFQAAAAAdAAAAABAD

Picture D

17
 https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.compoundchem.com%2F2015%2F03%2F24%2Fdna
%2F&psig=AOvVaw1LZpAnlXIK5PkzbXojILER&ust=1611670305965000&source=images&cd=vfe&ved=0CAIQjRxqFwoTCIC_xfeht-
4CFQAAAAAdAAAAABAK

Picture E

https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwallpapersafari.com%2Fw
%2FEZc2Wz&psig=AOvVaw1zz14PsEFki-
pQD8vli4uZ&ust=1611670393280000&source=images&cd=vfe&ved=0CAIQjRxqFwoTCKjxoaGit-4CFQAAAAAdAAAAABAE

Representatives sentence:

18
 Matching picture:

Directives sentence:

Matching picture:

Commissives sentence:

Matching picture:

Expressives sentence:

Matching picture:

Declarations sentence:

Matching picture:

1.3 The subjunctive (conditional or if- sentences)

Do research on the question in the picture above and post your answer on eFundi.

Have you noticed that when giving advice to someone (If I were you, I
would…), we use I were instead of I was. Remember that this is the
subjunctive mood which is used for hypothetical situations. It is a situation
which is contrary to the fact (the fact is, I am not you). With to be, use
WERE for all subjects in the SUBJUNCTIVE.

19
Let’s take a look at the structures of subjunctive sentences. There are in
effect three types of conditional sentences.

Type If-clause Result Use

1st If + If + present When something is probable or

type present tense (first possible.
tense column verb) +
may / can / will E.g. If you brush your teeth,
+ bare infinitive they will look whiter.
If you do your homework, you may stay
up late.

If + past If + past When something is

2n
d tense tense improbable, impossible or
ty (second imaginary. E.g.
pe column
If I were younger, I could pursue a
verb) +
career in sport. [impossible]
would /
could / If I were married five times, I would
might + give excellent relationship advice.
bare [improbable]
infinitive
If they were there, they would
understand that it was not my fault.
[imaginary]

3rd If + past If + had + past When something had already

type perfect (had participle (third happened and one wished things
+ past column verb) + could have been different. E.g.
participle) would / could /
If only I had studied I might have
might + have
passed the exam.
(been)
If she had not seen me, my secret
would have been kept.

There are a few more phrases which require the subjunctive:

If only, I wish …, as if …, … would rather…
If only I did
not read his
letter. I wish

20
I could be a
fly.
He acts as if he were the prime minister.
I would rather you did not share my secret.
Activity 1.3.1
a) Name the type of conditional represented by each of the sentences below.
Provide a reason for your answer in each instance.

● Had I not taken the deal, I would still have my money.

● If you look out the window, you may see clouds.

● If you were him, you would understand his situation.

b) Create your own if-clause question and post it on your study group forum
on eFundi (examples include If you had more time, what would you do? If
you could change something in your life, what would it be?). Ask your
study group peers to respond to your question on the forum. They should
start their answers with “if”. Write their responses below and identify the
type of conditional represented by your question and the answers.

Consolidation exercise: Pragmatics and conditionals (30)

1. Why is it important for a prospective teacher to have extensive

21
 knowledge on pragmatics?
(2)
Read Extract A from Disgrace and answer the questions that follow:
Extract A
He himself has no son. His childhood was spent in a family of women. As
mother, aunts, sisters fell away, they were replaced in due course by
mistresses, wives, a daughter. The company of women made of him a
lover of women and, to an extent, a womanizer. With his height, his good
bones, his olive skin, his flowing hair, he could always count on a degree of
magnetism. If he looked at a woman in a certain way, with a certain
intent, she would return his look, he could rely on that. That was how he
lived; for years, for decades, that was the backbone of his life. Then one
day it all ended. Without warning his powers fled. Glances that would once
have responded to his slid over, past, through him. Overnight he became a
ghost. If he wanted a woman he had to learn to pursue her; often, in one
way or another, to buy her.
(Coetzee, 1999:4)
2. Consider the second sentence of the extract. Is the utterance below
correctly entailed by the second sentence of the extract? Test for
entailment to substantiate your answer. (4)
Proposition:
He has few male relatives.

3. Refer to the proposition in the previous question (he has few male
relatives). Explain what is implied with this statement by referring to scalar
implicature. (2)

4. Consider the following sentence from the extract:

If he looked at a woman in a certain way, with a certain intent, she would
return his look, he could rely on that.

Which type of conditional is presented in the sentence above? Provide a

reason for your answer. Has the conditional been formulated correctly?
Provide a reason for your answer.
(3)

5. Consider the following sentence from the extract:

Without warning his powers fled.

Formulate one presupposition of the speaker. Determine whether it is

indeed a presupposition by testing for constancy under negation. (3)
22
6. Read the three sentences below. Add your own sentence after these to
illustrate an example of a cataphoric reference. Also mention the effect
thereof. (3)
He himself has no son. His childhood was spent in a family of women. As
mother, aunts, sisters fell away, they were replaced in due course by
mistresses, wives, a daughter.

7. Identify and rewrite one sentence from the extract that contains a
temporal deixis. Explain your answer. (2)

Read Extract B from Disgrace and answer the questions that follow:
Extract B
`I have admitted that. Freely. I am guilty of the charges brought against me.'
`Don't play games with us, David. There is a difference between pleading
guilty to a charge and admitting you were wrong, and you know that.' `And
that will satisfy you: an admission I was wrong?' `No,' says Farodia Rassool.
'That would be back to front. First Professor Lurie must make his statement.
Then we can decide whether to accept it in mitigation. We don't negotiate
first on what should be in his statement. The statement should come from
him, in his own words. Then we can see if it comes from his heart.' `And you
trust yourself to divine that, from the words I use - to divine whether it comes
from my heart?' `We will see what attitude you express. We will see whether
you express contrition.' `Very well. I took advantage of my position vis-a-vis
Ms Isaacs. It was wrong, and I regret it. Is that good enough for you?' `The
question is not whether it is good enough for me, Professor Lurie, the question
is whether it is good enough for you. Does it reflect your sincere feelings?' He
shakes his head. 'I have said the words for you, now you want more, you want
me to demonstrate their sincerity. That is preposterous. That is beyond the
scope of the law. I have had enough. Let us go back to playing it by the book. I
plead guilty. That is as far as I am prepared to go.' `Right,' says Mathabane
from the chair. 'If there are no more questions for Professor Lurie, I will thank
him for attending and excuse him.'
(Coetzee, 1999:18)

8. Take the discussion between David Lurie and the board members into
consideration. Does David Lurie adhere to the cooperative principle in this
conversation? Discuss your answer by referring to Grice’s maxims. (5)

9. Consider the sentence “I plead guilty” from the extract. Is this sentence an
example of a constative utterance or a performative utterance? Provide a
reason for your answer. (2)

10. Consider the last sentence of the extract. State which category of the
speech act (illocutionary point) this sentence represents and provide a
reason for your answer. (2)

23
11. Consider the sentence “First Professor Lurie must make his statement.”
Which illocutionary point is represented by this sentence? Provide a
reason for your answer.

(2)

References:

Coetzee, J.M. 1999. Disgrace. London: Secker & Warburg.

Finch, G. 1999. How to study linguistics. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
Mey. J. L. 1993. Pragmatics: an introduction.
Cambridge: Blackwell.

Saeed. J. I. 2003. Semantics. 2nd ed. Oxford: Blackwell

Publishing.
Yule, G. 2000. Pragmatics. New York: Oxford University Press.
Yule, G. 2006. The study of language. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.

24
 UNIT 2: Disgrace by J.M. Coetzee and Lacuna by Fiona Snyckers

https://clarkesbooks.co.za/products/disgrace https://pensouthafrica.co.za/lacuna-by-fiona-
snyckers/

Outcomes:
After having engaged with the novels extensively, you should be able to:
· Have a clear understanding of the philosophical concept of ‘the other’, Ubuntu
and existentialism as these manifest in the novel. (Disgrace)
· Identify David Lurie as a specific archetype.(Disgrace)
· Discuss the major themes and symbols and how these contribute to the
message of the novel. (Both)
· Have a clear understanding of the plot of the novel. (Both)
· Have a thorough knowledge of how to teach literature and set contextual
questions on the novel – based on Lacuna
· Prepare for a Moot court activity – mock trial based on Disgrace.
2.1 Answer the following questions before class.
2.1.1 Why do you think we teach literature at school?

25
2.1.2 How was literature taught when you were at school? Comment on the different
genres separately.

2.1.3 Consult the CAPS for EFAL (pg. 17) and Home Language (pg. 7) Grades 10-
12 and comment on the time allocation for the teaching of literature.

2.1.4 Consult the CAPS for EFAL (pg. 16) and Home Language (pg. 12) and write
cryptic notes on the approaches advocated to teach both these subjects regarding
literature.
EFAL Home Language

2.1.5 Consult the CAPS document for EFAL (pg. 18) and Home Language (pg. 13)
and comment on the requirements in terms of genres when teaching literature.
EFAL Home Language

26
2.1.6 Consult the CAPS for EFAL (Pp. 79-80) and Home Language Pp. (79-80)
Grade 12 and write cryptic notes on the programme of assessment especially in
terms of literature.

2.1.7 Consult the CAPS for EFAL (Pg. 84) and Home Language Grade 12 (Pg. 81)
and comment on the requirements for the literature papers.

2.1.8 Follow the PPP on the teaching of literature on your own.

Assignment 2: Summative didactics activity on Lacuna.

Please note that this is a pair activity.

● Consult the DBE’s examination guidelines.

● Set contextual questions for either Grade 12 English Home

Language based on the text Disgrace.
● You may use either one or two extracts from the novel. These
extracts MUST be taken from either Chapters 1-2 or 9-10.
● You need to set a variety of questions in terms of the cognitive
27
 levels of Barrett’s taxonomy and provide the memorandum. Adhere
percentages set out by the examination guidelines.
· Use a table for the memo and indicate the mark allocation and level of each
question.

Memo Mark allocation Level of Barrett’s

taxonomy
E.g. 1.1 2 1
E.g. 1.2 4 2

● Provide another table with the percentages. Be honest.

Level Percentage of paper
Level 1 - 2 40%
Level 3 40%
Level 4-5 20%

● The total of the activity should be 25 marks.

● Include the extract/s and rubric with which you will be assessed. Be
sure to include both group members names.
● Start your assignment with your surnames, names and student
numbers.
NO cover pages.
The following rubric will be used to assess your activity.
Total = 20 Accomplished (4-5) Average (2.5-3.5) Poor (0-2)

Extract The extract/s chosen The extract is Extract does not

are very suitable in suitable in terms of lend itself to the
terms of assessment. assessment. Length generation of
Length correct. is not exactly suitable
according to the questions. Length
guidelines (off by 5- either too long or
10 words). too short.

Questions Questions are well Questions are Questions are not

balanced in terms of balanced in terms of balanced in terms
cognitive levels and cognitive levels. The of cognitive levels
adhering 100% to the levels are slightly and are very
40% (levels 1-2), 40 shewed in terms of skewed in terms

28
 % level 3, and 20% the recommended of the
levels 4-5 of Barrett’s levels of 40% (levels recommended
taxonomy. 1-2), 40 % level 3, levels of 40%
and 20% levels 4- 5 (levels 1-2), 40 %
Questions are of Barrett’s level 3, and 20%
suitable for the taxonomy. levels 4-5 of
subject (EFAL or Barrett’s
Home Language). Questions are mostly taxonomy.
suitable to subject.
Levels indicated Questions are not
correctly. Levels indicated suitable to the
although there are 1-
Mark allocation in subject.
2 errors.
order. Levels indicated
Mark allocation
Total is correct. although there are
mostly in order. 3-4 errors.
Total is correct. Marks allocated
not suitable.
Total is incorrect.

Memo Memo is very Memo is Memo is not

comprehensive and comprehensive comprehensive
correct. although incorrect in and incorrect at
1-2 questions. more than 2
questions.

Language use Formulation of 1-2 errors in More than 3 errors

questions is flawless. formulation or in formulation,
No grammar, grammar, syntax or grammar, syntax
spelling. or spelling.
syntactical or spelling
errors.

2.2 In-class activity

2.2.1 In class activity: World Café. Divide into six groups and choose a host for
each. Each host will pose the question to the group attending his/her station.
Discuss the question and record the ideas given. After all the groups had an
opportunity to discuss the question, the hosts will give feedback (summary) to the
whole group.
Answer the following questions in your group:
David Lurie: (1)
1. What are your first impressions of David Lurie?
2. Do you change your perceptions during the reading of the novel?
3. How does Lurie regard ‘The other’?
4. Why does Lurie have an ‘affair’ with Melanie?
29
5. Discuss the hearing. Do you agree with any of the arguments or positions offered
(Lurie’s, Rassool’s, etc.)?
6. Why do you think Lurie reacts the way he does?
7. Comment on Lurie’s assertion that repentance belongs to another world of
discourse.
8. Does Lurie redeem himself in the end? Why, why not? How, if so?
Lucy Lurie from Disgrace: (2)
1. What are your first impressions of Lucy?
2. Describe Lucy and the life she is leading here in the Eastern Cape.
2. Can you reconcile yourself with her decisions in the novel, specifically regarding
keeping the baby and not reporting the rape? Why do you think she makes these
decisions?
3. Explain her decisions from her point of view.
4. Suggest how life will continue after the novel.
Petrus: (3)
1. How do you perceive him as a character?
2. Do you think he cares about Lucy?
3. Explain his decision not to report Pollux to the authorities.
4. How does Petrus respond when Lurie engages him about the presence of the boy
at the party?
5. Social status is a topic associated with Petrus in the novel. Discuss this statement.
Melanie: (4)
1. What are your perceptions of her as a character?
2. Why does Melanie have an ‘affair’ with Lurie?
3. Do you consider what happens to her as rape?
4. To which extent is she responsible/nor responsible for what happened to her?
5. Comment on how Melanie handled the situation with Lurie.
Lucy Lurie from Lacuna: (5)
1. What are your first impressions of Lucy?
2. Why can be defined as an unreliable narrator?
3. What are her views on the portrayal of Lucy from Disgrace?
4. How does her narrative differ from the portrayal of Lucy from Disgrace?

30
5. What, do you think, is the main message of this novel?

Preparation: Complete the following activities before your next class

2.2.2 What is your understanding of a philosophy and specifically in terms of
authors and novels?

2.2.3 What is your understanding of Ubuntu?

2.2.4 What is your understanding of African philosophy?

Watch the three short YouTube videos on othering, Ubuntu and Existentialism before
attempting activity 2.3. This needs to be done prior to your next contact session.
Postcolonial concepts – othering:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6Er_fAMYs7Y
Late Archbishop Desmond Tutu on Ubuntu
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0wZtfqZ271w
Existentialism explained simply
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H_tgqj9MU8M

2.3 Research and group work

2.3.1 Work in groups of 4. Do research on the following philosophies: Existentialism
and the whole concept of ‘the Other’, as well as the African philosophical idea

31
 of Ubuntu. The ideas of Emmanuel Levinas concerning ‘the Other’ may be
helpful in this regard. Your need to make a mind map in which you explain
the main tenets of the ideas/philosophies and how these relate to the
characters (specifically Lurie) in the novel.
Pointers:
o Look specifically at the character of David Lurie and how he may have
an existentialist outlook on life.
o Look at all the other characters and their concept of 'the Other'. Who is
‘the Other’ in the novel?
o Also compare an individualistic approach to the African philosophy of
'Ubuntu'.
o The idea is to use the articles and combine the findings with your own
research.

The following articles placed on eFundi may be read. Do not limit your research to
the articles suggested on eFundi.
McCoppin, R. 2011. Acceptance of the other: reconciliation in J.M. Coetzee’s
Disgrace. Atenea, 31 (1/2):53-56.
Zembylas, M. 2009. Bearing witness to the ethics and politics of suffering: J.M.
Coetzee’s Disgrace, inconsolable mourning, and the task of educators. Studies in
philosophy and Education, 28:223-237.
Marais, M. 2000. The possibility of ethical action: JM Coetzee’s Disgrace, Scrutiny2,
5 (1):57- 63. DOI: 10.1080/18125440008565955
Van Heerden, A. 2010. Disgrace, desire, and the dark side of the new South Africa.
(In Leist, A., Singer, P., eds. J.M. Coetzee and ethics: philosophical perspectives on
literature. New York: Columbia University Press. P. 43-63).

2.4 Provide feedback on activity 2.3.1. Groups are asked to provide feedback
and your lecturer will also comment on the work submitted.
2.5 In class activities
Types of heroes in literature

32
2.5.1 Name archetypes that we encounter in literature, films and drama. Work with
a partner.

2.5.2 Mention a few examples other than those in the images at 2.5

2.5.3 Mention a few characteristics of these archetypes.

33
2.5.4 Follow the PPP of your lecturer and engage in the discussions.
2.5.5 Study the characteristics of a Byronic hero and say which of those can be
ascribed to David Lurie. Find evidence in the novel (quotes) to substantiate
your arguments.

2.6.1 Follow the PPP provided by your lecturer concerning Coetzee’s writing style
and his use of themes and symbols.
2.6.2: Discussion on summative assessment to clear any uncertainties.

2.7 Summative assessment (50): Moot court – mock trial

In your groups of 8 students prepare for a mock trial. This activity will count
substantially towards your participation mark. You need to be familiar with the plot of
the novel in order to conduct a proper trial. Thorough preparation and research need
to be done prior to the trial date. General information is given below with regard to
the roles, procedures and terminology. Melanie Isaacs is accusing David Lurie of
rape. You will have to prepare detailed arguments for the prosecution and the
defence. You should keep the following in mind:

· This is a group assignment – you have to do all the research and plan all the
arguments together. DO NOT DIVIDE THE WORK.
· This is a drama performance – your group members should not be surprised
by the arguments you make. Again, plan all the arguments and procedures
together, and rehearse your performance.
· Do sufficient character sketches ahead of time. Make sure that you are true to
the character you embody on the day.
· Although difficult, try to ensure that everyone in the group has sufficient
talking time. Your lecturer will address this point in class.
· Dress the part. Do some research about the dress code for court
appearances. The norm is to be dressed formally in black (Judge, counsel for
defence and counsel for prosecution, usher and clerk). The other participants
should also be neatly dressed.

34
The rubric below will be used to assess your performance.

https://www.fedcourt.gov.au/going-to-court/i-am-a-party/court-processes/in-the-courtroom

We will not be having a Judge’s Associate.

The usher and court clerk = court officer

Applicant = Melanie

Respondent = David Lurie

Solicitors+ Counsel for the Defence and Counsel for the Prosecution

35
Total = 50 Good (4-5) Average (2-3) Poor (0-1)

Judge Very familiar with Fairly familiar with Not entirely

facts of the case the facts of the familiar with the
and manages the case and manages facts of the case
trial effectively; the trial to and fails at times
able to maintain satisfaction; able to manage the trial
authoritative to maintain effectively; not
presence. authoritative always able to
presence most of maintain
the time. authoritative
presence.

Counsel for the Confident Mostly confident Not very confident,

Prosecution presentation presentation showing signs of
showing evidence showing evidence hesitation due to a
of fact learning; of fact learning; lack of fact
clear and concise mostly clear and knowledge;
questioning; concise questioning is
accurate summing questioning; haphazardly done;
up of the case; mostly accurate summing up not
weaknesses in the summing up of the accurate; not
opposition’s case; fairly successful in
evidence successful in highlighting
highlighted; highlighting weaknesses in the
confident weaknesses in the opposition’s
presentation opposition’s evidence;
(without reading evidence; mostly presentation not
from a script). confident confident
presentation (at (constantly reading
times reading from from script).
script).

Counsel for the Confident Mostly confident Not very confident,

presentation presentation showing signs of

36
Defence showing evidence showing evidence hesitation due to a
of fact learning; of fact learning; lack of fact
clear and concise mostly clear and knowledge;
questioning; concise questioning is
accurate summing questioning; haphazardly done;
up of the case; mostly accurate summing up not
weaknesses in the summing up of the accurate; not
opposition’s case; fairly successful in
evidence successful in highlighting
highlighted; highlighting weaknesses in the
confident weaknesses in the opposition’s
presentation opposition’s evidence;
(without reading evidence; mostly presentation not
from a script). confident confident
presentation (at (constantly reading
times reading from from script).
script).

Defendant (Lurie) Confident Mostly confident Not very confident,

presentation presentation showing signs of
showing evidence showing evidence hesitation due to a
of fact learning. of fact learning. lack of fact
knowledge.
Very convincing Convincing
performance. performance – Not convincing at
only faltered 1-2 all.
times.

37
Complainant Confident Mostly confident Not very confident,
(Melanie) presentation presentation; showing signs of
showing evidence showing evidence hesitation due to a
of fact learning. of fact learning. lack of fact
knowledge.
Very convincing Convincing
performance. performance – Not convincing at
only faltered 1-2 all.
times.

1st witnesses Spontaneous Mostly Forced responses;

responses; spontaneous testimony not
convincing responses; convincing;
testimony; testimony mostly appears to be an
believable convincing; mostly unreliable witness.
characteristics. believable
characteristics.

2nd witnesses Spontaneous Mostly Forced responses;

responses; spontaneous testimony not
convincing responses; convincing;
testimony; testimony mostly appears to be an
believable convincing; mostly unreliable witness.
characteristics. believable
characteristics.

Clerk and usher Efficient: All Mostly efficient Inefficient when

(one person) witnesses sworn in when conducting conducting duties;
correctly using duties and making procedural
affirmation; executing errors.
identifies proceedings.
defendant and
reads indictment
correctly; court

38
 asked to rise at
appropriate times.

Use of language Correct Mostly correct Incorrect

terminology used terminology used, terminology used
at all times; mostly convincing repeatedly,
convincing rhetoric. rhetoric not
rhetoric. convincing.

Over-all Members work Team work Team shows signs

teamwork well as a team; satisfactory; of a lack of
makes an makes a good cohesion;
excellent overall impression and members at times
impression that trial flows well. uncertain due to a
they know what lack of rehearsal
they are doing and and trial is not
the trial flows flowing well.
exceptionally well.

ROLES:
1. Judge;
2. Counsel for the Prosecution;
3. Counsel for the Defence;
4. Defendant (David Lurie);
5. Complainant (Melanie Isaacs);
6. Witness for the prosecution (former student of David Lurie);
7. Witness for the defence (neighbour or colleague of Lurie);
8. Usher and clerk of the court. (One person taking on both roles)
ROLE DEFINITION:
Court clerk helps with the administration of the court.
Counsel for the Prosecution has to prove that the defendant is guilty beyond a
reasonable doubt.

39
Counsel for the defence tries to put doubt in the mind of the Judge regarding the
defendant’s guilt.
Judge makes decisions about the law and manages the trial.
Witnesses give viva voce evidence to the court. In other words, no evidence will be
led by way of affidavit all evidence needs to be oral.
Judge’s clerk makes sure the case runs smoothly and swears in witnesses.
Court reporter writes a report on the case and all proceedings are recorded in the
court room.
Defendant: the person accused of a crime in a court of law.
Role Guide - Judge
You will make decisions about the law and manage the trial.
Things to do:
Familiarise yourself with the order of procedure and role guide.
Read and familiarise yourself with the case (prior to the event if possible).
Other important information:
For the purposes of this mock trial to help with timing counsel is not allowed to re-
examine witnesses or make objections.
The judge should not ask questions or interrupt the trial.
Counsel should not ask questions about information not contained in witness
statements.
For the purposes of this mock trial witnesses are allowed to sit in the courtroom prior
to giving evidence.
Prosecution and defence will both make opening and closing speeches.
BEFORE the trial
The usher will come and collect you to bring you into the courtroom area.
DURING the trial
Your role is to ensure procedure is followed correctly and to score the participants.
AFTER the trial
Use the written or oral judgement as handed down by the Judge in which he or she
will include the reasons for coming to the verdict.
Role guide: witness/defendant:
In the witness stand:
You will be called to the stand by the counsel.
40
The usher will show you to the witness stand and swear you in – remain standing
and you will be told to raise your right hand. The oath can be taken, however, if you
prefer not to take the oath an affirmation is taken. This is a confirmation that you will
tell the truth and that this oath or affirmation is binding on your conscience.
The counsel whose witness you are will ask you questions. This is called
examination-in-chief. Leading questions may not be asked (e.g. You saw the
accused at the Hilton Hotel on the 13th of May, is that right?)
Another counsel will cross-examine you and highlight any contradictions or changes
to your story. Leading questions will be asked here.
Whilst under cross-examination, you will not be able to consult with the counsel
whose witness you are during adjournments.
Role Guide – Usher:
You make sure that everyone is in the right place at the right time and swear in
witnesses.
Things to do: Read through and get to know the order of procedure.
Highlight your role so that you know when you are needed.
BEFORE the trial: Ensure everyone is sitting in their designated seats.
Let the judge know that the court is ready.
DURING the trial:
Ask the court to rise when the judge enters and leaves the room.
Escort all witnesses to and from the witness box.
Swear in the witnesses using the oath or affirmation (SEE THE ORDER OF
PROCEDURE).
Ensure that people do not disturb the proceedings.
Do not allow people to use mobiles.
Role Guide - Defence counsel: You are a counsel for the defence. This means that
you are trying to get a verdict of not guilty (put doubt into the jury’s minds about
whether the defendant committed the crime).
Things to do: Analyse statements of the witnesses you are questioning and make
notes of strengths and weaknesses.
Highlight your role on the order of procedure so that you know when it is your turn to
speak.
Write an opening statement at the commencement of proceedings. Write a closing
statement as well at the conclusion of your case.
Call the judge ‘My Lord or my Lady’.

41
Call other counsel ‘my learned friend’, pronounced ‘learn-ed’ (this means qualified as
an advocate or attorney with right of appearance in the High Court). When one
counsel is on their feet that is addressing the Judge or questioning a witness, the
other counsel must remain seated. If you have any objections, you may stand and
object, the other counsel must then be seated immediately until you have finished
speaking.
The defendant is innocent until proven guilty.
You do not have to prove that the defendant is innocent; you just need to try and
create doubt in the mind of the Judge.
The prosecution has to prove that the defendant is guilty beyond a reasonable doubt.
Opening speech: Your opening speech should last 3 minutes and
Opening speech:
Your opening speech should last 3 minutes and include the following 2 things:
1) An explanation of the burden of proof (see ‘other important information’ above)
2) A brief outline of the facts of the case
3) What evidence you will be presenting in favour of your version.
Closing speech:
Your closing speech should last 5 minutes and include the following 2 things:
1) A brief outline of the charge against David Lurie.
2) A summary of the evidence that has been heard in court that proves the defence
case.
Examination in chief:
You will have 4.5 minutes to call the witness and get the facts from him/her:
1) Establish all the main points of your case as clearly and persuasively as
possible.
2) Be conscious of information which the judge may question or find issue with. This
can put your witness in a vulnerable position when cross-examined.
3) Don’t use leading questions. These are questions that put words into the mouth of
the witness. To avoid leading, use questions that start with
What, Why, When, How, Where, Who. Here are some examples:
Cross Examination:
You will have 4.5 minutes to examine the opponent’s witnesses:
1) Highlight flaws and inconsistencies in the opposition’s case – you should use
leading questions to expose contradictions. However, try not to be too aggressive
this will be badgering and harassment of the witness.
42
2) Put your case to the opponent’s witness.
3) A flow chart is a good way to prepare your questions so that you can be prepared
for different answers, e.g.
Leading questions Not leading
You went into the shop, didn’t you? Where did you go?
Would you say that the assailant was a What did the assailant look like?
tall person?
Is it not true that the defendant is an How did the defendant behave?
aggressive person?

Cross Examination: You will have 4.5 minutes to examine the opponent’s witnesses:
1) Highlight flaws and inconsistencies in the opposition’s case – you could use
leading questions to expose contradictions. However, try not to be too aggressive.
2) Put your case to the opponent’s witness.
3) A flow chart is a good way to prepare your questions so that you can be prepared
for different answers:
Were you drunk?

Yes No
So you were drunk, and you can’t be But you had drunk a bottle of wine
sure of exactly what you saw can you? hadn’t you?

Role Guide - Prosecution counsel:

You are a counsel for the prosecution. This means that you are trying to get a verdict
of guilty (prove the defendant did the crime).
Things to do:
Opening speech
Your opening speech should last 3 minutes and include the following 2 things:
1) An explanation of the burden of proof (See ‘Other Important Information’
above)
2) A brief outline of the facts of the case
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Closing speech
Your closing speech should last 5 minutes and include the following 2 things:
1) A brief outline of the law in the case and any case law you may be relying on.
2) A summary of the evidence heard which proves your case.
Court procedure:
Role Event (spoken lines in bold)
Court Clerk Fill in team identification slip and put it on the judge’s bench.
Usher ‘Court rise’
Everyone Stands
Usher Leads judge into courtroom
Judge Enter the court. Bow to the court before sitting.
Lawyers and court staff bow in return
Everyone sits
Court Clerk Asks the defendant (David Lurie) to stand
Defendant stands
Court clerk Matter of the State v David Lurie case number 1256/2018.
You are charged with the crime of rape in terms of the Sexual
Offences and Related Matters Amendment Act 32 of 2007.
Do you understand the charge against you?
Defendant Yes my Lord
Court clerk How do you plead?
Defendant Not guilty my Lord
Judge Gives the defendant permission to sit.
Counsel for Makes the opening speech
Prosecution
Usher Leads 1st prosecution witness to the witness box. Asks them
to repeat this affirmation:
‘I do solemnly, sincerely and truly declare and affirm
that the evidence I shall give shall be the truth, the
whole truth and nothing but the truth.’

44
1st Repeats affirmation
Prosecution
Witness-
former
student of
David Lurie
Counsel for Examination- in -chief of 1st prosecution witness
prosecution
Counsel for Cross examination of 1st prosecution witness
the defence
Prosecution Takes oath or affirmation.
witness 2-
Melanie
Isaacs (the
complainant)
Counsel for Examination- in -chief of 2nd prosecution witness
prosecution
Counsel for Cross examination of 2nd prosecution witness.
defence
Counsel for This is the case for the prosecution. The state’s case is now
prosecution closed. The Defence can now move for an absolution of the
instance, however in this case it will not be granted by the Judge.
Counsel for Makes their opening speech then calls the 1 st witness for the
the defence defence.
Usher Leads witness to the witness box. Asks them
to repeat this affirmation:
‘I do solemnly, sincerely and truly declare and affirm
that the evidence I shall give shall be the truth, the
whole truth and nothing but the truth
1st witness for Repeats affirmation
the defence-
can be
neighbour or
colleague of
the Defendant
Counsel for Examination in chief of the 1st witness for the defence.
the defence

45
 Counsel for Cross examination of the 1st witness for the defence.
the
prosecution
Usher Leads 1st witness back to his/her seat
Counsel for Calls defendant (David Lurie).
the defence
Usher Leads defendant to the witness box. Asks them
to repeat this affirmation:
‘I do solemnly, sincerely and truly declare and affirm
that the evidence I shall give shall be the truth, the
whole truth and nothing but the truth’.
Defendant Repeats affirmation
witness
Counsel for Cross examination of defendant.
the defence
Usher Leads defence witness back to his/her seat.
Counsel for Makes their closing speech then finishes by saying:
the
This is the case for the prosecution my Lord.
Prosecution
Counsel for Makes their closing speech then finishes by saying:
the defence
This is the case for the defence.
Judge Judge reserves Judgement and clerk will contact parties once
judgement is to be handed down.
Usher Court rise
Everyone Stands and bows.
Usher Calls parties back everyone rises and bows as Judge enters.
Verdict will be handed down by Judge.
Glossary:
AFFIRMATION - A testimony instructed by the usher to be spoken by a witness
before they give evidence.
CLERK - A court official who performs an essential role in seeing that everything
runs smoothly. They read out the charge of the defendant and any statements
directed by the judge/magistrates.

46
CLOSING SPEECH - The prosecution and defence summarise the evidence they
have presented and comment on the weaknesses in the other side’s case. This is
their last opportunity to persuade the jury of their case.
CPS - Crown Prosecution Service is a public body of the State who prosecutes
against people who are accused of a crime if there is enough evidence.
CROSS EXAMINATION - The lawyers on one side try to highlight the
weaknesses/inconsistencies in the other side’s statements.
COUNSEL FOT THE DEFENCE - They represent the defendant who is standing
trial. They must prove there is reasonable doubt as to the defendant’s guilt.
DEFENDANT - The person who is accused of a crime.
EXAMINATION IN CHIEF – The counsel asks a series of open questions to the
witness on their side starting with their name and address.
HEARSAY - Evidence that is gathered from someone else. As it wasn’t heard first-
hand, it is not allowed in court.
JUDGE – The judge is in charge of the trial, ensuring it is fair and maintaining order
in the courtroom. If the defendant is found guilty, they decide on the sentencing.
OPENING SPEECH – The prosecution summarise the case against the defendant
and what they will demonstrate through their evidence. The defence confirm the
defendant’s innocence and explain what the prosecution will have to prove.
COUNSEL FOR THE PROSECUTION – They represent the Crown, prosecuting the
defendant and working towards reaching a correct verdict (not just a guilty one).
STANDARD OF PROOF – As a defendant is presumed to be innocent until proven
guilty, there is a high benchmark to reach before someone can be found guilty.
USHER – A court official who performs an essential role in seeing that everything
runs smoothly. They swear in the witnesses and ensure there are no disturbances in
the courtroom.
WITNESSES – A person who saw the crime, writes a statement for the police and
gives evidence in

2.8 Lacuna

47
https://www.tomvmorris.com/blog/2015/8/4/the-art-of-writing

Follow the PPP on Lacuna and participate in the in-class guided writing activities.

48
 UNIT 3: Short Stories and Literary Lenses

https://images.unsplash.com/photo-1512099053734-e6767b535838?ixlib=rb-

Introduction:

One of the texts you will study, as part of this unit, uses a metaphor of telescopes
and spy glasses to describe literary lenses. In this unit, you will use these telescopes
and spy glasses to study several short stories from your prescribed anthology.

Learning outcomes:

After engaging with the materials and activities in this study unit you should be able
to:

● discuss the functions of Literary theories in the study of literature; and

● apply Literary theories in your reading, interpretation, and analysis of short
stories.

Prescribed reading for this unit:

● Text on literary lenses for teachers:

https://scholarworks.bgsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?
article=1200&context=honorsprojects

● Article on using literary lenses in the classroom: Carroll, P.S. 2006. Learning to
view literature instruction with literary lenses: one group's story. The English
Journal, 95(3): 74-80. (Available on eFundi)

● Gabrielsen, I. L., Blikstad-Balas, M. & Tengberg, M. 2019. The role of literature in

49
 the classroom. How and for what purposes do teachers in lower secondary
school use literary texts? L1-Educational Studies in Language and Literature, 19,
1-32. https://doi.org/ 10.17239/L1ESLL-2019.19.01.13

● Read the following short stories in “Stories of Ourselves”:

o The Happy Prince (Oscar Wilde)

o The Door in the Wall (H.G. Wells)
o The People Before (Maurice Shadbolt)
o The Bath (Janet Frame)
o My Greatest Ambition (Morris Lurie)
o Sandpiper (Ahdaf Soueif)

Pertinent questions:

The questions below are all questions readers of texts have asked. The different
questions are associated with different lenses. See if you can match the question to
a literary lens by the end of this unit:

● How does the meaning of a text change as you reread it?

● How do stories from one culture correspond to those of another?
● What behavioural expectations are imposed on the characters? What effects do
these expectations have?
● What conscious or unconscious conflicts exist among the characters?
● How would characters or events in this story have been viewed by the author’s
contemporaries?
● How does the writer’s diction reveal or reflect the meaning of the text?

Study Section 3.1: Literary Lenses and Fairy Tales

Activity 3.1.1: Literary lenses for teachers

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Work through the notes and the article on eFundi and summarise the main lenses
and their importance for an English teacher in a mind map for yourself in the space
provided below. The metaphor of telescopes and spy glasses is used to describe
literary lenses. Which lenses are telescopes and which are spy glasses? Indicate
those in your mind map.

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Activity 3.1.2: Group Activity

https://kajabi-storefronts-production.kajabi-cdn.com/kajabi-storefronts
production/blogs/2147487621/images/XBmoiBClQuOR1T9EvMJB_Screen_Shot_2022-04-12_at_12.06.01_PM.png

Look at the example of an analysis of Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs in the
PowerPoint Presentation on eFundi. Work in a small group, preferably five people,
and choose another fairy tale or folktale and create a similar presentation using
Google Slides. Your analysis of your fairy tale/folktale should contain at least THREE
different lenses. (Remember to provide a summary of the plot of the fairy
tale/folktale as part of your presentation.) Be prepared to present your slides to the
class during your next lesson.

Activity 3.1.3: Questioning and lenses

Look at the example of questions on Jack and Jill on eFundi and formulate similar
questions based on the fairy tale/folktale and the three lenses that you chose for
Activity 3.1.2. You should do this individually.

Fairy tale/Folktale:
Lenses: Question Possible answer
1.

52
 2.

3.

Study Section 3.2: Literary Lenses and Short Stories

Activity 3.2.1: Prediction

Consider the titles of the short stories that you will read for Study Unit 3, and predict
which literary lense you think may apply:

· Feminism
· Deconstruction
· Reader Response
· Post-Colonialism
· Psychoanalysis
· Marxism

Short Story Literary Lens

The Door in the Wall (H.G. Wells)

The Happy Prince (Oscar Wilde)

The People Before (Maurice

Shadbolt)
The Bath (Janet Frame)

My Greatest Ambition (Morris Lurie)

Sandpiper (Ahdaf Soueif)

53
Activity 3.2.2: The Door in the Wall and Deconstruction

Read the short story in question, consult the relevant notes on eFundi, and do
additional research on deconstructivism.

Answer the following questions:

Define “deconstruction” in your own words:

What is the significance of this lens for an English teacher in the South African
context?:

Identify five extracts (words or sentences) from the text that you believe should be
deconstructed to create meaning. Explain how you would explain these extracts:

Extract Meaning Explanation

54
How do the following syntactical features contribute to deconstructing the short story
for meaning?:

Syntactical Feature Explanation

Adjectives and
adverbs

Starting sentences
with conjunctions.

Repetition

Do you think feminism can be applied to the short story in question? Substantiate
your answer:

Activity 3.2.3: The Happy Prince and Reader Response

55
Read the short story in question, consult the relevant notes on eFundi, and do
additional research on reader response.

Answer the following questions:

Define “reader response” in your own words:

What is the significance of this lens for an English teacher in the South African
context?:

Respond to the text as a reader by considering the following factors:

Factors Responses
Subjective identification
with the characters
Emotional responses
and beliefs
Socio-economic issues

Consider the following themes and explain how they emanate in the short story:

Themes Explanation

56
 Sacrifice

Compassion

Societal critique

Which other literary lens or lenses can be applied to the short story? Motivate your
choice(s):

Literary Lens Motivation

Activity 3.2.4: The People Before and Post-Colonialism

Define “post-colonialism” in your own words:

What is the significance of this lens for an English teacher in the South African
context?:

57
 ChatGPT was asked to analyse the short story using a post-colonial lens. Critically
evaluate ChatGPT’s response by answering the following questions:

· How correct is the analysis?

· What limitations are there?
· Are there any problematic syntactical features?
Analyzing Maurice Shadbolt's "The People Before" through a post-colonial lens
involves examining how the text addresses the impact of colonialism on
indigenous cultures, identities, and relationships. Here are key aspects to consider:
1. Colonial Power Dynamics:
Post-colonial analysis involves scrutinizing the power dynamics between colonizers
and colonized. In "The People Before," the story is set in New Zealand during the
period of European colonization. The interactions between the European settlers
and the indigenous Māori people reveal the unequal power relations, which often
lead to conflicts, dispossession, and cultural clashes.
2. Representation of Indigenous Culture:
Post-colonialism focuses on how indigenous cultures are represented in literature.
Shadbolt's portrayal of Māori culture in "The People Before" should be examined
for authenticity, respect, and whether it reinforces or challenges stereotypes. The
story may delve into how colonialism affects indigenous ways of life, spirituality,
and social structures.
3. Land and Identity:
Land is a central theme in many post-colonial works, symbolizing the impact of
colonization on indigenous identities. "The People Before" likely explores the Māori
connection to land, examining how dispossession and land alienation disrupt
cultural identity and traditions.
4. Language and Cultural Hybridity:
Post-colonial literature often addresses the effects of language imposition and
linguistic hybridity. Shadbolt's text may reflect how the imposition of European

58
 languages affects Māori communities and whether there's an exploration of
linguistic and cultural synthesis or resistance.
5. Resistance and Subversion:
Post-colonial literature often highlights resistance and subversion by the colonized
against oppressive forces. "The People Before" might depict Māori resistance to
colonization, either through overt acts of defiance or subtler forms of cultural
preservation and resilience.
6. Historical Context:
Understanding the historical context is crucial in a post-colonial analysis.
Examining the time period and events surrounding European colonization in New
Zealand will provide insights into the socio-political climate that influenced the
narrative.
7. Colonial Narratives and Voice:
Consider how the narrative voice is used to tell the story. Does the narrative
challenge or reproduce colonial perspectives? Post-colonial literature often seeks
to reclaim indigenous voices and perspectives, providing an alternative to
dominant colonial narratives.
8. Impact on Indigenous Communities:
Post-colonialism explores the lasting impact of colonization on indigenous
communities. Shadbolt's work may delve into the social, economic, and cultural
repercussions experienced by Māori communities as a result of European
colonization.
By examining "The People Before" through a post-colonial lens, readers can gain
insights into how the text engages with the complexities of colonial history, its
effects on indigenous communities, and the ongoing struggles for cultural identity
and autonomy in the aftermath of colonization.

59
Consider once again ChatGPT’s response: it provided 8 aspects for discussions.
Select any two of those aspects and strengthen them by:

· referring to the text (i.e., quotations);

· consulting at least two resources (with correct referencing); and
· using your own words.

Aspects Improvement

Consider South Africa’s colonial history. Do you think this short story can/may/should
be included in the prescribed short stories of the FET Phase? Why or why not?

60
 Activity 3.2.5: The Bath and Feminism

Read the short story in question, consult the relevant notes on eFundi, and do
additional research on deconstructivism.

Answer the following questions:

Define “feminism” in your own words:

What is the significance of this lens for an English teacher in the South African
context?:

Study the following extract from the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement
(CAPS) pertaining to the phases of reading. Design an activity/question for the
feminist lens for each of the reading phases. The activities/questions should be
related to the The Bath.

· Pre-reading: strategies to prepare learners for reading, e.g., activating

background knowledge, predicting, skimming headings.

· Reading: close reading of text supported by teacher’s questions; development of

strategies, e.g., inferencing, focus on word choice, use of language, imagery, etc.

61
· Post-reading: interpreting the text as a whole using strategies such as
synthesising, summarising, comparing and contrasting, inferencing, evaluating,
drawing conclusions, expressing opinions.

(DBE, 2011:10)

Pre-reading activity While-reading activity Post-reading activity

Do you agree or disagree that psychoanalysis can also be used as a literary lens to
analyse the short story? Substantiate your answer:

Activity 3.2.6: My Greatest Ambition and Marxism

Read the short story in question, consult the relevant notes on eFundi, and do
additional research on deconstructivism.

Answer the following questions:

Define “Marxism” in your own words:

62
What is the significance of this lens for an English teacher in the South African
context?:

Analyse the short story in question using a Marxist lens:

Activity 3.2.7: Sandpiper and Psychoanalysis

Read the short story in question, consult the relevant notes on eFundi, and do
additional research on deconstructivism.

Answer the following questions:

Define “psychoanalysis” in your own words:

What is the significance of this lens for an English teacher in the South African

63
context?:

Analyse the short story in question by considering the following factors of the
psychoanalysis lens:

Factor Analysis
The Imaginary

The Symbolic

The Real

SU3 Reflection:

What did you enjoy about this unit and what would you have changed?:

64