TYBA SEM VI PAPER IV 16th 18th Century English Literature II

31
T.Y.B.A.
SEMESTER - VI (CBCS)
ENGLISH PAPER-IV
16TH TO 18TH CENTURY
ENGLISH LITERATURE-II
SUBJECT CODE - 97001

© UNIVERSITY OF MUMBAI
Prof. (Dr.) D. T. Shirke

Offg. Vice-Chancellor,
University of Mumbai
Prin. Dr. Ajay Bhamare Prof. Prakash Mahanwar
Offg. Pro Vice-Chancellor, Director,
University of Mumbai IDOL, University of Mumbai
Program Co-ordinator : Dr. Santosh Rathod

Professor of English, Head of Interdisciplinary
Program, IDOL, University of Mumbai,
Mumbai-98
Course Co-ordinator : Dr. Kalpna N. Shelke

and Editor Assistant Professor of English and Co-ordinator,
Institute of Distance and Open Learning,
University of Mumbai, Mumbai
Course Writer : Dr. Benjamin Khan

Professor,
BPL Govt. P. G. College, Mhow,
DAVV, University Indore
: Dr. Namdev Patil

Asst. Professor,
R. B. Madkholkar College,
Chandgad, Kolhapur
: Dr. Deepali Awasare

Asst. Professor,
Y. M. College, Pune
May 2023, Print - I
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Published by : Director,
Institute
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Printed by Vidyanagari, Santacruz (E), Mumbai
CONTENTS
Unit No. Title Page No.
1. Background and Important Concepts – The

Restoration Period (1660 – 1700) - I 01
2. Background and Important Concepts - Neo-Classical
Age (1700 – 1798) - II 12
3. John Dryden’s All for Love - I 21
4. John Dryden’s All for Love – II 26
5. Oliver Goldsmith’s she Stoops to Conquer-I 34
6. Oliver Goldsmith’s she Stoops to Conquer-II 51
7. Selected Verse from The Puritan Era and The 18th
Century Restoration Period - I 69
8. Selected Verse from The Puritan Era and The 18th
Century Restoration Period - II 80

University of Mumbai
Syllabus for T.Y.B.A. English Paper-IV
Semester: VI
Course: Core Paper
COURSE TITLE : 16TH TO 18TH CENTURY
ENGLISH LITERATURE
(Choice Based Credit System with effect from the
Academic Year 2022-23)
1. Syllabus as per Choice Based Credit System
i) Name of the Program : T.Y.B.A. English
ii) Course Code : UAENG501 & UAENG601

iii) Course Title : 16th to 18th Century
English Literature
iv) Semester wise Course Contents : Enclosed the copy of syllabus
v) References and Additional : Enclosed in the Syllabus

References
vi) Credit Structure : 04
No. of Credits per Semester
vii) No. of lectures per Unit : 20
viii) No. of lectures per week : 04
ix) No. of Tutorials per week : --
2. Scheme of Examination : 5 Questions of 20 marks each.
3. Special notes , if any : No
4. Eligibility , if any : No
5. Fee Structure : As per University Structure
6. Special Ordinances / No
Syllabus for TYBA Paper IV Course :
16TH TO 18TH CENTURY ENGLISH LITERATURE

Course Codes: UAENG601
Objectives of the Course:
1) To introduce students to English Literature of the 16th, 17th and

18thcenturies.
2) To show them how background influences shaped the writer’s

thinking.
3) To present them to the literary masters who dominated the scene

4) To familiarize students with different writing styles that each age
adopted.
Outcome of the Course:

After completion of the course, students are expected to be able to:
1) To understand the distinctive features of English literature of the 16th,
17thand 18th centuries
2) To comprehend how background influences shaped the writer’s
thinking.
3) To recognize and appreciate the literary masters who dominated the
scene.
4) To grasp the different writing styles that each age adopted.
SEMESTER VI :
16TH TO 18TH CENTURY ENGLISH
LITERATURE-II
Course Code – UAENG601
04 Credits Total Lecture : 60
Unit 1: Background and Important Concepts: 20 Lectures
A. The Restoration Period (1660-1700)

i) Characteristics of Restoration Period
(Major events of the age and their impact on literature)
ii) Restoration Poetry- (Epic, Mock epic, Satire)
iii) Restoration Drama- Comedy of Manners, Heroic Tragedy
iv) Diary Writing
B. Neo-Classical Period (1700-1798)

i) Neo-Classical/Augustan
ii) Age of Satire
iii) Rise of the Periodical Essay and the Novel
Unit 2: John Dryden: All for Love 20 Lectures
OR
Oliver Goldsmith: She Stoops to Conquer
Unit 3: Selected Verse from the Puritan Era, the Restoration Period 20 Lectures
and the 18th CenturyRestoration Period:
a. John Milton: from Paradise Lost Book I

(105-124) 105- And shook his throne. What though the field he lost?
124- Sole reigning holds the tyranny of Heaven.
(242-270) 242- Is this the region, this the soil, the clime
270- Regained in Heaven, or what more lost in Hell?
(315-356) 315- Of Hell resounded: ‘Princes, Potentates.
356- Forthwith, from every squadron and each band.
b. Alexander Pope: The Rape of the Lock- Canto II Lines 1-54
(1) Not with more Glories, in th’ Etherial Plain,
(54) Th’ impending Woe sate heavy on his Breast
c. John Dryden: “The Fire of London”

Semester End Examination Pattern: 100 Marks 03 Hours
The Semester End Examination for 100 marks will have 5 questions (with
internalchoice) of 20 marks each.
Question 1: A. Essay or Question 1: B. Essay or Question 1.C. Short Notes
(twoout of four) - Unit I
Q.2 Essay Type Question (1 out of 2) - Unit 2
Essay Type Question (1 out of 2) - Unit 3
Short Notes (2 out of 4)- Unit 2
Short Notes (2 out of 4)- Unit 3
References:
1. Alpers, Paul E. Elizabethan Poetry: Modern Essays in Criticism (OUP:

1967)
2. Daiches, David. A Critical History of English Literature (Secker and
Warburg:London, 1960)
3. Ford, Boris Ed. The New Pelican Guide to English Literature:
The Age of Shakespeare Vol. 2 (Penguin, 1993)From Donne to
Marvell Vol. 3 (Penguin, 1990)
4. Keast, William B. Seventeenth Century English Poetry: Modern
Essays inCriticism (OUP: 1971)
5. King, Bruce. Seventeenth Century English
Literature(Macmillan:1983).
6. Leggatt, Alexander. English Drama: Shakespeare to The Restoration
1590-1660 (Longman: Literature in English Series, 1988)
7. Perfitt, George. English Poetry of the Seventeenth Century (Longman:
Literature in English Series,1992)
8. Parry, Graham.The Seventeenth Century: The Intellectual and Cultural
Context of English Literature. 1603-1700 (Longman: Literature in
English Series, 1989)
9. Pooley, Roger. English Prose of the Seventeenth Century (Longman:
Literaturein English Series, 1992)
10. Ricks, Christopher. The Penguin History of English Literature Vol.3.
(Penguin,1993)
11. Roston, Murray. Sixteenth Century English Literature (Macmillan,
1983)
12. Baugh, Albert C. A Literary History Of England, The Restoration and
Eighteenth Century (1660-1789), 2nd Edition, (London, Routledge
and KeganPaul, 1967)
13. Clifford, James L. Ed. Eighteenth Century English Literature: Modern
Essays in Criticism(OUP, 1959)
14. Craig, Hardin. Ed. A History of English Literature Series.
Literature of theRestoration and the Eighteenth Century 1660-
1798.Vol III (London, Macmillan, 1969)
15. Ford, Boris. Ed. The Pelican Guide To English Literature: From
Dryden to Johnson, Vol.4, (Penguin, 1982) & From Blake to Byron,
Vol.5, (Penguin, 1982)
16. Jack, Ian. Augustan Satire: Intention and Idiom in English Poetry
1660-1750(OUP, 1978)
17. Roger. The Penguin History of English Literature: Dryden toJohnson.
Vol.4, (Penguin, 1993)
18. Probyn, Clive T.English Fiction of The Eighteenth Century 1700-
1789(Longman Literature in English Series, 1987)
19. Novak, Maximillian E. Eighteenth Century English Literature,
(Macmillan,1983)
20. Sambrook, James.The Eighteenth Century: The Intellectual and
Cultural Context of English Literature 1700-1789. (Longman
Literature in EnglishSeries, 1986)
21. Sutherland, James. A Preface to Eighteenth Century Poetry, (OUP,
1975).
Syllabus Prepared by:
Dr. Marie Fernandes, St. Andrew’s College Convener
Dr. Sr. Ananda Amritmahal, Sophia College Member
Dr./Prof. Sumali Bose, NES Ratnam College Member

Prof. Mythili Mukund, Maharshi Dayanand College : Member
Dr. Bharat Tupere, SRM College, Kudal : MemberProf.
Suresh Sutar, Dr. Tatyasaheb Natu College : Member

1
BACKGROUND AND IMPORTANT
CONCEPTS – THE RESTORATION
PERIOD (1660 – 1700) - I
Unit Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 The Restoration Period or the Age of Dryden (1660 -1700)
1.3 Conclusion
1.4 Check Your Progress
1.5 Bibliography
1.0 OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this unit are:
● To make the students familiar with the Neo-Classical Age
● To enable the students to understand the contribution of various writers to the

development of literature of Neo-Classical Age
● To introduce the students with socio-economic, political, historical and

intellectual background of the Age of Dryden
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The period between 1660 – 1798: This period in English litterature can be
divided into three periods – i) The Restoration Period or the Age of Dryden
(1660 -1700), ii) The Augustan Period or the Age of Pope (1700 – 1745) and iii)
The Age of Johnson (1745 – 1798). This age was preceded by the Renaissance
and followed by the Romantic Age.
1.2 THE RESTORATION PERIOD OR THE AGE OF

DRYDEN (1660-1700)
1.2.1 Background to the Restoration Period: To understand the importance
and impact of the Restoration Period on British history and literature we must go
back in time from 1649 to 1660 which is known as the Commonwealth Period or
the Puritan Interregnum. Between 1642 and 1651, the then king, Charles I, fought
three civil wars against the supporters of the Parliament. The reason for these
1
wars was the reckless and wasteful behavior of the upper classes, encroachment
16th to 18thCentury English
of civil and constitutional rights of the common people by the King and
Literature - II
disagreements among the people about religion and worship. In 1649, the
Parliamentarians won and the Stuart monarch Charles I was executed. The
execution of Charles I marked the beginning of Republican rule and the
formation of the Commonwealth under the leadership of Oliver Cromwell, which
lasted for eleven years until the restoration of Charles II to the throne. During the
Commonwealth Rule Puritanism became a political, religious, social, and moral
force. The Puritans were morally upright, God-fearing, and spiritual but at the
same time denounced science and arts. With their stern, morose, and narrow
outlook, the Puritans neglected the beauty of life and tried to confine the arts and
literature within limits of their own interests. They shut down the public theatres
on moral, religious, and political grounds in 1942 and thus drama disappeared
from England for nearly eighteen years. Poetry and other prose writings too were
censored. These acts of the Puritans almost sounded the death knell for arts and
literature and the few gems, which shone on the literary scene, were John Milton,
the representative poet, politician and prose writer, metaphysical poets like Henry
Vaughan, Abraham Cowley, Andrew Marvell, John Donne, and prose writers
like Sir Thomas Browne, Thomas Fuller, Jeremy Taylor and Izzak Walton.
After the death of Oliver Cromwell in 1658, his successors could not govern
effectively, and the instability resulted in the restoration of Charles II to the
throne in 1960 and the beginning of the Restoration Period in British politics and
literature.
The Restoration Period in the British history begins with the restoration of the
Stuart King Charles II to the throne of England in 1660 and lasts up to 1700.
Politically it includes the reign of King Charles II (1660 to 1685), King James II
(1685 to 1688) and even Queen Anne (1701 to 1714). As a period in British
literature, the Restoration gave rise to the drama in the form of Restoration
comedy and heroic drama, Neoclassical poetry with its focus on satire and mock
heroic became popular, and the beginning of the novel form and professional
writing. The Restoration period also saw the beginning of journalism, diary
writing, and modern criticism.
The important writers of this age were John Dryden, the representative poet,
satirist, essayist, and dramatist (the Restoration period is also known as the Age
of Dryden in British literature), poets Samuel Butler and John Oldham, prose
writers John Bunyan, Sir William Temple, John Locke, diarists Samuel Pepys
and John Evelyn, and dramatists William Wycherley and William Congreve.
1.2.2 Major events of the Restoration Period and their impact on

literature –
The restoration of King Charles II to the throne of England brought sweeping

political and social changes in the English society. There was a strong backlash
against the Puritans who had supported the execution of Charles I and the
Royalists who supported the monarchy and Charles II rejected the unwise
restraints, as well as moral ideals, virtues, and decorum of Puritan society.
2
Everything the Puritans represented was denounced and laughed at and this went Background and Important
to such extremes that social behavior particularly in the court became indecent Concepts – The Restoration
and vulgar. Charles II, who had developed an interest in the French and Spanish Period (1660 – 1700) - I
literature during his exile, considered himself a patron of arts and sciences.
His personality and likes-dislikes, and his love for leisure and indulgence
permeated within society, particularly in the narrow circles of his court and
aristocracy. William Henry Hudson in his book, An Outline History of English
Literature, writes that, “England now touched the low-water mark in its social
history. The court of Charles II was the most shameless this country has ever
known; infidelity and profligacy became fashionable; …… the spirit of
corruption spread far and wide, and while piety and goodness were cherished
among individuals, the general lowering of the moral tone was everywhere
apparent.” (Page 93)
1.2.2.1 Founding of the Royal Society: Charles II sponsored the Royal society
which was founded on 28 November 1660. The member scientists and
philosophers met to promote scientific thought in everyday life and challenge
traditional knowledge based on faith and religion. This was also the beginning of
the Enlightenment which paved the way for the emphasis on reason and logic.
The members gathered to discuss, explain, criticize, and publish their thoughts
and discoveries in scientific papers. These papers were available to the general
public and were in a language easily understood by all, and hence had a deep
impact on the language and literature of those times.
1.2.2.2 Impact on Literature: It is important to note that literature reflects the

society, and the writers of the Restoration period followed the lead of their king
and emphasized on leisure and indulgence. The general trend of both poetry and
prose was towards satire, argument, spectacular and gimmick. Its focus was on
reason, intellect and attention to form, and the subject matter for both poetry and
prose was social life and manners, politics, and religion.
A new prose style was developed during this period, which marked the birth of
modern English prose. The Restoration literature is intellectual, lucid and easy to
understand due to short simple sentence structures, and plain without poetic
imagination and expression. The poetry during this period is also more prosaic
with definite form like the heroic couplet and is the vehicle for satire and
argument instead of philosophy, imagination, or emotion. The noted thinkers and
their works which brought about this new style of prose were John Locke,
philosopher physician who wrote the Essay Concerning Human Understanding
(1690) which became the foundation of Empirical and scientific thought in
England, the astronomer, architect and founding member of Royal society Sir
Christopher Wren, the theologian and natural philosopher John Wilkins helped to
establish modern English prose, the excellent laboratory chemist and philosopher
Robert Boyle, the physicist and philosopher Sir Isaac Newton who in 1687 wrote
Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy which solved the major problems
posed by the Scientific Revolution in mechanics and cosmology, and the poet
philosopher, politician and modern critic John Dryden.
3
1.2.2.3 Re-opening of the Theatres – Charles II lifted the ban on the theatres
imposed by the Puritan regime and the drama recreated and evolved rapidly. Two
Literature - II
patent companies viz King’s company and the Duke’s company were established,
attractive and luxurious theatres were built with moving scenery, the proscenium
arch was introduced, special effects like the fireworks, lightening, trapdoors,
illusionist paintings, song, dance and music, elaborate costumes and witty dialogs
with sexual innuendos made the Restoration plays spectacular and well-liked by
the audience. The period also saw the appearance of female actors on the stage as
well as professional playwrights like Aphra Behn (the first professional woman
playwright), Dryden, Wycherley, and Congreve.
1.2.2.4 Development of theatre and creation of new genres like heroic

drama, comedy and slapstick bawdy drama called the spectacular which
were peculiar to the Restoration period: This period saw a revival and
reinterpretation of Elizabethan plays, especially Shakespeare plays, and the
borrowed technology, style and ideas from the French opera which created a
genre of English opera or semi-opera. The plots were fast paced, and the
language was witty with lewd undertones. While the heroic dramas celebrated the
aggressively masculine heroes who were a representation of the King as well as
the rebel nobles, the later trend shows a shift towards female central characters or
tragic heroines who were essentially innocent and virtuous women and suffered
through no fault of their own. These dramas were emotional and centered around
the social life, man-woman relationships, money, politics, and religion. The
playwrights wrote without any concern for morality and realistically showed the
corruption, drinking, and gambling prevalent in the society. They wrote without
any restraints and intended to shock the audiences. The language used by them
was appropriate for the new kind of public which consisted of the aristocracy,
their servants, the lower classes, and a growing middle class.
1.2.2.5 Beginning of Journalism - Newspapers, Periodicals and Coffee

houses: During the Restoration period, political views were communicated to the
public through pamphlets like The News and The Observator published by
Robert L’Estrange. The beginning of professional journalism in England started
in the Restoration period in the late seventeenth century with Henry Muddiman’s
London Gazette in 1665 which is published even now and John Dunton’s The
Athenian Mercury which ran successfully from 1690 to 1697. These periodicals
printed the news from the royal court, political views and amusing questions and
answers concerning health, love, and bizarre topics. The papers sold well and set
the stage for serious political journalism in later years.
The Restoration period also saw the growth of coffee houses as places to meet,
discuss, gossip and debate on politics. The first coffee house opened in 1650 at
Oxford and by 1683 there were over two thousand coffee houses in London!
These places were frequented by political figures, professionals like lawyers,
doctors etc., thinkers, philosophers, scientists, intellectuals, members of the
aristocracy, journalists as well as people from the middle and lower classes. The
atmosphere was level and each person irrespective of his class and status could
have a say.
4
1.2.2.6 Development of ‘Modern’ Prose: The patrons who frequented the Background and Important
coffee houses attracted journals, pamphlets, periodicals, national and foreign Concepts – The Restoration
newspapers, and other publications. Supported by education policies and meeting Period (1660 – 1700) - I
places like the coffee houses, a large body of general readers grew which were
not only aristocrats or learned people, but they were people from all walks of life.
The writers now had to cater to the miscellaneous reading public and hence the
prose changed to being simple, easy to understand by all and entertaining. Thus,
the readers and writers appeared together on the literary scene and influenced
each other. Moreover, the Restoration period was a time of intense political and
religious upheaval and hence a lot of literature to that effect was published and
discussed upon. The prose, thus, broke away from the earlier style and with its
clear, short, plain, and direct style became the ‘modern’ prose that we know
today.
1.2.3 Literary Characteristics of the Restoration Period: As discussed in the

earlier sections, the restoration of Charles II made the royal court the center of
politics, religion, and literature. The writers wrote to please the monarch and
flattery and eulogy became the literary style. The society was divided into the
supporters of the king (royalists) and the opposition party (dissidents) and
political literature flourished as each party engaged in propaganda. The writers
used satire to spread their political views and attacks on opposing parties and
individuals, was very common. The scientific temperament fostered common
sense and intelligence and literature became hard and unsympathetic, lacking
imagination, emotion, and spirituality.
1.2.3.1 Imitation of ancient Greek, Roman and French Classics: Moody and
Lovett in their History of English Literature point out that,”... in the greater part
of the Restoration period there was awareness of the limitations of human
experience, without faith in the extension of the resources. There was the
disposition to accept such limitations, to exploit the potentialities of a strictly
human world.” The writers, particularly the poets, looked up to the Greek
classics as models of excellence and imitated their rhyme and rules.
The king, Charles II was inspired by French culture and literature and hence
French tastes and ideas of art became popular in England. W H Hudson
comments that during those times French literature was “characterized
particularly by lucidity, vivacity, and -by reason of the close attention given to
form – correctness, elegance and finish.” The English writers found a model and
accordingly developed a prose and verse which was of the polite society, and
followed principles of regularity, order and intelligence instead of spontaneity
and imagination.
1.2.3.2 Realism: Restoration writers were preoccupied by the urban life in the
cities and towns as well as the drama of royal court. Social behavior, manners,
vices, and virtues were realistically depicted by the writers. They laid stress on
correctness and appropriateness of feeling and moderate behavior adhering to
strict rules of prose and poetry (heroic couplet – explained in the following
sections)
5
1.2.3.3 Rise of Neo-classicism: The Restoration poets made a clean break from
the earlier metaphysical poetry which was of personal nature and concerned itself
Literature - II
with lofty subject matter of platonic love, philosophy, and the human condition.
The Restoration poetry was more realistic and concerned itself with the current
society, it applied to reason and used clear lucid language. Poetry was no longer
lofty and spiritual but became prosaic (like prose), public in nature and a vehicle
for argument and satire.
1.2.3.4 Development of New Genres: The Restoration writers developed and

perfected new genres like satire and mock-heroic poetry, heroic couplet, comedy
of manners and heroic tragedy. The poets John Dryden and Samuel Butler are
responsible for the poetic development in the Restoration period.
Dryden’s Absalom and Achitophel and Butler’s Hudibras are excellent
examples of satirical verses on the current political situation. Long fictions and
fictional biographies were the beginnings of novels in this period and the noted
prose writer and dramatist is Aphra Behn, the first professional female novelist.
Her most famous novel was Oroonoko in 1688 which was a fictional biography,
published as a “true history”, of an African king who had been enslaved
in Suriname. The comedy of manners was a unique theatrical genre of the period
which had a combination of satire, and humor with hilarious bawdy language. It
poked fun and ridiculed the social customs and behavior of the people and it
reflected the atmosphere of the court. The main themes were love, marital
relationships, sexual intrigue which appealed to middle-class and lower middle-
class elements. The heroic dramas were tragedies which had dashing male heroes
and the pathetic tragedies had virtuous and innocent heroines who suffered due to
patriarchy. Diarists Samuel Pepys and Evelyn’s honest and masterly accounts of
the Restoration and the coronation of King Charles II, the horrors of the plague,
and the Great Fire of London give us a complete documentation of the various
aspects of the everyday life of a seventeenth-century intellectual.
1.2.3.5 Restoration Poetry – (Epic, Mock epic, and Satire): Restoration poetry
is different in form to its earlier times because it is public in nature instead of
personal. The poets had the ambition to be read and also to please their audience.
Hence, they paid a lot of attention to form, sound of words, and clear/ lucid
method to convey their thoughts to their readers and listeners. The Heroic/
closed couplet became the main feature because a complete idea could be
presented in two lines of verse which rhymed together. Consider Alexander
Pope’s famous lines:
‘To err is human, to forgive divine’
This kind of couplet was used in heroic poetry or epic poetry by Greek and
Roman masters like Homer, Virgil and later Chaucer, Milton, and others. The
noted Restoration poet John Dryden perfected the heroic couplet and the later
Neo-classical poets like Alexander Pope used it to the extreme which led to its
downfall and paved the way for spontaneity and emotion of Romantic poetry.
Epic - The love for Greek classics like Iliad and Odyssey, Roman classic Aeneid,
French epic Roland’s Song inspired the Restoration poets to write a national epic
6
for England. An epic is a long heroic poem which is serious in nature, has a lofty Background and Important
elevated style and is centered on a heroic or semi-divine figure on whose actions Concepts – The Restoration
depend the fate of the nation or human race. Milton wrote Paradise Lost in 1667 Period (1660 – 1700) - I
and the later poets like Sir William Davenant and John Dryden attempted to write
epics using the ballad form and the heroic couplet respectively.
1.2.3.6 Mock Epic and Satire: The aesthetic imitation of the Restoration poets
merged into parody and burlesque to create brilliant mock-epics. A mock epic or
a mock heroic poem has an elaborate form and lofty style of an epic but uses it to
narrate a very trivial subject matter. A burlesque and a parody imitate the form
and style of a serious literary work to make it amusing by showing the ridiculous
disparity between the matter and the style in which it is presented. The closed
couplet form of poetry was very well suited for satire as it was easy to build
logical arguments in two-line format and the end rhymes made the poem easy to
recite in public.
Mock epics, parodies and burlesques are forms of satire which gained importance
during the Restoration. The society was divided into groups along political and
religious lines, and satire was an important tool to ridicule and criticize each
other. The mock epics were better suited to the language, style and the spirit of
the Restoration period and it prepared the ground for the growth of modern prose
form of novel and modern realism. The first literary political satire and mock
epic was Dryden’s Mac Flecknoe. Dryden elevates a bad poet (Mac Flecknoe) to
the status of Emperor Augustus and narrates the imaginary coronation of a dull
poet. Through this satirical poem Dryden attacks the poet T S Shadwell. A satire
on Puritans, Hudibras was written by Samuel Butler in three parts from 1663 to
1678. It was styled on the Spanish burlesque romance Don Quixote and ridicules
the representatives of Puritanism, Sir Hudibras and his attendant Ralpho.
1.2.3.7 Restoration Drama – (Comedy of Manners, Heroic Tragedy): The

theatre began to flourish in the Restoration period as it received the King’s
patronage and funds to establish drama companies and theatres. King Charles II
had a passion for French drama and in England it was re-interpreted into semi-
operas with singing and dancing along with special effects. Dryden’s critique on
drama Essay of Dramatic Poesy (1667) discusses the merits of ancient Greek and
Latin drama, French classical drama, and the English Elizabethan dramas of
Shakespeare and Ben Jonson.
The main types of Restoration dramas are i) Heroic tragedy and ii) Comedy of
manners.
1.2.3.7.1 Heroic Drama/ Tragedy: This was a popular form where love,
gallantry and courage were shown on a larger-than-life scale. It was a fusion of
drama, melodrama, romance and opera inspired from the ancient Greek theatre
and French classics. These plays were also called histories or tragedies though
they were not necessarily sad. John Dryden was the master of this form, and he
wrote heroic dramas in verse which had kings, queens, and important persons
who battled for the possession of the crown and other grand objectives. These
7
plays were male dominated and showed their glories and conquests and the
audience could see the King and nobles reflected in these characters.
Literature - II
Dryden’s idea of heroic drama written in verse (heroic couplet form) was an
imitation of the heroic epic and accordingly he gave three rules for the heroic
drama - First, the play should be composed in heroic verse (closed couplets in
iambic pentameter). Second, the play must focus on a subject that pertains to
national foundations, mythological events, or important and grand matters. Third,
the hero of the heroic drama must be powerful and decisive. Dryden’s most
important heroic plays written in verse are The Conquest of Granada (1676),
Aureng-Zebe (1676), and All for Love (1678, an adaptation of Shakespeare’s
Antony and Cleopatra). Other heroic dramatists were Nathaniel Lee and Thomas
Otway.
1.2.3.7.2 Comedy of Manners: This was a popular genre which combined

realism, satire and humor to question and ridicule the manners and conventions
of the so called sophisticated but artificial society. These plays were written in
prose and sometimes combined tragedy with comedy in a way that showed the
imperfections, frailties, and vices of human nature with comic entertainment. The
comedy of manners as a genre is not new because the Greek and Roman satirists
were known to stage comedies during the Renaissance and Shakespeare and the
French playwrights like Moliere popularized them in the 17thcentury. During the
Restoration period the comedy of manners reflected the atmosphere of King
Charles II’s court and celebrated the loose morals and aristocratic lifestyle. The
early Restoration comedy playwrights are John Dryden, William Wycherley,
and George Etherege whose unsentimental comedies were popular due to their
witty dialogs with sexual undertones. For example The Earl of Rochester, real-
life Restoration rake, courtier and poet, is flatteringly portrayed in
Etherege's Man of Mode (1676) as a riotous, witty, intellectual, and sexually
irresistible aristocrat. The later plays of the 1690s written by William Congreve
and John Vanbrugh were mindful of the changing times and took into
consideration the middle-class or socially miscellaneous audience and hence
focused on marriage, money, and intrigue. Congreve’s The Way of the World
(1700) is an excellent example of the later Restoration comedy of manners.
1.2.3.8 Diary Writing: Diaries written in the Restoration period are an important
part of literary development not only as a genre but also as recordings of
historical events. Samuel Pepys (1620 -1706) and John Evelyn (1633-1703) were
noted diarists who honestly and masterfully recorded their lives, beliefs, careers,
and the society in which they lived. Both were friends and members of the Royal
Society and mention each other in their diaries. Pepys was an important figure in
the Royal Navy, and was a keen observer and witness to Charles II’s coronation,
the Great Fire of London in 1666, the plague 1665, and to the wars that England
fought with the Dutch. He started writing his diary in 1960 and wrote for nine
years. The manuscript diary was bound in handsome volumes and included as
part of the library that Pepys gave to Magdalene College, Cambridge, his alma
mater. It was discovered in the early nineteenth century and translated, edited,
8
and published. Pepys’ style of writing is personal, frank and he reveals himself as Background and Important
an ordinary human being with virtues and frailties. Concepts – The Restoration
Period (1660 – 1700) - I
Evelyn was a cultivated gentleman who travelled in France and Italy as well as in
England and later held a variety of public positions. He writes about travel,
architecture, the arts of life and science experiments and discoveries during his
time. He writes about the first blood transfusion and about his ideas for
rebuilding the destroyed areas during the Great Fire of London in 1666. His
interests in architecture and the welfare of the people are seen in his plans for
improvement of its streets and buildings and purifying its air of factory smoke.
His diary also provides an insight into the deep influence of religion on the day-
to-today life of people. Evelyn wrote from 1641, at the age of twenty-one till his
death in 1703.
Both men saw the Restoration period through their own perspectives and through
their diaries bring to life the Restoration period in a very engaging and masterful
manner.
1.2.4 Important Writers and their Works would be helpful to understand

the style and content of the Restoration period and the literature which reflects it.
● John Dryden, the most noted poet of this period, was a supporter of
monarchy as he wrote two poems, “To His Sacred Majesty: A Panegyrick on
His Coronation” and “Astraea Redux: A Poem on the Happy Restoration and
Return of His Sacred Majesty Charles the Second” to celebrate the
restoration of Charles II.
● Dryden's (“Mac Flecknoe” and “Absalom and Achitophel”) and Butler’s

(“Hudibras”) political satires in verse helped popularize “mock heroic”
poetry.
● John Locke's “Essay Concerning Human Understanding” was an important

political tract which later influenced the American Revolution.
● John Evelyn and Samuel Pepys wrote diaries which are a record of personal
life and events and provide a unique and realistic view of the English society
of those times.
● Dryden’s “Essay on Dramatic Poesy” established him as the first modern

critic.
● The corruption, love for scandal and infidelity of the society are themes of
the Restoration comedy plays and William Congreve's ”Love for Love” and
William Wycherley's comedy ”The Country Wife“ are excellent examples of
the comedy of manners.
● The influence of French literature is seen on the plays of Dryden and

Wycherley. William Wycherley's “The Plain-Dealer” is based on Molière's
French comedy “The Misanthrope”. John Dryden’s play “An Evening's
Love” is borrowed from Molière's French play “The Love-Tiff”.
● John Milton’s “Paradise Lost” and John Bunyan’s “Pilgrim’s Progress”

reflect the religious thought of their times.
9
16th to 18thCentury English 1.3 CONCLUSION
Literature - II
The above discussion shows that the Restoration Age in English literature
brought in quite different features as with his restoration to the English throne,
King Charles II had supported the same kind of arts including literature with
which he was familiar. This resulted in changing the overall approach of the
artists towards their arts that further led to alter the taste of the receivers of those
different art forms. In literature, the new forms of poetry and drama evolved that
catered to the tastes of the new audience.
1.4 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Name two important political satires of the Restoration Period.
2. What was the impact of re-opening of the theatres on literature?
3. Name any two literary characteristics of the Restoration period.
1.5 BIBILOGRAPHY
● Dryden, John (originally published in 1670). Of Heroic Plays, an Essay (The
preface to The Conquest of Granada), in The Works of John Dryden, Volume
04 (of 18) from Project Gutenberg. Prepared from Walter Scott's edition.
Retrieved 18 June 2005.
● Dryden, John. Discourses on Satire and Epic Poetry, from Project Gutenberg,
prepared from the 1888 Cassell & Company edition. This volume contains
“A Discourse on the Original and Progress of Satire”, prefixed to The Satires
of Juvenal, Translated (1692) and “A Discourse on Epic Poetry”, prefixed to
the translation of Virgil's Aeneid (1697). Retrieved 18 June 2005.
● Holman, C. Hugh and Harmon, William (eds.) (1986). A Handbook to

Literature. New York: Macmillan Publishing.
● Howe, Elizabeth (1992). The First English Actresses: Women and Drama
1660–1700. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
● Hume, Robert D. (1976). The Development of English Drama in the Late

Seventeenth Century. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
● Hunt, Leigh (ed.) (1840). The Dramatic Works of Wycherley, Congreve,

Vanbrugh and Farquhar.
● Miller, H. K., G. S. Rousseau and Eric Rothstein, The Augustan Milieu:

Essays Presented to Louis A. Landa (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1970).
● Milhous, Judith (1979). Thomas Betterton and the Management of Lincoln's

Inn Fields 1695–1708. Carbondale, Illinois: Southern Illinois University
Press.
● Porter, Roy (2000). The Creation of the Modern World. New York: W. W.
Norton.
10
● Roots, Ivan (1966). The Great Rebellion 1642–1660. London: Sutton & Background and Important
Sutton. Concepts – The Restoration
Period (1660 – 1700) - I
● Rosen, Stanley (1989). The Ancients and the Moderns: Rethinking
Modernity. Yale UP.
● Sloane, Eugene H. Robert Gould: seventeenth century satirist. Philadelphia:

U Pennsylvania Press, 1940.
● Tillotson, Geoffrey and Fussell, Paul (eds.) (1969). Eighteenth-Century

English Literature. New York: Harcourt, Brace, and Jovanovich.
● Todd, Janet (2000). The Secret Life of Aphra Behn. London: Pandora Press.
● Ward, A. W, & Trent, W. P. et al. (1907–21). The Cambridge History of

English and American Literature. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons. Retrieved
11 June 2005.
❖❖❖❖
11
2
BACKGROUND AND IMPORTANT
CONCEPTS - NEO-CLASSICAL AGE
(1700 – 1798) - II
Unit Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 The Augustan Period / Age of Pope (1700 – 1745)
2.3 The Age of Johnson (1745 – 1798)
2.5 References
2.0 OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this unit are:
● To make the students familiar with the Neo-Classical Age
● To enable the students to understand the contribution of various writers to the

development of literature of Neo-Classical Age
● To introduce the students with socio-economic, political, historical and

intellectual background of the Neo-Classical Age
2.1 INTRODUCTION
As mentioned in the previous unit, Neo-Classical Age is divided in three distinct
periods and as the first period known as Age of Dryden is discussed above, here
an attempt is made to discuss remaining two periods namely, Age of Pope and
Age of Johnson.
2.2 THE AUGUSTAN PERIOD/ THE AGE OF POPE

(1700 – 1745)
This Age of English literature is called the ‘Augustan’ after the Roman Emperor
Augustus (27 BC – AD 14) when brilliant poets like Virgil, Horace and Ovid
flourished. The writers of the 18thcentury from 1700 to 1745 imitated the
subjects, styles and importance to reason, intellect, moderation, decorum and
social concerns of the classical Latin writers and saw themselves as parallels to
the Augustan writers. The important Augustan writer was Alexander Pope who is
11
the representative of his Age and hence the name ‘Age of Pope’. The other
important 18thcentury writers were Jonathan Swift, Joseph Addison, Daniel
Literature - II
Defoe, and Lady Montagu.
2.2.1 Characteristics of the Augustan Period –
2.2.1.1 Desire for moral improvement in the society – The English people
were becoming sick of the corruption and licentious behavior of the higher
classes and desired a decency and morality in public life. The hatred for Puritan
censorship and fanaticism remained and the earnestness and mysticism of the
preceding Elizabethan Age was also disliked. The society was divided along the
political and religious lines in a similar manner of the Restoration times.
2.2.1.2 Influence of Materialism and Scientific Empiricism – The thought of

the Augustan age is shaped by thinkers, philosophers and scientists who
supported and strengthened by the advancement of empirical science. The idea
that all facts related to human mind, will and history are dependent on physical
processes and human experience is the only source of knowledge, made Pope
declare the limits of man and the artist as well.
“Know then thyself, presume not God to scan

The proper study of mankind is man!”
Dr. Merin Simi Raj concludes that “Under the influence of empirical philosophy
and experimental science, writers of the age narrowed both their vision of man
and view of life. The affairs of men, their politics, their morals, and manners
became the chief concern.”
2.2.1.3 Love for human nature – Augustan poetry like its predecessor the
Restoration poetry is ‘town’ poetry, and its subject matter is limited to society
and its culture. The rural and humble aspects of life, passion and emotions, nature
as in trees, rivers, landscapes are completely ignored.
2.2.1.4 Extreme devotion to form – The classical form of Greek and Latin
poetry was applied to all subject matters creating a stereotype of highly artificial
style of poetry. The constant and repetitive use of closed couplet made the poetry
monotonous, narrow, and inflexible. During the Restoration times, the classical
form and heroic/ closed couplet were admired because they were new and apt for
their time but now, they created a false sense of refinement, and the naturalness
and simplicity of expression was lost.
2.2.1.5 Didactic and Satiric style of poetry – The Augustans used poetry as a
vehicle for argument, intellect, and reason and hence their poetry is mainly
didactic (intended to teach) and satiric in nature. It lacked imagination and
emotion. The poets distrusted anything to do with emotions, chivalry, idealism
and hence broke away from Elizabethan literary style. Pope, the representative
poet of this age, had no depth of feeling nor imaginative power but his ‘wit’,
craftsmanship, cleverness, and the perfection of his closed couplet was and still is
admired.
12
2.2.1.6 Rise of prose in the form of fictional biographies, prose satires, Background and Important
periodical essays, and sentimental comedy plays – Daniel Defoe’s fictional Concepts - Neo-Classical
biographies like Robinson Crusoe and Moll Flanders became popular as he Age (1700 – 1798) - II
narrated fictional stories as if they were true! His prose was easy to read and
colloquial and contributed to the development of the novel in future. Jonathan
Swift’s Gulliver’s Travels were not only children’s books but brilliant satires on
English politics and the human condition. Addison and Steele’s periodical essays
contributed to the development of taste for good English literature through good
humor, wit, satire, and common sense. This period also saw the development of
sentimental comedy drama which had characters from ordinary life and was
genteel and didactic in style. This was a break away from the earlier bawdy
comedy of manners during the Restoration period. The character sketches in the
periodicals by Addison and Steele and the plots of the fictional biographies of
Defoe were precursors to the novel.
2.2.1.7 Rise of the literate middle class – The writers of the age showed the
power of middle-class moral spirit, and the subject matter was related to the
common people and their concerns instead of heroic tales and historical or divine
figures. This change came because the prose writers themselves belonged to the
middle classes or professions. For example, Daniel Defoe was the son of a
butcher and worked as hosier, tile factor, tradesman, government spy, printer etc.
Swift was a vicar and a pamphleteer, and Addison was a soldier and politician.
The early 18thcentury saw education reaching the working classes and women
which directly resulted in an increased readership which was further encouraged
by circulating libraries in the Augustan Age.
2.2.2 Age of Satire – The Augustan Age can be called as Age of Satire because it
was omnipresent in all forms of writing, and political and religious debates.
Alexander Pope, Jonathan Swift, and John Gay formed the School of Satire in the
Scribbler’s Club. Swift developed a new style of satire where he combined satire
with irony and parody and while skillfully adopting an art to say one thing in
order to convey something else. Swift wrote prose and poetry and through his
satires made scathing attacks on society. His prose satires Tale of a Tub (1703 –
1705) and Gulliver’s Travels (1726) are very well appreciated by readers and
critics. Tale of a Tub was designed to show the corruptions of modern
Christianity while Gulliver’s Travels was a mix of autobiography, allegory, and
philosophy with satire. It is a critique of human vanity and pride. “Book one, the
journey to Lilliput, begins with the world as it is. Book two shows that the
idealized nation of Brobdingnag with a philosopher king is no home for a
contemporary Englishman. Book four depicts the land of the Houyhnhnms, a
society of horses ruled by pure reason, where humanity itself is portrayed as a
group of "yahoos" covered in filth and dominated by base desires. It shows that,
indeed, the very desire for reason may be undesirable, and humans must struggle
to be neither Yahoos nor Houyhnhnms, for book three shows what happens when
reason is unleashed without any consideration of morality or utility (i.e. madness,
ruin, and starvation).” (source Wikipedia https: //en.wikipedia. org/wiki/
Augustan_literature)
13
The Augustan poetry was dominated by Alexander Pope and mock epics and
satires. His masterpiece is The Rape of the Lock (1712) is written in mock epic
Literature - II
style using the closed couplet. It depicts an incident in which a certain nobleman
Lord Petre cut a lock of hair of a beautiful young woman, Arabella, which led to
a quarrel between the two families. This trivial occurrence is handled with all the
dignity and seriousness of an epic which creates a parody. Pope’s aim was to
settle the disagreement between the families by showing the trivial nature of the
quarrel. Pope’s The Dunciad was a long and elaborate satire on his
contemporaries whom he called bad and dull poets. His inspiration was Dryden’s
Mac Flecknoe written in the Restoration period.
2.2.3 Rise of the Periodical Essay and the Novel –
Periodical Essays - In the 18thcenturythe important names associated with the

periodical essays were Joseph Addison (1672 – 1719) and Sir Richard Steele
(1673 – 1729). Addison was a soldier politician while Steele was a diplomat.
While Steele was modern, easy-going, and sympathetic, Addison was urbane and
of refined tastes in literature. They became famous as essayists and founded the
daily publication The Spectator in 1711 which continued till Dec 1712.
The essays of Addison and Steele are important in developing a sense of decency
and love for good literature in Augustan society. They avoided sweeping
condemnations and wrote in fairness to all viewpoints. Their criticism used
humor and ridicule to criticize the social vices. They wrote about English
manners and social and domestic conduct in order to popularize English culture.
Their subject matter ranged from poetry, drama, philosophy to art in an engaging
and easy to understand manner thus educating the general reader and developing
their taste for good literature and art. Their focus on women and their domestic
concerns brought them into social and intellectual spheres. They also created
delightful fictional characters like Mr. Spectator, Roger de Coverley, and Isaac
Bickerstaff which laid the foundation of character writing as a precursor to the
novel.
2.2.4 A few examples of writers and their works would be helpful to

understand the style and content of the Augustan Age/ Age of Pope and the
literature which reflects it –
1704: Jonathan Swift publishes The Battle of the Books and A Tale of the Tub
- witty satires about literature and religion.
1709: Richard Steele founds the periodical The Tatler – beginning of

journalism
1711: Richard Steele and Joseph Addison found The Spectator - a daily
journal
1711: Alexander Pope publishes An Essay on Criticism
1712: Alexander Pope publishes The Rape of the Lock – a mock epic
1714: George I becomes King of England after Queen Anne dies

14
1719: Daniel Defoe publishes Robinson Crusoe – beginning of novel form and Background and Important
realistic writing Concepts - Neo-Classical
Age (1700 – 1798) - II
1726: Jonathan Swift publishes Gulliver's Travels – prose satire
Age of Johnson (1740 to 1798) Begins -
1740: Samuel Richardson publishes Pamela; or Virtue Rewarded – first novel
1744: Alexander Pope dies
2.3 THE AGE OF JOHNSON (1745 – 1798)

This Age is also known as the Age of Sensibility and Transition. It culminated
the Neo-classical tradition of literature and paved the way for the later Romantic
Period. It is known for its prose, particularly the novel form.
2.3.1 Characteristics of the Age of Johnson –
2.3.1.1 Growth of Democracy and spread of humanitarian spirit –

Democracy, literacy and recognition of the individual character and quality of the
human being became important, and it gave way to aristocracy and rigid class
divisions. The French Revolution of 1789 made people familiar to the ideas of
liberty, equality, and fraternity. This freedom and equality changed the mood of
people, giving rise to new ideas which contradicted the artificiality and
superficiality of the Augustan age. The ideas of French philosophers, particularly
Rousseau, influenced the English thinkers bringing sentiment and democratic
principles and paving the path to Romanticism.
2.3.1.2 Growing sympathy for Middle Ages – Use of ballad and folk literature
– development of sentiment and imagination in literature- The Age of Sensibility
focusses on works which have anticlassical features like the old ballads and new
bardic poetry. They moved away from heroic and epic poetry as well as satire.
Some fiction examples from the Age of Sensibility include Laurence
Stern’s Tristram Shandy (1759) and Henry Mackenzie’s The Man of
Feeling (1771). The poetry of William Collins, William Cowper, Thomas Gray,
and Christopher Smart are also attributed to the Age of Sensibility.
2.3.1.3 Foundation of English Lexicography/ compilation of dictionaries –

Samuel Johnson, for whom this period is known, undertook the immense task of
compiling A Dictionary of English Language for a period of eight years from
1747 to 1755. Though this was a definite and expert dictionary, it laid the
foundation of English lexicography, and it also gave him financial
independence.
2.3.1.4 Development of historical and political prose – The best writings in the
field of history and on English history were done in the Age of Johnson. David
Hume wrote The history of England, William Robertson wrote The history of
Scotland, History of Charles V, and The history of America. Edward Gibbon’s
History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire is praised by the critics as a
15
historical masterpiece. Edmund Burke’s and Thomas Paine’s political writings
brought about new ideas and passion, morality and earnestness to politics.
Literature - II
2.3.1.5 Development of letter writing as an important form of prose – Lady
Mary Wortley Montagu, Philip Dormer Stanhope, the Earl of Chesterfield and
Horace Walpole are important names in the art of letter writing. These writers
developed their own unique style of prose, and their letters are chronicles of
history, politics, social manners, gossips, manuals of polite behavior and travels.
These letters paved the way for the novel in the future.
2.3.1.6 Growth of love for Nature and Development of Naturalism – The

earlier Restoration poetry or Neo-classical poetry was predominantly ‘town’
poetry, but in the 18thcentury the poets revived the love for nature and wrote
about the English and Scottish landscapes, shepherds, and the beauty of nature.
The love for nature further increased the appreciation for the pastoral and
reflected the contrast between nature and artificiality of civilization. It also
focused on the simplicity of subject matter, language and realism of nature.
2.3.2 Rise of the Novel - The Novel as a form came from the mixture of two
literary forms existing before it viz the epic and the romance. The epic was
written in verse form with a considerable length. The storyteller in the epic
narrated a traditional story which was a mixture of myth, history, and fiction and
its heroes were gods and goddesses or extraordinary men and women. Excellent
examples of classical Indian epics of are Mahabharata and Ramayana, Persian
epic Shahnameh, Greek epics Iliad and the Odyssey. The central idea of an epic
was to depict the highest morals upheld by society in those times and the identity
of a nation and its culture.
Romance like the epic, also told a story of chivalry and love with larger-than-life
characters in verse. The main idea in Romance was the pursuit of an ideal.
Romances were full of tales of duty, courage, boldness, battles, and rescues of
damsels in distress. The events narrated in a romance were the symbols of primal
desires, hopes, and terrors of the human mind and very much similar to the
dreams, myths, and rituals. Some examples of classic romances are ‘Sir Gawain
and the Green Knight’ ‘The Count of Monte Christo’, ‘Jane Eyre’ ‘Rebecca’,
‘Dushyant Shakuntala’, ‘Nala Damayanti’.
2.3.2.1 Historical Antecedents of the Novel - Historically the epics can be

traced back roughly to 400 BC in India when ‘Mahabharata’ was written and 612
BC when ‘The Epics of Gilgamesh’ was written. Later in the 12thcentury the
French romances became popular, and the subjects of the epics shifted from
moral tales of Gods and goddesses to the knights and ladies of the courts with
their adventures filled with chivalry, love, magic, mystery, and enchantment. In
the 13 th century, the Italian writer Boccaccio started writing in prose and his
‘Decameron’ which was an adventure story written in prose influenced many
notable writers like Malory and Chaucer. Hence Italy is considered as the home
of the novel form. The 16thand the 17thcentury saw a growth in the novel form
with new styles in writing like burlesques which made fun of romantic heroes.
The Spanish writer Miguel De Cervantes wrote ‘Don Quixote’ where the knight
16
instead of fighting against giants and dragons fights with windmills! The Background and Important
picaresque style of writing was also made popular by Spanish writers where the Concepts - Neo-Classical
hero was a rogue or a rascal! Age (1700 – 1798) - II
2.3.2.2 The English Novel - By the end of 17thcentury, English writers John
Bunyan and Aphra Behn (first female novelist) had established an important
model of novel writing which had story telling with characterization and
dialogues. The 18thcentury is known as the period when the novel as a form
became distinguished from its predecessors, the epic and romance. The novel
grew and developed to write about real life characters, particularly the middle-
class men and women, instead of giants, dragons and knights rescuing damsels in
distress. The novel also became popular due to the following –
Industrial Revolution – Industries brought machines which made it possible to

work faster and thus provided more free time which could be used by people to
read. The printing press also made it possible to print newspapers, journals,
magazines and books easily at low costs, which made them accessible to all
classes; rich and poor alike. The spread of education created a large reading class
which included children and adults, both men and women.
Declining popularity of romances – The earlier romances told tales of kings and
knights and the rising middle class did not find these stories interesting as they
were far removed from their daily life experiences. They wanted something
which was about them and their lives so the realistic novel written in first person
depicting contemporary issues became popular. In the 17thcentury, the British
parliament closed down the theatres and this resulted in people moving towards
novels in search of entertainment.
Rise of the middle class and women as readers – The work in the factories got
money in the pockets of the people and leisure time to spend that money. The
improved living standards and access to education created a middle class which
was huge market for books. The women too started getting educated, although on
a small scale and became a part of the reading class. Public interest in the human
character led to the popularity of autobiographies, biographies, journals, diaries
and memoirs.
Rise of publishing houses – Earlier the writers had to have patrons who provided
money for publication, but with the printing presses came the business of
publishing which helped the writers eliminating the patrons. The writers now had
control over their own works and could raise money to publish them. Thus, a
career of writing and a business of printing was established.
Mobile libraries – The mobile libraries brought books to the doorstep of the
readers. Thus, easy access and affordable costs made reading popular. The
women readers were the most benefitted as they got access to books easily
without stepping out of their houses.
The early English novels told stories of middle-class people struggling with their
changing moral values and circumstances. Pamela, a series of fictional letters
written in 1741 by Samuel Richardson, is considered the first real English novel.
17
It was an epistolary novel which means the story was narrated in the form of
letters and thus explored what went on in the mind of the character. Pamela and
Literature - II
the later Clarissa can both be described as novels of character or ‘psychological
novels’
Richardson tries to define his idea of a novel as a story “if written in an easy and
natural manner, suitable to the simplicity of it, might possibly introduce a new
species of writing…. Turn young people into course of reading different from the
pomp and parade of romance writing, and tend to promote the cause of religion
and virtue.”
Henry Fielding, the most important novelist of the 18thcentury wrote his
masterpiece Tom Jones (1749) to “expose some of the most glaring evils, as well
public as private, which at present infect the country” (his own words). These
early novelists were the first great writers in our literature who did not take their
plots from mythology, history, legend, or previous literature. They established
the novel as an authentic story of real life experiences of men and women.
The important characteristic of the 18thcentury is growing interest in the Middle

Ages and it resulted in the revival of the Romances which expanded in the
directions of imagination, mysticism, gothic, supernatural and horror. Horace
Walpole’s gothic romance Castle of Otronto (1765), Ann Radcliffe’s The
Mysteries of Udolpho (1794) are excellent examples of gothic fiction.
2.3.4 A few examples of writers and their works would be helpful to

understand the style and content of the Age of Johnson and the literature which
reflects it –
1749: Henry Fielding publishes Tom Jones – 18thcentury masterpiece
1754 – 61: Hume publishes History of England
1755: Samuel Johnson compiles English Dictionary
1765: Walpole publishes Castle of Otranto – first gothic novel
1773: Goldsmith’s drama She Stoops to Conquer is staged
1776-88: Gibbon publishes decline and Fall of the Roman Empire
1783 – 1786: Poems of Blake, Cowper and Byron become popular
1789: Blake publishes Songs of innocence
1798: Wordsworth and Coleridge publish the Lyrical Ballads – Beginning of

Romantic Age
1. Name two characteristics of the Augustan period.

2. What was Addison and Steele’s most important contribution to English
literature?
18
3. Why is the Augustan period called the Age of Satire? Background and Important
4. Give one example of a mock epic by Alexander Pope. Concepts - Neo-Classical
5. Name two reasons for the growth of novel in England. Age (1700 – 1798) - II
6. What was Samuel Johnson’s most important contribution to English
literature?
7. Give two examples of gothic novels
2.5. REFERENCES
1. "Martha Blount". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009.
2. The Life of Alexander Pope, by Robert Carruthers, 1857, with a corrupted

and badly scanned version available from Internet Archive, or as an even
worse 23MB PDF.
3. Zachary Cope (1953) William Cheselden, 1688–1752. Edinburgh: E. & S.

Livingstone, p. 89.
4. Clegg, Gillian. "Chiswick History". People: Alexander Pope.

chiswickhistory.org.uk.
5. London Evening Standard, 2 November 2010.
6. Fox, Robin Lane (23 July 2021). "The secrets and lights of Alexander
Pope's Twickenham grotto". Financial Times.
7. Rogers, Pat (2006). The Major Works. Oxford University Press.
8. Baines, Paul (2001). The Complete Critical Guide to Alexander Pope.

Routledge Publishing.
9. Colin Nicholson (1994). Writing and the Rise of Finance: Capital Satires
of the Early Eighteenth Century, Cambridge.
10. Maynard Mack (1985). Alexander Pope: A Life. W. W. Norton &

Company, and Yale University Press
11. Joseph Spence. Observations, Anecdotes, and Characters of Books and

Men, Collected from the Conversation of Mr. Pope (1820).
12. Alexander Pope. Moral Essays
13. Rogers, Pat (2004). The Alexander Pope encyclopedia. Westport, Conn.:
Greenwood Press.
14. Nuttal, Anthony (1984). Pope's Essay on Man. Allen & Unwin. pp. 3–15,
167–188.
15. Cassirer, Ernst (1944). An Essay on Man; an introduction to a philosophy

of human culture. Yale University Press.
16. McKeown, Trevor W. "Alexander Pope 'Universal Prayer'". bcy.ca.
17. James Sambrook (2004) "Thurston, Joseph Locked (1704–1732)", Oxford

Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press.
18. Ruffhead, Owen (1769). The Life of Alexander Pope; With a Critical Essay
on His Writings and Genius.
19
19. Dyce, Alexander (1863). The Poetical Works of Alexander Pope, with a
16th to 18thCentury English Life, by A. Dyce.
Literature - II
20. Johnson, Samuel (1791). The Lives of the Most Eminent Poets with Critical
Observations on their Works. Vol. IV. London: Printed for J. Rivington &
Sons, and 39 others.
21. Homer (1725–1726). The Odyssey of Homer. Translated by Alexander

Pope; William Broome & Elijah Fenton (1st ed.). London: Bernard Lintot.
22. Fenton, Elijah (1796). The poetical works of Elijah Fenton with the life of
the author. Printed for, and under the direction of, G. Cawthorn, British
Library, Strand.
23. Fraser, George (1978). Alexander Pope. Routledge. p. 52.
24. Damrosch, Leopold (1987). The Imaginative World of Alexander

Pope. University of California Press.
25. Stephen, Sir Leslie (1880). Alexander Pope. Harper & Brothers.
26. "Preface to Shakespeare, 1725, Alexander Pope". ShakespeareBrasileiro.
27. "Lewis Theobald" Encyclopaedia Britannica.
28. Genetic studies of genius by Lewis Madison Terman Stanford University

Press, 1925.
29. "Personhood, Poethood, and Pope: Johnson's Life of Pope and the Search
for the Man Behind the Author" by Mannheimer, Katherine. Eighteenth-
Century Studies - Volume 40, Number 4, Summer 2007, pp. 631-
649 MUSE
30. George Gilfillan (1856) "The Genius and Poetry of Pope", The Poetical
Works of Alexander Pope, Vol. 11.
31. Cox, Michael, editor, The Concise Oxford Chronology of English

Literature, Oxford University Press, 2004.
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20
3
JOHN DRYDEN’S ALL FOR LOVE - I
Unit Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Critical Summary of the Play All for Love
3.0 OBJECTIVES
To make the learners understand:
● The importance of choice that humans have to make and its consequences.
● the features of Heroic drama
● the art of John Dryden
3.1 INTRODUCTION
John Dryden was born on 9 August 1631, Aldwincle, Northampton shire,
England and died 1May1700, London, was an English poet, literary critic,
translator, and playwright who in 1668 was appointed England's first Poet
Laureate.
Restoration drama flourished from 1664 to 1684 and was notably different from
earlier English drama in several important ways. For one, women were allowed
to act on the English stage for the first time. The Restoration period also saw the
rise of women playwrights like Aphra Behn, whose most celebrated play was
The Rover (1677), a comedy of manners involving the sexual and romantic lives
of a group of banished royalist noblemen. Her work is characteristic of the
Restoration period in its emphasis on raunchy dialogue and sexually explicit
content, themes that also typify other well-known Restoration plays like George
Etherege’s The Man of Mode (1676) and William Wycherley’s The Country
Wife (1675). Restoration comedies frequently focused on rakes, virgins,
unfaithful wives, and other stock types, Restoration tragedies—the sort of play
that Dryden was writing—was serious and aimed to imitate European models.
Dryden is seen as dominating the literary life of Restoration England to such a
point that the period came to be known in literary circles as the Age of Dryden.
Romanticist writer Sir Walter Scott called him "Glorious John”. Besides being
the greatest English poet of the later 17th century, Dryden wrote almost 30
tragedies, comedies, and dramatic operas. He also made a valuable contribution
in his commentaries on poetry and drama, which are sufficiently extensive and
original to entitle him to be considered, in the words of Dr. Samuel Johnson, as
“the father of English criticism.” John Dryden was a prolific playwright, creating
heroic plays, political plays, operas, heroic tragedies, comedies, and
tragicomedies; however, he is best remembered for his poetry and criticism, as
many of his plays did not stand the test of time. All for Love; or, the World Well
Lost, is a 1677 heroic drama by John Dryden which is now his best-known and
most performed play. It is a tragedy written in blank verse and is an attempt on
21
Dryden's part to reinvigorate serious drama. All for Love, a tragedy is an
16th to 18thCentury English imitation of Shakespeare’s earlier great work Antony and Cleopatra (pr. c. 1606-
Literature - II 1607), but it focuses on the last hours of the lives of Anthony and Cleopatra.
Dryden himself commented that he had never written anything “for myself but
Antony and Cleopatra.” The drama reflects Dryden’s vision of tragedy,
sometimes designated by critics as “heroic tragedy” to indicate certain
similarities to the heroic play. Unlike the heroic plays, this is written in blank
verse and its source is Shakespearean and recognizes his gratitude not only to
Plutarch but also to Appian and Dion Cassius in the prologue to All for Love.
Although it has fewer of the epic dimensions of the heroic play and the characters
are realistic. Dryden succeeds in presenting human emotions in part because the
medium of blank verse is more suited to emotional expression, he achieves the
effects of pathos and sentiment rather than pity and fear. English heroic drama
was influenced by French dramatist Racine but Dryden in writing All for Love
followed English critic Thomas Rymer, who emphasized the necessity of dealing
out poetic justice in drama and another French writer by the name of Rapin.
Therefore, All for Love teaches audiences to regard illicit love as something
obnoxious and deserving punishment, at the same time he excites our sympathy
and admiration for both Anthony and Cleopatra.
In All for Love, Dryden follows the dramatic unities of time, place, and action,
which he regarded as ornaments of tragedy, though not indispensable. The hero,
Antony, is presented on the final day of his life, which happens to be his
birthday. Facing imminent defeat at the hands of Octavius, he encounters
temptations to abandon the great passion of his life, Cleopatra, in order to
prolong the contest or to minimize the consequences of the loss. Restrictions
inherent in the dramatic unities result in characters that are not nearly so complex
as those of the source, Shakespeare’s Antony and Cleopatra. Cleopatra neither
wavers in her devotion to Antony nor reflects at length on her role as queen, as
she does in Shakespeare’s tragedy. Dryden’s Ventidius shares qualities drawn
from Shakespeare’s character of the same name but also from Shakespeare’s
Enobarbus, the devoted adviser who abandons Antony. This drama involves a
generous amount of sentimentality compared to other plays of Dryden. Dryden
achieves in All for Love an intensity that is lacking in most of his plays, one
whose emotional effects are not dissipated through digressions or loosely related
subplots. The play reveals a tightly unified plot line in which characters’ motives
and actions are influenced primarily by strong romantic love. The play is
dedicated to Earl of Danby.
3.2 CRITICAL SUMMARY OF THE PLAY ALL FOR

LOVE
Prologue:“Errors, like straws, upon the surface flow; / He who would search for
pearls must dive below”. The prologue begins by observing that poets often have
to fear the responses of critics, who wait like “vultures” for their prey. Dryden
admits that he has come “unarmed” to the fight, he doesn’t have the authority of
tradition to shield him. For example, he has abandoned a rhyming scheme in
favor of blank unrhymed verse
He introduces the principal characters: Antony, a decent but “somewhat he

doesn’t have the authority of tradition to shield him. For example, he has
abandoned a rhyming scheme in favor of blank unrhymed verse at lewd” man,
his wife Octavia, and his mistress Cleopatra.
22
Act I:The play opens with the discussion of some citizens of Egypt. Serapion John Dryden’s All for
tells his fellows about the queer supernatural incidents that he witnessed last Love - I
night. Alexas, the eunuch, who is in the service of Cleopatra comes to them and
scolds Serapion for telling his cooked dreams to others and warns him of doing
so. Ventidius, a Roman knight comes. Alexas recognizes him and tells the
citizens that though he hates Ventidius, yet it cannot be denied that he is the
bravest Romans.
As Alexas sees Ventidius approaching him, he announces that Egypt will

celebrate Antony’s birthday with great pomp and show. Ventidius is displeased
with the Alexas announcement as Antony’s life is in danger and Egyptians are
celebrating his suffering.
Ventidius goes to Alexas and abuses Cleopatra as “she has quite unmanned him
(Antony)”. He says that Antony was a brave soldier but Cleopatra has made him
useless with her false love. Ventidius then asks about Antony and is told that he
is quite depressed and does not meet anybody. Ventidius, being a close friend of
Antony, goes to him. Antony first repels him but when Ventidius weeps, he feels
pity and both are reconciled. Ventidius praises his chivalry and asks him to
accompany him to River Nile, where 10,000 brave soldiers are waiting for him so
that he may command them to fight against Caesar.
Antony first denies his proposal but at last, agrees to quit Egypt. Ventidius talks
about Cleopatra saying that she has ruined his life. Antony doesn’t like words
against Cleopatra and asks him to prevent such statements. However, he agrees to
leave her for the sake of honour.
Act II: Alexas has informed Cleopatra about the discussion of Antony and
Ventidius. Cleopatra becomes sorrowful. Charmion enters and talks about the
current situation. Alexas tells Cleopatra a plan by which Antony will probably
change his mind. Meanwhile Alexas enters the camber of Anthony where Antony
and Ventidius ridicule and laugh at the cowardice of Octavius Caesar. Alexas
informs Anthony that Cleopatra has prayed for him and also given some gifts as a
token of her love. As Alexas, distributes gifts to the soldiers but Ventidius calls
them “poisoned gifts” rejects them and saying, “I’m not ashamed of honest
poverty, nor all the diamonds of the east can bribe Ventidius from his faith.”
Antony, in spite of Ventidius’s disapproval, accepts the gift but is unable to wear
it. As Cleopatra enters, Antony starts blaming her of every untoward incident that
have happened in his life, right from losses in wars or bad relations with his
wives or even Cleopatra being unfaithful to him or a run away.
Cleopatra, to defend herself first tells him that though she had given her body to
Julius Caesar, but her soul belongs to Antony. To prove her faithfulness and
loyalty, she also shows a page to him on which a message is written which
Antony recognizes as the writing of Octavius Caesar in which Octavius has
promised safety to Cleopatra if she betrays over Anthony to him. Antony melts.
Alexas exclaims, “He melts, we conquer.” Antony and Cleopatra are reconciled.
Ventidius, is annoyed and helpless, goes away saying, “O women! Women! All
the gods have not such power of doing good to man, as you of doing harm.”
Act III: Antony and Cleopatra are enjoying the pleasures of love, “In thy
embrace, I would be beheld by heaven and earth at once.” As Ventidius enters,
Antony wants to leave the room unnoticed but is challenged to return back to
army. Anthony has no desire to repeat the past and boosts that he has killed 5000
Romans (of Octavius Caesar). Ventidius says that Octavius is not short of the
army and danger stills prevail over them. Ventidius then brings Dolabella who
23
was exiled from Egypt because he fell in love with Cleopatra. When Anthony
16th to 18thCentury English meets Dolabella, he criticizes Antony for being a servant of Cleopatra and pleads
Literature - II Anthony to befriend and reconcile with Octavia so that the danger of Caesar will
wither away. As a part of Anthony’s return to Rome Ventidius also brings
Octavia and her daughters but Antony remains cold to them. Dolabella and
Ventidius scold him for his behaviour and force him to accept his wife and
daughters. Antony, at last, accepts them and once again agrees to quit Egypt.
Meanwhile, Cleopatra is informed about the reconciliation between Antony and
Octavia.
Alexas once again ensures her that Antony will change his decision. Octavia
enters the inner chambers of Cleopatra where they both indulge in a heated
discussion over Antony. Octavia goes away and Cleopatra fears that she has lost
Antony
Act IV: This scene is a rehash of mousetrap scene where Antony forces
Dolabella to bid his goodbye to Cleopatra as he lacks the courage to do so.
Dolabella while going to Cleopatra conspires of deceiving his friend by
proposing Cleopatra.
Meanwhile, Alexas induces Cleopatra to show Antony that she loves Dolabella
and out of jealousy, Antony will return back to her. Dolabella pretends that he is
crestfallen by the unfaithfulness of Anthony towards Cleopatra. But soon realizes
his mistake of doing so because Cleopatra faints after listening to the lies of
Dolabella. Dolabella repents and tells Cleopatra the truth Cleopatra also tells him
the real motive of flirting with him (to make Antony jealous). Ventidius and
Octavia hearing partly the discussion assumes that Cleopatra and Dolabella have
fallen in love with each other They run to inform Antony about it but he does not
believe in them. Ventidius in order to prove his statement brings Alexas, who
gives his consent to Ventidius and Octavia. Antony is quite enraged. A little later,
Dolabella and Cleopatra enter, who are unaware of the situation. Antony blames
both of them for being deceitful. They protest but Antony dominates. Both go
away sorrowfully.
Act V: Cleopatra blames Alexas for bringing her to such a situation and orders
this eunuch to resolve the matter. On the advice of Serapion, she goes to her
castle to remain safe. In the meantime, Alexas goes to Antony and tells him that
Cleopatra has committed suicide. Antony recognizes the innocence of Cleopatra
and considers the world and the kingdom to be useless for him without her. He
asks Ventidius to kill him. But Ventidius instead kills himself. Antony in a flinch
with his sword gives himself a deadly wound. Meanwhile, Cleopatra is informed
about suicidal wound inflicted by Anthony on himself, she rushes to Antony to
reconcile but it is too late. Antony dies in her lap. A little later Cleopatra dies in
the arms of Antony by making a snake bite her. Egypt is conquered by Caesar.
Thus, inaugurating the beginning of the Roman Empire and the end of the Roman
Republic.
Epilogue: In his appeal Dryden suggest that audiences should emotionally

respond to the story of Antony and Cleopatra. Their choice of passion over
reason-sacrificing “all for love”-will go straight to the hearts of the audiences
rather than to the minds. But the final verdict belongs to the judgement of the
audiences whether to admire or condemn the two lovers who gave up everything
or “All for Love”, “Sleep blest pair/And fame to late posterity shall tell/No lovers
lived so great and died so well” (V.i.514-519)
24
In spite of the flawlessness of technique and structure, the play fails to inspire John Dryden’s All for
that feeling of awe and pity which audiences experience while reading Love - I
Shakespeare's Antony and Cleopatra. In fact, the play lacks that emotional fire
and ardour which Shakespeare's play does possess. But the play offers an
“excellent moral” in its depiction of the unfortunate consequences of “unlawful
love.” Antony and Cleopatra are the ideal tragic protagonists because they are
neither pictures of “perfect virtue” nor “altogether wicked.” This middle course
in their characterization makes them sympathetic figures. Dryden didn’t stop
from making significant changes to Shakespeare’s version of the story. Unlike
Shakespeare’s Antony and Cleopatra, All for Love is set entirely in Egypt rather
than Rome and focuses narrowly on the romantic lives of its two protagonists,
including an invented love triangle featuring a new character, Dolabella. In this
sense, the play is much more a romantic tragedy than Shakespeare’s political
drama and is aptly called ‘high tragedy.’ But it must be acknowledged that in plot
construction Dryden strictly abides by Greek unities, the convention in classical
drama that all the action of a play should take place in the same place and within
twenty-four hours. As a result, he has used artistic license in making Octavia,
Antony’s Roman wife, come to Egypt and (unhistorical) meet Cleopatra. He also
demonstrates the Neo-classical love of order, organization, design, and logical
progression of thought. The play was very popular and revived twice: at
Lincoln’s Inn Fields in February 1704, and at Drury Lane in December 1718.The
character list of All for Love features a list of the actors who played the roles in
the original 1677 production are Charles Hart as Marc Antony and Elizabeth
Boutell as Cleopatra; both were well-known in the Restoration period, which was
the first historical moment of “celebrity” actors who had mass name recognition
among the population. This drama exerted a tremendous influence on the
upcoming genre, and became a prototype to Sentimental Tragedy of the 18th
Century.
❖❖❖❖
25
4
JOHN DRYDEN’S ALL FOR LOVE – II
Unit Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 The Major Characters
4.2 The Major Themes
4.3 The Use of Symbols
4.4. Conclusion
4.6 Bibliography
4.0 OBJECTIVES
This unit will enable the students to understand:
● The major characters
● The major themes
● The use of symbols
4.1 THE MAJOR CHARACTERS

4.1.1. Antony: At the time of the events of All for Love, Antony is a renowned
Roman general and political leader. Described as “emperor of half the world,” he
rules Rome with two other politicians, including Octavius. Examines Antony’s
character. Claims that he is a “Herculean hero” because he is brave, generous,
passionate, and indifferent to public opinion. For all his power and prestige,
however, he has a fatal weakness: his love for the Egyptian queen Cleopatra.
Since first meeting Cleopatra ten years earlier, he has been living in Egypt as her
lover and unofficial consort. This choice has involved many sacrifices: he
abandoned his first wife Fulvia and his second wife Octavia, Octavius’s sister,
along with their children. It has also led to disastrous political consequences.
Enraged at the insult to his sister, Octavius has brought an army to attack Antony
and Cleopatra in Egypt. By the end of play, Antony has lost everything: his army,
his power, and his throne. He is a tragic figure, described as a noble, honorable
man undone by his fatal romantic passion. His friend Ventidius observes that
Antony is naturally given to “virtue,” but that he sometimes “bounds into a vice”
(i.e. his love for Cleopatra) that draws him off course. For Dryden, Antony’s
mixed temperament—neither a model of “perfect virtue” nor “altogether
wicked”—makes him a sympathetic figure. He is not flawless, but neither is he
26
villainous. He is also a romantic hero because he allows himself to be ruled by John Dryden’s All for
his passions. Although Antony highly values his honor and reputation, he Love – II
ultimately chooses his love for Cleopatra above all other considerations, deciding
to die with her in Egypt—and thus giving up rule of half of the world for
love.“[The crimes of love which they both committed were not occasioned by
any necessity or fatal ignorance, but were wholly voluntary, since our passions
are, or ought to be, within our power”
4.1.2. Cleopatra: Cleopatra is the queen of Egypt and the lover of Antony. She is
famously beautiful and charismatic, and by her own account has received many
marriage proposals. But although she has been involved with other men before—
most notably Julius Caesar, before the events of the play—she is unshakably
loyal to Antony, whom she regards as her great love. For instance, although she
toys with the possibility of flirting with Antony’s friend Dolabella in order to
make Antony jealous, she ultimately can’t go through with it because she loves
Antony too much. She is jealous of Antony’s legal wife, Octavia, and frequently
laments her socially degraded status as Antony’s mistress. She is tempestuous,
passionate, and self-dramatizing. For example, she alternatively rages and cries
in order to stop Antony from leaving Egypt. And she is theatrical to the end of
her life, when she commits suicide dressed in her crown and royal robes. She dies
in order to avoid humiliating capture by Octavius, demonstrating her pride in her
royal lineage as well as her romantic devotion to Antony. Seeing that he is dead,
she declares that her life is no longer living. She hopes they will meet in heaven
and be waited on by many loving couples—demonstrating that she sees herself as
a great success as a romantic heroine, if not as a ruler. The crimes of love which
they both committed were not occasioned by any necessity or fatal ignorance, but
were wholly voluntary, since our passions are, or ought to be, within our power.
4.1.3. Ventidius: Ventidius is a general in the Roman army and one of Antony’s
oldest and closest friends. He is fiercely proud, honorable, and eager to fight in
war rather than remain in the palace. He is depicted as Antony’s “other half” in
the Platonic sense—which is to say, the classical ideal of friendship in the
writings of Plato, in which friends are imagined as sharing the same soul. And
indeed, in some ways, Ventidius does know Antony very well, having
experienced many battles with him. But he also proves that he doesn’t understand
Antony in some fundamental ways. For instance, he is harshly critical of his love
affair with Cleopatra, calling Antony her “slave” and a ruined man who has lost
everything for “this toy,” as he refers to Cleopatra. He thinks Cleopatra is a
dangerous seductress and constantly works with her enemies (including Antony’s
abandoned wife Octavia) to try to turn Antony against her. In his hatred of
Cleopatra, he misses the fact that she is not wholly responsible for the changes in
Antony’s fortunes—he made those choices himself. He also fails to understand
the depth of the love Antony has for Cleopatra, such that Antony would prefer to
die with her rather than make peace with Octavius. He only comes to realize this
at the end of the play, when Antony asks him to help him commit suicide.
Ventidius stabs himself instead, demonstrating his own love and loyalty to
Antony. Although Ventidius is a flawed reader of people, then, he is
unmistakably a constant friend to Antony.
27
“Can any Roman see and know him now? Thus altered from the lord of half
mankind,
Literature - II
Unbent, unsinewed, made a woman’s toy,
Shrunk from the vast extent of all his honours,
And cramped within a corner of the world?
unbreakable bonds that encircle Antony’s heart.’
As said above the source is its Shakespearean, “In my Stile I have profess'd to
imitate the Divine Shakespeare....I hope I need not explain myself, that I have not
Copy'd my Author servilely: Words and Phrases must of necessity receive a
change in succeeding Ages: but 'tis almost a Miracle that much of his Language
remains so pure..." But we must acknowledge that there is a balance between
respectful imitation and individual innovation immediately turns into a divided
remark on language change in All for love. Dryden also accepts that language
change is inevitable, especially in the characterization. All for Love is a socially
and politically a subversive play because it challenges the power and their claim
by holding up for our admiration an unlawful but fully achieved love. Dr.
Johnson was well aware of the kind of effect Dryden's play produced on the
readers and the audiences. According to Dr. Johnson, All for Love "has one fault
equal to many, though rather moral than critical, that by admitting the romantic
omnipotence of love, Dryden has recommended as laudable and worthy of
imitation that conduct which, through all ages, the good have censured as vicious
and the bad have despised as foolish." Dr. Johnson's comment, with its awareness
that Dryden was recommending neither the values of conventional marriage nor
the reckless indulgence in the pleasures of the flesh, is one of the best
interpretations of the play. This play language is filled with imagery and deep
meaning as it is, for example Serapion is describing the portent he has witnessed,
and while his language is vividly descriptive, it is also clear and not overly
ornate: “A whirlwind rose, that, with a violent blast / Shook all the dome: the
doors around me clapt.” The language allows us to imagine the doom coming by
its directness and flowing simplicity. The linguistic change and the resulting
desire for purity and stability are entirely in keeping with Dryden's well-known
commitment to language reform.
To conclude this drama, “portrays man in an environment of inner and outer

instability...it mirrorizes ideals of political authority which Dryden formulates in
the role of Anthony: “the world / Should have a lord, and know whom to obey”.
Although Dryden is in favor of some degree of personal freedom, when it comes
to outright rebellion, he is stern. He thinks that all attempts at “reform” are
dangerous, since any rebellion even if it just claims to want to reform rather than
take down the government strikes at “the root of power, which is obedience”.
While All for Love offers a sympathetic depiction of two lovers, Antony and
Cleopatra, who rebel against forms of political and social authority, Dryden
doesn’t allow them to triumph. This suggests the play’s fundamental political
28
conservatism. In the end, Antony and Cleopatra commit suicide and Octavian John Dryden’s All for
takes power as sole emperor—thus teaching the world “whom to obey.” Love – II
4.2 THE MAJOR THEMES

4.2.1. Authority and Freedom: All for Love dramatizes the clash between the
forces of authority in the world and the desire for personal freedom. The former
is represented by Rome under the new emperor Octavius, with its strict laws,
military power, and strong central government. The latter is represented by Egypt
under Antony and Cleopatra, a kingdom outside the sway of the Roman Empire
yet that values pleasure and personal choice. The clash between Octavius and
Antony is particularly resonant for Dryden, who was writing in the aftermath of
significant political upheaval. Dryden wrote. Throughout the play, Dryden argues
that authority and freedom should be mixed, though he particularly extols the
value of authority in the form of a strong government. The fact that the play ends
with Antony and Cleopatra’s double suicide, the ascent of Octavius and the end
of the Roman Republic suggests that Dryden was strongly invested in the
assertion of hierarchical political authority, even as he values the romantic
freedom and passion of his central protagonists.
4.2.2. Honor and Love: As Antony observes, “we have loved each other / Into
our mutual ruin.” Love leads to “ruin” because it draws down Octavius’s wrath
upon them, leading to the destruction of their army and their joint suicide.
Throughout All for Love, Antony is conflicted about whether he cares more for
honor or love. At times, he thinks of leaving Cleopatra in order to preserve his
honor as a husband, father, and political leader; he claims that he loves her
beyond “life, conquest, empire” yet not beyond “honour.” In reality, however, he
can’t go through with it, suggesting that he does not in fact value honor more
than love. Ultimately, he decides that “the world” is “not worth my care” in
comparison to Cleopatra, and chooses suicide and military defeat in order to be
by her side.
4.2.3. Continuity and Change: All for Love is a play preoccupied with change.
It asks how the sudden loss of power impacts two people, Antony and Cleopatra,
whose sense of self been defined by their status as two of the ancient world’s
most powerful monarchs. Antony’s response to the ruination of his fortunes is to
constantly speculate about how his time in Egypt has changed him. Cleopatra,
too, is obsessed with retaining her royal authority even as that power slips away
from her. The decline and fall of the historical lovers Antony and Cleopatra offer
a new, updated version for seventeenth-century English audiences that speak to
their own concerns. In this sense, Dryden sees the authority of antiquity and
English literary history itself as subject to change and alteration. His willingness
to innovate—inserting new characters, new verse styles, and unhistorical
events—further implies his overarching interest in the theme of change and
suggests the value of creating art that resonates with contemporary audiences.
Antony and Cleopatra in that, like other fictional depictions of the lovers, he has
drawn heavily on classical sources (particularly Plutarch) in his generally
positive depiction of the protagonists. However, his version is more
29
contemporary in that it is written in a “neoclassical” style. All for Love is written
exclusively in blank verse (non-rhyming poetry) rather than rhyme. In the 1600s,
Literature - II
blank verse was a relatively new innovation and was associated with progress, as
when John Milton claimed in Paradise Lost (1678) that he was restoring poetry to
“liberty” by freeing it from the “bondage” of rhyme. Another major innovation is
that Dryden uses artistic license in making Octavia, Antony’s Roman wife, come
to Egypt and meet Cleopatra. In the preface, he defends himself for creating this
fictional meeting on the grounds that it is dramatically necessary. Antony almost
leaves Cleopatra to return to his wife Octavia, a decision that throws Cleopatra
into despair. Ultimately, however, Antony decides to remain on the grounds that
it is better to be constant and loyal, even in a technically illegitimate and illegal
love affair. In this sense, Antony is paradoxically a disloyal and changeable
husband to Octavia and a constant lover to Cleopatra. For Dryden, this constancy
in love is what makes Antony and Cleopatra admirable. Although they may have
neglected their public and political duties, they are models of loyal lovers. For
Antony, change is also defined as cultural difference. He clearly sees himself as
Roman still: for example, he declares that “I’m a Roman, / Bred to the rules of
soft humanity.” The present tense— “I am a Roman”—suggests that Antony
thinks this aspect of his identity has remained constant, despite the ten years he
has spent in Egypt. At the same time, however, Ventidius suggests that there is
something about Antony that isn’t quite Roman anymore: “Can any Roman see
and know him now?” he asks. This raises questions about what it means to be a
Roman—does it require being in Rome, or is it a certain set of behaviors and
values that can survive the loss of Rome itself? Similarly, Cleopatra tries to
reassert her identity even when she has lost everything. Just before her suicide,
Cleopatra dresses herself in her finest royal robes and seats herself beside Antony
on the throne of Egypt. This is a reminder of their former greatness,
demonstrating to the onlookers that she is still queen of Egypt, even if Octavius
has conquered her country. After learning that Cleopatra has allegedly died,
Antony says that he has no more desire for power and glory. He admits that “I
was but great for her; my power, my empire / Were but my merchandise to buy
her love.” Throughout the play, people have accused Antony of losing his empire
for love of Cleopatra. In this moment, however, Antony suggests that it is
precisely the opposite: he only had an empire in the first place because of her. In
this way, the real constant of All for Love turns out to be Antony and Cleopatra’s
love for each other, not the rise and fall in their political fortunes.
4.2.4. Passion and Reason: All for Love might be regarded as one of the early
texts of Romantic “sentimentalism”—a literary movement largely associated
with the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries that emphasized passion, sentiment,
and feeling over rational considerations. Dryden clearly hoped that his play
would appeal to the finer feelings of audiences, particularly women, since he
writes in his verse epilogue that he hopes that he will be judged by the “fair sex,”
who will enjoy the story of a man, Antony, who died “all for love.” Ultimately,
All for Love is the story of the tragic outcomes that result from choosing passion
over reason. Yet the play also suggests that passion is “noble,” admirable, and
appealing as a character trait—and that however “unreasonable,” Antony and
Cleopatra are tragic because they choose passion over the cold-hearted logic that
30
would see them separate. Reason would dictate that they prioritize their duties as John Dryden’s All for
rulers above their personal life, but their feelings for each other are so powerful Love – II
that they cannot be controlled or contained. Cleopatra even calls her love a
“noble madness.” Cleopatra says that only low-born people have “moderate
sadness”; she has “transcendent passions” that “soar … quite out of reason’s
view.” In this way, the “transcendence” of her passion is associated with the
nobility of her social position as a queen. Similarly, Antony also claims that “I
have lost my reason” because of his love. Dryden is careful to stipulate that
Antony and Cleopatra have the capacity for both reason and passion but she
chooses passion over reason which results in tragedy. All for Love is not a
tragedy in classical sense of a hero who is subject to a fate beyond his control.
Antony and Cleopatra did not commit their “crimes of love” by any “necessity or
fatal ignorance.” Their choice was “wholly voluntary, since our passions are, or
ought to be, within our power. “This free choice is what makes Antony and
Cleopatra such appealing tragic protagonists. They are neither pictures of
“perfect virtue” nor “altogether wicked.” This “middle course” in their
characterization makes them sympathetic figures. The dichotomy between reason
and passion is particularly stark in Antony’s choice between Cleopatra and his
wife Octavia. It is certainly the more reasonable choice for Antony to go back to
Octavia, thus returning to his family and making peace with her brother Octavius.
However, her reasonableness is in the question as why he can’t love her, Antony
admits, that he cannot leave Cleopatra. “I can ne’er be conquered but by love, /
And you do all for duty. For Antony, passion is what motivates romantic love—
and by extension, the drama of his downfall.
4.3 THE USE OF SYMBOLS

The use of symbols is immense and used in the foreshadowing in the drama.
Foreboding omens (of storms, whirlwinds, and the flooding of the Nile) of
Egypt's impending doom are the symbols used. Nature is also associated with
achievement of heroic ideals, ‘Twas I blew up the fire that scorched his soul,
…In spite of all the dams my love broke o’er, And drowned my heart again
(IV.516-20)
Similarly, Anthony speaks of “The rivers ran in, and raised my

fortunes”(III.130)The image of meteor is used to describe Anthony’s
career(I.206-09) Contrasting to these symbols water is used as loss , “ebbing
love”(II.165) Dryness, coldness, and infertile land is used as symbols, “My
torch is out”(V.286)”a few cold ashes”(I.221), “dull, insipid lump, without
desires”(II.83) and “a lump of senseless clay”(V.409)Cleopatra’s ruby bracelet
in the most obvious sense, the bleeding hearts symbolize Cleopatra’s love for
Antony and pain at his departure. However, this symbol of Cleopatra’s love also
contains another, subtler message. Cleopatra’s servant Alexas, who delivers the
bracelet, tells Antony that Cleopatra hopes the bracelet “may bind your arm.”
This may mean simply that the bracelet will literally encircle Antony’s arm—but
the word “bind” also carries connotations of restraint and imprisonment. This is
not the only time the metaphor of bonds is used to describe the relationship
between Antony and Cleopatra. Antony’s friend Ventidius, for instance,
31
compares Cleopatra’s love to “golden bands” that have captured Antony and led
him to his “ruin.” This turns out to be an apt metaphor, for the bracelet does
Literature - II
indeed “bind” Antony to Egypt and make it impossible for him to leave. The
bracelet symbolizes both Cleopatra’s love and the power.
4.4. CONCLUSION
To conclude it can be said that John Dryden is a promising dramatist having
mastery over his art that has been reflected in his play, All For Love. The play is
well-constructed divided into different acts. The characters are nicely created
having the mixture of both round and flat characters. The play is based on certain
solid themes that enable it to reach to the larger audience. The use of apt symbols
is one more important aspect of the play.

1) Discuss the major themes in All for Love?
2) Write a short note on the characters of Anthony and Cleopatra
3) Describe the roles of Alexas and Ventidius in the conflict of the drama.
4) Write a note on the language and the use of symbols in All for Love
5) Write a summary of the drama All for Love
4.6 BIBLIOGRAPHY
● Bibliographic Record Dramatis Personæ
● NEW YORK: P.F. COLLIER & SON COMPANY, 1909–14
● NEW YORK: BARTLEBY.COM, 2001
● https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_for_Love_(play)
● Dryden, John. All for Love. London: Nick Hern Books Limited, 1998.
● https://gutenberg.org/ebooks/2062
● Abrams, M. H. A Glossary of Literary Terms. India: Harcourt Asia Ltd, 2000
● Compton-Rickett, A. A History of English Literature. London: Thomas

Nelson and Sons Ltd, 1947.
● Hudson, William H. An Outline History of English Literature. Bombay: B. I.

Publications, 1964.
● Wilson, John B. English Literature: A Survey for Students. London:

Longmans, Green and Cook Ltd, 1964.
● "How does Dryden use imagery and language in All for Love?" eNotes
Editorial, 8 Aug. 2021,
32
● Houghton, Eve. "All for Love." LitCharts. LitCharts LLC, 18 Jan 2019. Web. John Dryden’s All for
30 Jan 2023 Love – II
● Dobree, Bonamy (2007) Restoration Tragedy 1660-1720. Rept. London:

Duey Press ‘Cleopatra: That Critical Work in Restoration Tragedy.
● Waith, Eugene. “The Herculean Hero.” In Twentieth Century, Interpretations

of “All for Love,” edited by Bruce King. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-
Hall, 1968.
● For a broad and accessible account of English language reform from 1580 to
the eighteenth century, see Part Two of Howatt (1984): 75-110.
❖❖❖❖
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5
OLIVER GOLDSMITH’S SHE STOOPS TO
CONQUER-I
Unit Structure
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction: Oliver Goldsmith
5.2 Background to the play She Stoops to Conquer
5.3 Introduction to Major Characters in the play She Stoops to Conquer
5.4 She Stoops to Conquer: Summary
5.5 Conclusion
5.7 Bibliography
5.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying the unit, students will be able to:
 know Oliver Goldsmith as an Anglo-Irish writer
 understand the significance of Goldsmith’s literary artefacts
 appreciate the play She Stoops to Conquer
 analyse the plot of the play She Stoops to Conquer
5.1 INTRODUCTION: OLIVER GOLDSMITH

Oliver Goldsmith is one of the most influential writers emerged during the
Augustan Age, which is also known as Neoclassical Age or the Age of
Reason. He has been remembered for his versatility leading him to be the
writer who has tried his hands across number of literary genres including
poetry, novels, plays, essays, biographies, pseudo-letter, history etc.
during the eighteenth century English literature. He is always appreciated
for his good sense, intellectual honesty, unquestionable brilliance,
balanced structures and moderate articulations in the history of British
literature. Although Goldsmith has never narrated the real accounts of his
life to his biographers, commonly it is believed that he was born on 10 th
November, 1728 in Ireland (the exact birth place is also not known). He
was fifth child among the seven siblings born to Reverend Charles
Goldsmith who was Anglican curate of the parish of Forgney.
Goldsmith’s early education started at Elphin diocesan school where his
grandfather Oliver Jones was a master and clergyman. His family moved
to parsonage at Lissoy when he was only two years old because of his
34
father’s appointment as a rector of parish of Kilkenny West which is in Oliver Goldsmith’s She
County Westmeath. Though his family was not poor, they started facing Stoops to Conquer-I
financial crisis due to the arrangements, in the form of huge dowry, made
for his older sister’s marriage that affected on the university education of
Goldsmith. He was admitted to Trinity College, Dublin in the year 1744
under the tutorship of Theaker Wilder where he worked as a sizar – a
system that enabled him to attend college with nominal charges and in
exchange of a type of maintenance work in the school campus. His father
died on 1747; and on the same year, he fell in his studies because of his
disappointments with the menial works given to him in the campus and
scorned by the wealthy fellow students, consequently leading him to be
the part of a riot resulting in expelling him from the university. Although
he graduated from the university as a Bachelor of Arts in 1749, he failed
to secure distinction ultimately restricting his entry into the profession of a
clergyman or lawyer. However, he had developed his taste in apparel,
gambling, playing flute and singing; and tried his hands at several fields
before going to pursue his studies in medical science.
Goldsmith had taken admission to the University of Edinburgh in 1752 in
the faculty of medicine, but could not complete his studies. In 1753, after
his medical training in the Leiden University, he started his walking tour
to the Continent including France, Northern Italy, Flanders, and
Switzerland; the wandering tour inspired many of his later works. Finally,
he reached to London in 1756, where he tried to settle down for a while;
but his financial needs led him to try many of the jobs including an
assistant to apothecary and attendant in school. His addiction to gambling
and extravagant life-style pushed him in debts that gave way to his literary
career initially as a reviewer for Ralph Griffiths’ Monthly Review. His
acquaintance with Griffiths helped him to step in the literary world
introducing him to the novelist Samuel Richardson and then to Samuel
Johnson with whom he later founded The Club. One of the Club members
called Edmund Burke introduced him to Sir George Savile who helped
him to grab a job at Thornhill Grammar School.
Goldsmith continued writing miscellaneous essays, reviews of novels and
plays as well as short pieces of fictional work for the magazine called The
Bee by John Wilkes. In one of his reviews, he praised the works of Samuel
Johnson and Tobias Smollett that fetched the attention of Smollett to his
writings, who then invited him to write for his magazine entitled Critical
Reviews and The British Magazine. During this period, he published his
first long essay entitled An Enquiry into the Present State of Polite
Learning in Europe in 1759 presenting his views on European culture and
literature leading him to be a recognized figure in the literary realm.
In 1760, Goldsmith started writing a series of essays periodically for the
magazine called the Publick Ledger that appeared in the form of “Chinese
Letters” which were collectively published in the year 1762 with the title
The Citizen of the World; or, Letters from a Chinese Philosopher Residing
in London to His Friends in the East. There are 98 letters in the collection
with four essays that provided insights into his philosophical
contemplations as well as introspective assessment of the London’s
35
customs, morals and manners in humorous, witty and satirical way. His
Literature - II
next popular work is the 160 lines romantic ballad called The Hermit
which was published in 1765. The ballad had then been incorporated in his
novel The Vicar of Wakefield with the title ‘A Ballad,’ where Mr. Burchell
in the eight chapter of the novel sung the ballad. It tells the story of Edwin
who tried to woo Angelina but feels to be dejected by the scorn of the lady
and turns into a hermit. His next popular poem The Deserted Village was
published in 1770 that represents his experiences in 1760s when the
ancient village was destructed for the sake of a garden for the wealthy
man. The poem presents the image of convergence of villages, its farm
land into ornamental gardens ready to destruct the peasantry.
Goldsmith’s most popular novel The Vicar of Wakefield, which is subtitled
as A Tale, Supposed to be written by Himself, came out in the year 1766
that remained widely read in the literary circle thereafter during the
eighteenth century. Dr. Charles Primrose is the vicar in the novel is living
a satisfactory life with his family in a country parish. He has received a
huge wealth as inheritance from a distant relative which he invested with a
merchant; however, on the day of his son George’s wedding, he loses all
his wealth due to the bankruptcy of his investor. The family then moves to
the land of Squire Thornhill where vicar’s daughter Sophia is saved from
drowning by Mr. Burchell, who then is attracted towards him. After a few
days, vicar’s another daughter Olivia is eloped with Mr. Thornhill who
deceives her promising marriage. In the end of the novel, Mr. Burchell
rescues vicar’s family from all the troubles of life.
The popularity of the novel The Vicar of Wakefield gave assured readers to
Goldsmith which is reflected in the subsequent popularity of his plays like
The Good-Natur’d Man and She stoops to Conquer. Published in 1768,
The Good-Natur’d Man presents the story of Young Honeywood who is
good natured person; however, his uncle Sir William Honeywood sets a
series of tests in order to let his nephew and heir learn a valuable lesson of
his life. The play She Stoops to Conquer is a sentimental comedy
published in 1773 where the characters from high and low class
communities are juxtaposed in order to create farce. Goldsmith’s other
popular works are a poem The Traveller (1764), Account of the Augustan
Age in England (1759), The Life of Richard Nash (Beau Nash) (1762), The
History of England, from the Earliest Times to the Death of George II
(1771), Dr. Goldsmith’s Roman History Abridged by Himself for the Use
of Schools (1772) and An History of the Earth and Animated Nature
(1774). On 4 April, 1774, he died suddenly because of a kidney disease
th
and was buried in Temple Church in London.
5.2 BACKGROUND TO THE PLAY SHE STOOPS TO

CONQUER
The play She Stoops to Conquer is a comedy of manners that comments
on sentimental comedy which reflects a philosophical movement that was
at its height during 18 century England. The sentimentalist philosophy
th
believes that human sentiments like sympathy and empathy give birth to
ethics. Consequently, these comedies are based on the sentiments of
36
human beings which lead the audience to feel sympathy with the Oliver Goldsmith’s She
characters and cry with their emotions; and, while providing laughter, end Stoops to Conquer-I
happily. However, Goldsmith considered the primary function of comedy
is to laugh at human vices and hence he satirized sentimental comedy in
this play where he let his audience only to laugh rather than cry.
The play is set during the reign of King George III, which is considered as
one of the peaceful reigns in Britain, where the Agricultural Revolution
had taken place consequently resulting in the massive agricultural
production. However, there is the immigration of rural people into the city
in search of jobs as they had lost their agricultural fields because of the
bad harvesting years, inflation, hunger and wars. In addition to it, the
industrial revolution forced the rural population to work in factories that
gave rise to the middle class. Soon the class division becomes visible
between the working class poor rural people and the wealthy elite urban
class society. The divide begins to grow as the elite class people begin to
consider themselves more cultured and worldly than the working class
communities who were residing in the countryside. This class divide in the
society serves as a background to the play She Stoops to Conquer. Marlow
and Hastings are the representatives of the elite class whereas the
Hardcastle family, even though is rich, represents the lower working class.
The developments in the social classes also affected the marriage market
of the society which is reflected in the play.
5.3 INTRODUCTION TO MAJOR CHARACTERS IN

THE PLAY SHE STOOPS TO CONQUER
5.3.1. Charles Marlow:
Charles Marlow is the protagonist of the play who belongs to the wealthy
family. He is young, handsome and well educated man, and has spent
much of his time in educating himself as well as travelling. He is reluctant
to participate in the conversation with upper-class women as he is shy,
reserved and does not have self-confidence. He mistakenly considers
Hardcastle’s house as an inn and behaves irrationally with Kate.
5.3.2. Kate Hardcastle:

Kate Hardcastle is the daughter of Mr. Hardcastle. She is moderate, good-
humored, intelligent, sensible and beautiful girl which makes her the
favourite daughter of her father. She has remarkable intuition which
enables her to identify the good qualities in others. Consequently, she
identifies Marlow as a good natured man and stoops to conquer his despite
his ill temper. She seems to reflect absolute confidence in making her own
decisions.
5.3.3. Mr. Hardcastle:

Mr. Hardcastle lives in the house at countryside with his wife, son and
daughter. He is old-fashioned man and does not like the modern trends of
the life. Hence, he does not like the unruly behaviour of his step-son Tony
Lumpkin, whereas he loves his daughter Kate dearly. He served in the war
37
of Spanish Succession and loves to tell his stories in the war. Marlow and
Literature - II
Hastings, who are misled, consider him as the innkeeper.
5.3.4. Mrs. Hardcastle:

Mrs. Hardcastle, who is also known as Dorothy, is the wife of Mr.
Hardcastle and step-mother of Kate and Tony. Though she is sympathetic
and human, she is greedy, manipulative and sentimental woman. She
neglects the follies of her son for which she himself is responsible and
tries to dominate him. Although she lives at country side, she is fascinated
with the city life and desires to live it. She controls the life of her niece
and ward Constance and tries to encourage her to marry with her son
Tony. She has also the habit of exaggerating which can be witnessed with
her reaction to the robbery of jewel.
5.3.5. Tony Lumpkin:

Tony Lumpkin is a mysterious character in the play, but plays significant
role in the development of the plot. He is clever young man, but as per his
country upbringing, he is rustic and uneducated. He expects to escape
from his mother’s dominance, but could not find an opportunity as he is
aware that he has no fortune to his credit. However, he seems to be
rebellious as he never follows the instructions of his parents. He usually
passes practical jokes and performs love pranks, yet he is also not unkind
person. He is very much clear about his emotions and does not love
Constance leading him to prove all the efforts of his mother in matching a
pair in vain.
5.3.6. Constance Neville:
Constance is young, practical, affectionate and kind girl, and ward of Mrs.
Hardcastle. She lives with Mrs. Hardcastle since the death of her father;
and she is aware of the fact that she is motivated to marry Tony only to
retain her jewel in Hardcastle family. Therefore, she pretends to be
attracted towards Tony only to keep safe her property. She loves George
Hastings and ready to elope with him only after she grabs her jewels. She
has a good rapport with her cousin Kate and informs her about Marlow’s
nature that makes the course of their love easy.
5.3.7. George Hastings:

George Hastings is young and well-educated man having good nature and
fashionable outlook. He is best friend of Marlow and suitor of Constance.
He is confident and has good communication skills, which Marlow lacks,
that leads him to serve as a foil to Marlow. He is deeply in love with
Constance and is ready to elope with her that indicates his sense of
responsibility, eagerness to form the relationships with his love-lady, and
boldness against the social norms during the period.
38
5.3.8. Aunt Pedigree: Oliver Goldsmith’s She
Stoops to Conquer-I
She is the aunt of Constance who lives at a distance from the Hardcastle
family. Mrs. Hardcastle plans to send Constance to her house when she
learns about Constance plan of elopement with George.
5.3.9. Sir Charles:

Father of Marlow and a best friend of Mr. Hardcastle. He sends his son to
Hardcastle’s house with the plans of his son’s future marriage with Kate.
5.3.10. Pimple:
She is servant of Kate at the house of Hardcastle.
5.3.11. Diggory:
Diggory is a servant in the house of Hardcastle. She is talkative,
opinionated but intelligent person.
5.3.12. Bet Bouncer:

Bet is a red-faced and fat girl residing at the country-side. Tony desires to
marry her; and although she does not appear on the stage, it seems that she
is jolly girl.
5.3.13. Landlord:
Landlord is the owner of a bar called Three Pigeons. Tony spends much of
his time there with lower class persons.
5.4 SHE STOOPS TO CONQUER: SUMMARY AND

ANALYSIS
Act I
The play She Stoops to Conquer is set in the countryside where the
Hardcastle family lives in an old fashion house. The play opens with Mrs.
Hardcastle who seems to be not happy as her husband never takes her to
London during holidays. However, Mr. Hardcastle does not have any
interest to visit London as according to him everything there is
pretentious. Mrs. Hardcastle complains that they never experienced
anything interesting in life and live in a house which is not better than an
inn. Furthermore, he tells the uninteresting stories of war indicating how
good the old days were. Mr. Hardcastle very affectionately replies to her
that he likes everything which is old including his old wife. Yet, Mrs.
Hardcastle comments that she is not very much old as when her son Tony
was born she was just twenty-one years old. According to her she is just
forty years old at present but Mr. Hardcastle points out that she is now
fifty-seven years old. Mr. Hardcastle does not like the behaviour of Tony
and he holds Mrs. Hardcastle responsible for his being rude to everyone.
He is not well educated and behaves very badly with his elders. Mrs.
Hardcastle views education as insignificant in the development of her son
39
as he will own fifteen-hundred-pound fortune per year. Instead, she desires
Literature - II
her son could have a good sense of humour. Mr. Hardcastle then directs
her attention to the pranks Tony is involved every time. Mrs. Hardcastle
gives excuses that she was unable to give good education to her son only
because he was sick but he believes that his sickness is derived only after
he is drunk.
Tony, who is going to Three Pigeons House, enters and Mrs. Hardcastle
asks him to spend time with them, but Tony refuses to stay there because
his friends are waiting for him. Therefore, she grabs him in her attempt to
stop him from going out but he pulls her along with him to the door. Mr.
Hardcastle remains alone on the scene thinking that both mother and son
will spoil each other; Meanwhile, his daughter Kate enters in fashionable
clothes. As he remarks on Kate’s fashion, she reminds him of the deal
between them that she will wear the clothes of her choice in the morning
and the clothes of his choice during the evening. He then informs Kate that
Marlow who is the son of his best friend is going to visit the house
tonight; and he desires Kate to marry him. She is surprised to hear the
intentions of her father and is very much doubtful if she could get along
with her suitor introduced in a formal way. However, Mr. Hardcastle
assures her that he will never force her to marry against her desires; but
Marlow is a handsome looking young man with intelligent, courage and
generous nature. He further says that Marlow is a reserved person who is
shy in speaking with women. Kate likes the intelligent, generous and kind
nature of Marlow but she doesn’t like him being bashful. She admits that
she will marry Marlow except for his other qualities; yet, as Mr.
Hardcastle thinks, Marlow should also approve her as his wife. Kate
assures him that she will blame mirror for deceiving her, change her
clothing style and find someone less handsome to marry with, if Marlow
disapproves. Mr. Hardcastle shows his agreement to Kate’s attitude and
then exits to make ready his servants to welcome Marlow.
Kate is lost in the thoughts of Marlow wondering whether it is possible to
change the bashful nature of Marlow while Constance Neville enters
revealing to her that Marlow is the best friend of Mr. Hastings and that she
knows him very well. She further says that Marlow is very shy while
speaking with upper class, respectable and modest women of his own
background and becomes comfortable with the lower class women to
whom he often seduces. Kate initially feels that she will not handle the
situation, but then decides to wait for the right moment. Kate inquires to
Constance whether Mrs. Hardcastle is still trying to convince her to marry
Tony and Constance replies that she is continuously forced to accept Tony
as her husband. Kate is aware that the efforts of Mrs. Hardcastle in forcing
Constance into a love relationship with Tony are aimed at keeping the
wealth of Constance in the family. Constance tells her that she owns
jewels in the form of fortune which is not significant to her like money.
She is in love with Mr. Hastings and she believes that he will never
abandon her for the sake of fortune. She will pretend to Mrs. Hardcastle
that she is in love with Tony till she elopes with Mr. Hastings. Both Kate
and Constance are aware that Tony is not interested in marrying
40
Constance. Meanwhile, they hear the bell ringing and assume the arrival Oliver Goldsmith’s She
of Mrs. Hardcastle, so Constance exits from the place. Stoops to Conquer-I
At the Three Pigeons House, Tony sings a song he has written to be

performed at the bar for his lower class friends who appreciate Tony for
such a wonderful performance. They say that once Tony owns his fortune
he will pay for everyone’s drink like his father. Tony nods in agreement
and further adds that he will buy a new horse and marry his lady love Bet
Bouncer once he becomes of the age of twenty-one. The landlord
meanwhile enters and informs Tony that the fashionably dressed two
gentlemen have reached Three Pigeons House in search of Hardcastle
house. Tony identifies that the gentleman must be Marlow and plans to
take revenge on his stepfather. The landlord re-enters with Marlow – who
is irritated with the difficult journey – and Hastings, who comments that
the journey would have been easy if they had asked for the directions,
which they did not ask as Marlow thought it would be risky to be insulted
by strangers. Tony interrupts the discussion of two men and tells them that
they have reached the wrong place. The landlord who is the part of Tony’s
plan tells them the direction to Hardcastle’s house which is complicated
leading both of them to be discouraged and resolving to spend a night
there. However, Tony reports to them that there is no bed available and
they can spend the night in the armchairs by fireside; but both the
gentlemen reject the idea. Tony thinks for a while and then tells them that
there is another inn a mile away; but the innkeeper pretends to be a rich
man and will talk with them to show his social status. He even offers his
help to them in reaching the inn.
Act II
The second act of the play is set at Mr. Hardcastle’s house where Mr.
Hardcastle is instructing the servants about the way to welcome the guests.
Diggory, one of the servants in Hardcastle’s house, says that it would be
difficult for them to control laughing if Mr. Hardcastle starts telling the
story of Ould Grouse leading all of them to burst in. Mr. Hardcastle
continues instructing his servants how to refill the glass of wine while he
listens to the horse cart outside and exits from the meeting to receive his
guests leaving his servants in confusion about their behaviour in front of
the guests.
A servant takes Marlow and Hastings into the house. They peer at the
house and comment that well maintained old houses are always turned
into a fine inn when their owners lose all their wealth. Hastings of Marlow
why has he been bashful while speaking with the upper class women; and
Marlow replies that he has spent much of his life at college and in the inn
so he has never known how to spend the time with women of his own
class but he is very good with women of lower class. He is so afraid of the
women of his own class and always wants to get away quickly from them.
However, Hastings points out that he can be a popular figure with the
women of his own class if he starts speaking with them as expressively as
he speaks with barmaids and housemaids. Hastings thinks that it would be
difficult for Marlow to marry a woman of his class if he fails to overcome
41
his shyness and asks about his plans to propose a girl for marriage.
Literature - II
Marlow tells him that he is visiting Hardcastle house only because his
father asked him to do so and he will not overcome his shyness with Kate.
The other reason for Marlow to visit Hardcastle house is to help Hastings
in courting Constance. He knows that Hastings will be welcomed in the
Hardcastle house only when he is introduced as a friend of Marlow.
Hastings will get an opportunity to present his modesty there so that
Hardcastle may give him their consent to marry Constance. Hastings is
overwhelmed with the kindness of Marlow and says that he would not
have taken the help of Marlow if he did not have the purest intention to
marry Constance. He has also taken the permission of her dead father for
their marriage and he is aware that she also loves him. Marlow thinks of
Hastings as a lucky fellow as he can deal with the women of his class; and
at the other hand, finds himself incapable to shade off his nervousness. He
can only dream of the women belonging to the lower social class and will
never marry anyone.
Mr. Hardcastle joins the two gentlemen introducing himself as their host;
but supposing him to be the innkeeper Marlow neglects him and continues
speaking with Hastings about the clothes they should wear while meeting
Constance and Kate. Mr. Hardcastle tries to engage them with his stories
of the war but they continue to speak about clothes neglecting him. At last,
Marlow asks for a punch in order to keep Mr. Hardcastle away from
disturbing them. Mr. Hardcastle, who is very much surprised with the
rudeness of his guest, serves them a glass of punch and also offers toast.
Marlow considers the act of offering a toast is inappropriate for the
innkeeper reflecting his attempts to maintain the social standard.
Finally, Marlow realizes that it is difficult to get rid of Mr. Hardcastle and
then tries to speak with him in a mocking manner. Ironically, he refers to
the punch and says that Mr. Hardcastle must have a huge business during
the political campaigns; and Mr. Hardcastle reply is that he now pays
attention in family business only. When Mr. Hardcastle tries to present his
another story at the war, Marlow asks about the menu available for dinner.
Mr. Hardcastle is again surprised with the rude behaviour of Marlow and
gives the details of the dishes he planned for the dinner. Both Marlow and
Hastings do not like the list of delicious foods presented by Mr. Hardcastle
and say that they usually prefer simple food while travelling. Then
Marlow expresses his desire to see their rooms so that he can check
whether the beds are made freshly or not which is very much distressing
for Mr. Hardcastle who then takes both the gentlemen to show their
rooms.
Constance visits Hastings who is surprised to see her; and asks how she
has come there. He tells her that a young man in a Three Pigeons House
guided them to this house which they consider as an inn. Constance
identifies it as a trick played by Tony and tells him that they are in the
house of Mr. Hardcastle. When Hastings hears the name of Tony, he asks
Constance whether it is the same person with whom she is forced to marry
by her aunt. Constance tells Hastings that Tony is her cousin and though
her aunt convinces her to marry Tony, neither Tony nor she desires to
42
marry one another. However, she has pretended in such a way that her Oliver Goldsmith’s She
aunt now begins to believe that she is in love with Tony. Hastings finds it Stoops to Conquer-I
as a great opportunity to elope with Constance and plans to flee from the
house as soon as the horses take some rest. Yet Constance is not ready to
leave behind her jewels inherited from her uncle. She tells him that she has
been persuading her aunt to let her wear the jewels and she is now near the
success. Once she gets the jewels she will be ready to elope with him; but
Hastings tells her that he does not care for the jewels, rather he cares only
for her. Hastings fears that if Marlow discovers that he has mistaken the
house of Mr. Hardcastle for the inn, their plan will be ruined as he will not
stay there anymore. Hence they decide that they will not disclose to
Marlow that he is in Hardcastle’s house.
Marlow is irritated with the behaviour of the innkeeper who is following
him every time in the house. He finds Constance in the company of
Hastings who then tells him that Constance and Kate are accidentally
present in the same inn at the present moment. Marlow becomes very
nervous as soon as he hears about Kate’s presence in the inn and
determines that he will not meet her until the next day as her clothing has
been bad after a whole day’s travelling. Constance tells Marlow if he
meets Kate the next day in her house rather than meeting her there in the
inn, she will take it as a sign that he does not want to wait for her. So
Marlow requests Hastings to stay with him during his meeting with Kate.
However, Hastings tries to convince Marlow that Kate is after all a
woman; but Marlow says that Kate is a woman to whom he is very much
afraid to meet. Meanwhile Kate who has gone for a walk returns there
thinking that she will present herself very modestly as Marlow expects.
Hastings introduces Marlow to Kate, but Marlow becomes uncomfortable
and couldn’t speak with Kate; so she breaks the silence and says that she is
happy to find Marlow safely arrived there. Marlow still struggles to speak
with Kate, so Hastings tries to encourage him with the words that he has
been impressing Kate. As Marlow becomes more reserved, Hastings and
Constance decide to leave them so that they can speak with one another.
Marlow becomes silent in the absence of Hastings so Kate asks him about
his experiences with women. He tells her that he has never spent time with
women and he knows that he is now making her feel bored. Kate tries to
motivate him by assuring that she is enjoying his company and sometimes
even completes his incomplete sentences. She tries to discuss the topics of
virtue, refinement and hypocrisy leading him to again believe that she is
enjoying his company; however, Marlow starts feeling embarrassed and
leaves her telling that Constance is calling them. When he exits, Kate
laughs at his unbelievable bashful nature. She wonders if she could boost a
little confidence in him as she feels that she has started liking him.
Mrs. Hardcastle, Tony, constant and Hastings are together where constants
is flirting with Tony who tells her that he does not like her and expects to
be left alone; whereas Hastings tells Mrs. Hardcastle about the fashionable
life in London in which she is interested. Although she has never visited
London, she says that she has learned much about fashions and trends in
London from her friends and through the magazines. She asks him his
opinion about her hairstyle and, as he praises her, she tells him that she has
43
imitated the hairstyle from the magazine. She further says that she is
Literature - II
disappointed with Mr. Hardcastle’s old fashioned views about her
hairstyle who forces her to put on a wig. She then asks Hastings about the
most fashionable age; and he replies that recently in London forty is
considered to be the most fashionable age, however women are thinking to
make it fifty. She considers herself too young to come to the age of
fashion whereas Constance will be considered as a child in the society in
terms of fashion. She then points towards Constance and says that
Constance thinks that she is too old to wear the jewels. As Hastings asks if
Tony is her brother, she tells that Constance and Tony are going to marry
soon. She then turns her attention to Tony asking him what romantic
things were going on between them; and Tony replies that he just wanted
to be alone and asked Constance to leave him. Mrs. Hardcastle then tries
to convince Constance that Tony is in love with her. She scolds Tony to
act like a grown up man as he hits Constance while standing by her to
show their height. So Tony demands to treat him like a grown up man and
allow him to use his wealth. Consequently, an argument starts between
Tony and Mrs. Hardcastle, so Tony rushes to help Mrs. Hardcastle asking
her that he will talk with Tony in order to let him know his
responsibilities. Mrs. Hardcastle likes the idea and exits with Constance
expressing her misery over her son’s behaviour. When Hastings asks Tony
if he does not like women, he answers that he does not like the disgraceful
women like Constance who play tricks. He then tells Hastings that he is in
love with Bet Bouncer, a girl with broad, red cheeks and black eyes. So
Hastings exposes his love for Constance and asks for his help in marrying
her as well as escaping from the place with Constance’s jewellery. Tony
shows his readiness to help the couple to get the jewellery as well as elope
from the house.
Act III
Mr. Hardcastle contemplates on the character of Marlow who has been
described as a modest person by his friend Sir Charles. He is surprised
with Marlow’s rudeness who has asked him to clean his shoes. When Kate
enters in a plain dress, which he usually prefers, he advises her to not
change her style as it was his mistake to suppose Marlow as a modest
man. As Kate expresses her amazement over Marlow’s shy behaviour, he
feels that she has also experienced his rude behaviour. However, later he
realizes that he has a different opinion than his daughter as she expresses
him to be a timid and awkward person, while he considers him to be
presumptuous. So, though he rejects Marlow, she thinks of giving him
another chance as he can be a better person than he appears for the first
time. He taunts Kate as she is thinking to change him into a good husband
only because he is physically attractive, but then asks her pardon because
both of them are aware that Kate is a smart and intellectual girl who will
not be fascinated with physical beauty. Finally, both of them decide to
give Marlow another chance so that they can check if Marlow is an
impolite man or a modest person.
Tony enters with a jewellery box of Constance, which he has taken out
from his mother’s drawers, and hands it to Hastings. He says that he has
44
secret keys which he always uses to take out the money from his mother’s Oliver Goldsmith’s She
drawers whenever he wants to visit the Three Pigeons House. Hastings Stoops to Conquer-I
tells Tony that Constance is trying to persuade Mrs. Hardcastle to give her
the jewellery which is the correct way to take it from her. However, Tony
suggests to him that his mother will never give her the jewellery, so he can
keep it at the present moment. Hastings becomes anxious if Mrs.
Hardcastle discovers the stealing of the Jewel box. Meanwhile they see
Mrs. Hardcastle and Constance entering the room discussing about the
jewellery where Mrs. Hardcastle suggests that Constance does not require
jewels to look more beautiful as wearing jewellery has become out-dated
fashion. Constance tries to convince Mrs. Hardcastle that probably Tony
will be attracted to her when he sees her wearing the jewellery. Yet, Mrs.
Hardcastle says that wearing jewellery has become risky and she is now
not certain that she still has the jewellery. In the aside, Tony tells Mrs.
Hardcastle to inform Constance that her jewels have been lost; so she
informs Constance that her jewels have been missing and she would
provide her with the nice garnets to put on until she discovers it. As she
exits to bring the garnets, Tony tells Constance that her jewels have been
given to Hastings and she can run away with him. Mrs. Hardcastle reenters
informing Tony about the robbery of the jewellery; and Tony assures her
that he will be the witness for the robbery. She tries to convince him that
the jewels have been really stolen; but he continuously tells her that he
will be the witness of her false story. Mrs. Hardcastle understands that
Tony is teasing her and hence starts shouting at him.
Pimple informs Kate that Tony has misguided Marlow who mistakenly
supposes Hardcastle house as an inn. When he finds Kate there in a simple
dress, he has become more confused and starts thinking Kate to be a
barmaid. Furthermore, he does not remember Kate’s face as during their
conversation he became too restless and uncomfortable to look at her face.
Kate admits that there was a bonnet on her face during their conversation
and in addition to it, Marlow became too shy to look at her. She decides to
do not reveal the reality to Marlow. Rather his confusion will give her an
opportunity: firstly, as he speaks freely with lower class women she will
impress him pretending to be a barmaid; and secondly, she will get a
chance to judge him in terms of the qualities he possesses to be an ideal
husband. Then Kate prepares herself to look like the lower-class woman.
Marlow is very much disappointed as the innkeeper and his wife are not
providing him privacy. Kate appears in front of him in the form of servant
and ask him if he has called her but Marlow ignoring her replies that he
has not called the servant and starts speaking to himself about Kate who
seemed to him very unattractive and that he will return as his task of
meeting the daughter of Mr. Hardcastle given to him by his father has
been completed. Meanwhile, Kate approaches him continuously asking if
he called her; hence he looks at her and finds a charming young girl
standing in front of him. He is immediately attracted to her and starts
flirting. He asks her age and tries to kiss her; so she gets away from him,
maintaining the dignity of a lower class servant girl. She remarks that he
seemed to be very shy when he met Miss Hardcastle. He tries to control
the situation and says that Miss Hardcastle is an abstinent girl who
45
frightened him and that he does not want to disclose his rejection of her as
Literature - II
it would hurt her. Kate comments that he seems to her as a real ladies’
man and he explains that he is called a Rattle because he spends much of
the time in the club with the older women. He then asks her whether she
works there and she points out that she did all the embroidery work in the
house. He expresses his desire to see the work and grabs her, so she tries
to escape from his clutches. Meanwhile, Mr. Hardcastle enters only to find
Kate in the arms of Marlow; so Marlow leaves her and starts cursing his
luck as he has been caught by the innkeeper. After Marlow exits from the
place, Mr. Hardcastle asks her if this is the modesty and bashfulness of a
man she was trying to convince. Kate tries to convince her father that she
will prove the decency of Marlow but disappointed with his behaviour Mr.
Hardcastle intends to throw Marlow out of his house. Kate then persuades
her father to give her an hour to prove her stance; so Mr. Hardcastle
permits her but with a promise that she will be transparent throughout the
period and tell everything to him.
Act IV
Constance informs Hastings that Sir Charles is going to visit Hardcastle
house tonight. Hastings tells her that they should leave before the arrival
of Sir Charles otherwise he will expose Hastings’ identity to Mr.
Hardcastle. He further tells her that he has given the jewels to Marlow in
order to keep it safely, and Tony has also promised him to give fresh
horses for their journey.
Marlow tells a servant that he is confused with the behaviour of Hastings
as he has given him the box of jewellery to take care of even though they
both are travelling together. He then gives the box to the servant and asks
him to hand it over to the innkeeper’s wife so that she will guard the box.
Within a short period, the servant enters informing Marlow that the
landlady is asking him who has given him the box leading Marlow to
laugh at the innkeeper and the landlady and thinks of them as an eccentric.
Meanwhile Hastings, who has been tired with all the arrangements for
their elopement, enters the room and finds Marlow lost in the thoughts.
Marlow says that he has talked with a lovely barmaid and it seems to him
that she is ready to have a relationship with him. Hastings advises him to
not exploit the honour of a barmaid but Marlow tells him that the barmaids
are respectless and he is going to pay in exchange of sexual pleasure.
However, he also assures Hastings that if he found the barmaid to be ah
honoured women, he will not seduce her sexually. Then, Hastings asks
him if he has kept the jewel box safe and Marlow replies that he has given
the box to landlady so that it can be safe. Hastings realises that he will not
again won the fortune of Constance as Mrs. Hardcastle took the jewel box
in her custody.
Mr. Hardcastle has been annoyed with the behaviour of Marlow’s servant
who has been drunk. He thinks that Marlow’s servant can be a dreadful
example for his own servants and expresses his anger for such behaviour.
Marlow mistakes what Mr. Hardcastle tells him and thinks that the
innkeeper has been angry because his servant is not drinking excessively
46
limiting innkeeper’s business; so he calls the servant in order to show him Oliver Goldsmith’s She
how much he has drunk. Mr. Hardcastle becomes impatient with the Stoops to Conquer-I
arrogant replies of Marlow and asks him to leave his house right the
moment. When he finds Marlow claiming his right to stay there, he tells
him to take all the valuable things including silver, mahogany table,
Hogarth print of the Rake’s Progress, etc. in the house with him. He even
ignores Marlow asking for the bill and continues to scold him for acting
badly. He intended to welcome a modest young man when he received a
letter from Sir Charles, but is frustrated to experience the insolent
behaviour of Marlow. He says that he will report about the bad manners of
Marlow to Sir Charles and then exits from the place.
Marlow begins to think over the way Mr. Hardcastle scolds him while
Kate enters. She recognises that Marlow has probably realized that he is in
Hardcastle house, but she decides not to reveal the complete truth to him.
When he asks her who she is, she tells him that she is distantly related
with the house. So, he asks her whether she works there as a barmaid, and
she tells him that he is in Mr. Hardcastle’s house. Marlow realizes that he
has made a huge mistake supposing the house as an inn. He confesses that
he has mistaken her to be a barmaid and now desires to leave the
Hardcastle house as early as possible in order to save himself from the
humiliation. Kate pretends to be very sad to see him leaving her suddenly
as he acted kindly with her. Marlow is moved with Kate’s despair and
becomes unhappy to separate from her. He says that they belong to
different social backgrounds. He further adds that she is a virtuous girl and
he will never seduce her. So, she tells him that though she is poor, she
belongs to same class of Miss Hardcastle and the only difference between
them is the fortune in possession of Miss Hardcastle. Marlow promises to
accept her as his wife if his family permits him that revealed his real
character further leading Kate to determine to stop him leaving in every
possible way.
Tony tells Constance that Mrs. Hardcastle has got back the jewel box from
the servant, hence she will not suspect of its stealing. Meanwhile Mrs.
Hardcastle enters, finds Tony and Constance together and thinks that they
are in love. Diggory arrives with a note for Tony who asks to give it to his
mother to read aloud, but Constance glimpses the handwriting of Hastings
and tries to divert her attention to the story. Tony gets the sights of his
name in the latter and attempts to take it, so Mrs. Hardcastle hands it over
and asks him to read aloud. However, Constance seizes the letter and tells
them that it is not important as it is about cockfighting. Tony is very much
eager to know the content in the letter, so he gives it to her mother who
discovers the plan of Hastings and Constance to flee from there with the
help of Tony. She becomes angry at Tony and Constance and decides to
send Constance under the strict guard of Aunt Pedigree. She exits to
prepare for the passage of Constance leaving Tony and Constance
together. Constance blames Tony for giving the letter to Mrs. Hardcastle
and ruining the plan. After a while, Hastings enters and starts scolding
Tony for destroying his plan; then Marlow enters and rebukes Tony for
deceiving him in such a way that he started feeling humiliated. He also
holds Hastings responsible for his embarrassment as he has kept him in
47
darkness by not telling that they are in Hardcastle house. In the meantime,
Literature - II
servant enters informing them that Mrs. Hardcastle asked Constance to
come to carriage hastily; so Constance tells Hastings to wait for her.
Marlow rebukes Tony for complicating the things; but Tony assures that
he will make everything fine and asks Hastings to meet him in the garden
after two hours.
Act V
A servant informs the departure of Constance and the arrival of Sir
Charles at the house of Mr. Hardcastle who then learns that Marlow has
mistaken Mr. Hardcastle as an innkeeper. Mr. Hardcastle says that Marlow
should have told him that he is well-born, whereas Sir Charles tells Mr.
Hardcastle that Marlow probably has considered him as an eccentric
person. Mr. Hardcastle says that he is excited to see the marriage of
Marlow and Kate, so Sir Charles asks him whether he is sure about
Marlow’s love for Kate. Mr. Hardcastle says that Kate told him that
Marlow likes her and he has even seen Marlow holding the hand of Kate.
Marlow appears at the scene, who is ashamed of his behaviour and asks
Mr. Hardcastle to forgive him for his being unkind to him. Mr. Hardcastle
asks Marlow whether he likes Kate and desires to marry her, but Marlow
denies having such intention. Mr. Hardcastle considers Marlow’s refusal
as his embarrassment and tries to motivate him to express his true feelings
about Kate. However, he is shocked when he finds Marlow refusing to
hold the hand of Kate.
As per the instructions of Tony, Hastings waits for Tony in the garden
contemplating whether Tony will keep his promise. Tony enters and tells
Hastings that he has brought Constance back to the house. When Hastings
asks how he has succeeded to stop Constance from going to Aunt
Pedigree, Tony says that his mother is afraid of being lost far from the
house and hence he asked the carried man to take them to a large circle
and bring them back to the house. Hastings expresses his gratitude and
leaves Tony to find constants in order to run away with her. Tony assures
him that he will engage Mrs. Hardcastle during their elopement.
Mrs. Hardcastle enters in dirty clothes assuming that she is away from the
house and lost somewhere. Tony further leads her to believe that she is
really lost. When Mr. Hardcastle comes out in the garden to stroll Tony
tells Mrs. Hardcastle that a highwayman is coming there and instructs her
to hide somewhere in the bush. He assures her that he will cough if the
stranger seems to be dangerous so that she can remain hidden. Meanwhile
Mr. Hardcastle comes there and asks Tony whether he has returned from
his Aunt Pedigree’s house leaving his mother and Constance. Tony tells
him that they have safely reached his aunt’s house; however, Mr.
Hardcastle is suspicious of Tony’s quick return and asks him with whom
he was talking there. When he goes towards the bushes Mrs. Hardcastle
jumps out pleading the stranger to forgive her son, so Mr. Hardcastle asks
her whether he is really unknown to her and whether she has not
recognised their garden. He quickly understands that this is another trick
of Tony that led Mrs. Hardcastle in confusion. Mrs. Hardcastle realizes her
48
deception and shouts at him but Tony holds her responsible for his Oliver Goldsmith’s She
behaviour. Stoops to Conquer-I
Hastings is trying to convince Constance to elope with him but she is so

tired that she cannot run away with him. Hastings attempts to persuade her
that they do not require Constance’s fortune as they love each other.
However, Constance thinks to report the matter to Mr. Hardcastle so that
he can convince his wife to permit her to marry Hastings which will also
be beneficial to her to receive her jewels.
Marlow visits Kate to say goodbye before departing from the house; but
Kate, who now speaks in her own voice, says that he can stay there if he
desires. He tells her that he is very sad to leave her but he does not wish to
annoy his father by marrying a woman from a lower class. Kate tells him
that she does not belong to the lower class; in fact, she is born in the house
of high rank equal in status to the woman he comes to visit. She says that
she knows he wants to marry a rich woman. Meanwhile Mr. Hardcastle
and Sir Charles hear Kate and Marlow discussing with one another and
hide behind the curtain. They hear Marlow telling Kate that he does not
care for the fortune. He also admits that he was initially attracted towards
her beauty but then is impressed with her smartness and intelligence. He
now determines to stay there and is sure that his father will approve him to
marry her; but Kate says that she does not want to force him to marry a
woman whom he considered belonging to a lower class. So he kneels in
front of her and tells that he is also of the equal rank to her. Sir Charles
and Mr. Hardcastle come out of the curtain and ask Marlow why he lied to
them that he does not like Miss Hardcastle leading once again him in the
confusion. Kate tells him that she is the daughter of Mr. Hardcastle whom
he considered to be an unattractive and tall girl. He feels very embarrassed
when he realizes his mistake; however, Mr. Hardcastle assures him that
they will forgive his mistakes.
Mrs. Hardcastle enters along with Tony informing that Constance and
Hastings have eloped from there. Sir Charles tells everyone that Hastings
is a respectable man; so, Mr. Hardcastle becomes very happy to find
Constance marrying such a good person. Mrs. Hardcastle is also happy as
she has retained the fortune of Constance. She says that she would have
given the fortune to her if she had waited for Tony to come to the age of
twenty-one and then refused him to marry, but she hurriedly took the
decision to marry Hastings and left her jewels. Mr. Hardcastle does not
like his wife’s greedy manner. Meanwhile, Constance enters along with
Hastings and tells Mr. Hardcastle that her dead father approved their
marriage and now she expects him to understand the situation and permit
her even if Mrs. Hardcastle is not ready. Mr. Hardcastle then ask Tony if
he has refused to marry with constants; but Tony replies that he is not of
the age of twenty-one, so his decision does not matter here. However, Mr.
Hardcastle tells everyone that Tony is actually of twenty-one years old and
he lie everyone because he wanted Tony to be more mature before he
owns his fortune. Tony is surprised to hear that he has actually come to the
age and then tells everyone that he does not want to marry Constance;
hence, she is free to marry the person of his choice and also retain her
49
fortune. Though Mrs. Hardcastle is disappointed with the final
Literature - II
reconciliation, all other characters become happy and starts to prepare for
the marriage of two couples. Mr. Hardcastle finally greets his daughter
and says that she will be a good wife as she was always his wonderful
daughter.
5.5 CONCLUSION
They play She Stoops to Conquer which is subtitled as The Mistakes of a
Night is one of the finest blending of sentimental elements with wit and
intelligence. It deals with the themes of youthful love, adventure and
romance that engage the audience right from the beginning to the end who
seem to enjoy every moment presented in the play. He presents two
characters with opposite qualities and places them with the heroines who
are beautiful, smart and charming. The relationships of the character are
further complicated with the delineation of Tony Hardcastle who is
mysterious, tricky and mischievous character. The play comments on the
role of class and the struggle of characters in order to secure their place in
the society. The social, cultural and economic conditions of the society are
artistically presented to point out the views of contemporary period. The
play brings to forth the contrast between city life and the country life, the
contrast between aged persons and the young one, and the contrast
between appearance and reality.
1. Write in detail the development of the plot in the play She Stoops to
Conquer.
2. Discuss the major themes reflected in the play She Stoops to Conquer.
3. Critically examine the play She Stoops to Conquer as a commentary
on social structure.
4. Write a brief note on the critical reception of the play She Stoops to
Conquer.
5.7 BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Goldsmith, William. She Stoops to Conquer. London: Harper and
Brother, 1887. Print.
2. https://www.litcharts.com/lit/she-stoops-to-conquer
3. https://www.encyclopedia.com/arts/educational-magazines/she-stoops-
conquer#:~:text=Tony
%20refuses%20Constance%2C%20whom%20he,
and%20Constance%E2%80%94ready%20to%20wed.
4. https://study.com/learn/lesson/she-stoops-to-conquer-oliver-goldsmith-
summary.html

50
6
OLIVER GOLDSMITH’S SHE STOOPS TO
CONQUER-II
Unit Structure
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Critical Summary
6.2 Analysis of the Plot
6.3 Analysis of Major Characters
6.4 Themes in the play She Stoops to Conquer
6.5 Conclusion
6.7 Bibliography
6.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying the unit, the students will be able to:
 Critically evaluate the development of the plot
 assess the development of characters
 comment on different themes demonstrated in the play
 discuss various symbols and point out its significance
 explore diverse techniques Goldsmith used to present his play
6.1 CRITICAL SUMMARY

The play opens at Hardcastle house where Mrs. Hardcastle is complaining
to her husband that he has never taken her to see the new things in
London. Mr. Hardcastle says that he likes old things and complains her
that she has spoiled her son Tony. Meanwhile, Tony enters and Mrs.
Hardcastle tries to stop him from going to Three Pigeons House but fails
in her attempt. Kate enters in fashionable clothing which Mr. Hardcastle
dislikes so he remarks; however, she reminds him their deal that she will
wear the dresses of her choice in the morning and the dresses of his choice
in the evening. Then Mr. Hardcastle tells her that Marlow, who is the son
of his friend Sir Charles, is going to visit their house in order to see Kate
and he probably marries her. He also says that Marlow is intelligent,
handsome and modest person; hence, Kate decides to make a good
impression on him during his visit. After the exit of Mr. Hardcastle,
51
Constance enters and learns that Marlow is going to visit them. She tells
Literature - II
Kate that she knows Marlow because he is the best friend of her lover
Hastings. She also tells her that Marlow is very shy to speak with the
women belong to upper class; yet he speaks freely with the women belong
to lower classes. She then says that Mrs. Hardcastle is still forcing her to
marry Tony, so she has started pretending her love for Tony and showing
her willingness to marry him. Tony visits to a bar called Three Pigeons
House, where usually he spends his time singing and drinking with his
friends belonged to lower class. The bar owner informs Tony that the two
men are searching Hardcastle house. He identifies that the gentleman must
be Marlow and plans to play a trick leading him to believe that he has
reached the wrong place. He then directs Marlow and Hastings to
Hardcastle house assuring that they will not reach his house tonight; so
they decide to spend the night there helping Tony to lead them to visit one
of the finest inns at the countryside.
Marlow arrives to the Hardcastle house where Mr. Hardcastle tries to
engage him, but he ignores Mr. Hardcastle supposing him to be the
innkeeper and ask him to show their rooms. While Hastings is alone,
Constance enters and tells him that they are in Mr. Hardcastle’s house.
Both of them then decide not to inform Marlow about where they are as
Marlow will never stay there and leave the place immediately. Then
Hastings convinces Constance to run away with him but she refuses to go
without her fortune. Marlow enters and tells that he is irritated because the
innkeeper is not leaving him alone. Hastings informs Marlow that
accidentally Constance and Kate have been in the same inn where they are
lodged. Marlow becomes anxious, while Kate enters and begins to speak
with Marlow, but he remains reserved, so Hastings and Constance exit
from there leaving them alone. Marlow becomes so embarrassed that he
has even not looked at the face of Kate. As he feels very nervous and starts
speaking incomplete sentences, Kate tries to motivate him, but he exits
living her alone. Hastings tries to make a good impression on Mrs.
Hardcastle by appreciating her hairstyle and giving compliments to her
taste of fashions. He also asks about Constance who is flirting with Tony;
so Mr. Hardcastle tells him that they are engaged to marry. When Mrs.
Hardcastle exits, Tony tells Hastings that he is not interested in Constance
and intends to marry a country girl called Bet Bouncer.
Kate and Mr. Hardcastle share their experiences of Marlow with one
another so that they can judge his character. Kate observes Marlow as
incredibly shy whereas Mr. Hardcastle views him as a rude person. He
thinks to reject Marlow but she convinces him to give Marlow another
chance so that they can judge him thoroughly. In another room, Tony
gives the jewel box which he has stolen from Mrs. Hardcastle’s drawers to
Hastings. As he finds Mrs. Hardcastle and Constance coming to the room,
he asks Hastings to exit with the jewel box. Constance is trying to
convince Mrs. Hardcastle to let her take jewels so that she can wear it, but
Mrs. Hardcastle remarks that wearing a jewel has now become an old
fashion. As Constance continuously forces Mrs. Hardcastle to give her
jewel box, Tony advises Mrs. Hardcastle to tell Constance that her jewel
box is missing. Constance becomes angry for misplacing the jewel box;
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however, Tony tells her secretly that he has given the jewel box to Oliver Goldsmith’s She
Hastings who is now making an arrangement for their elopement. Mrs. Stoops to Conquer-II
Hardcastle re-enters informing Tony that she has really lost the jewel box
but Tony makes fun of her, so she exits angrily. Kate enters in old
fashioned clothing with her maid Pimple who reveals to her that Tony has
tricked Marlow to believe Hardcastle house as an inn. She also informs
Kate that Marlow has mistakenly considered her to be a barmaid so she
decides to take advantage of his mistake in order to speak with him. Kate
uses a lower class accent while speaking with Marlow, who seems to be
lost in his thoughts of Miss Hardcastle. When he looks at her, he finds her
more charming and beautiful girl and tries to seduce her. Meanwhile, Mr.
Hardcastle enters which makes Marlow nervous and flee from the room.
Mr. Hardcastle is annoyed with the behaviour of Marlow and decides to
throw him away. However, Kate convinces him to give her one hour so
that she can prove Marlow is a good person.
Constance tells Hastings that Sir Charles is going to visit the house
tonight; hence, Hastings makes the plan to run away before the arrival of
Sir Charles, otherwise Sir Charles will reveal his identity. Hastings further
tells Constance that he has given her jewel box to Marlow in order to keep
it safe. Marlow enters carrying the jewel box which he asks his servant to
give the landlady so that it can remain safe. Hastings comes to Marlow
only to realise that Mrs. Hardcastle has taken possession of the jewel box
again. After Hastings exits, Mr. Hardcastle enters complaining to Marlow
that his servant is drunk, but Marlow misinterprets what Mr. Hardcastle
tells him, leading Mr. Hardcastle once again to experience his arrogance.
Mr. Hardcastle becomes angry and says that he will complain to his friend
Sir Charles about his son’s arrogant behaviour. Marlow understands that
he has mistaken something and asks Kate, who tells him that he is in
Hardcastle house. However, she keeps her identity secret and tells Marlow
that she is a relative of the Hardcastle family. Marlow becomes nervous
for behaving badly with Mr. Hardcastle, and decides to get away as early
as possible; but he is moved with Kate’s despair on his departure.
Constance tells Tony her plan of elopement while Mrs. Hardcastle enters;
hence, she begins to pretend to flirt with Tony so that Mrs. Hardcastle may
not suspect her future plan. Servant arrives with a letter for Tony that
reveals the plan of Hastings to Mrs. Hardcastle, who then decides to send
Constance to Aunt Pedigree’s house. Hastings becomes disappointed as
his plan has been disclosed and begins to blame Tony. Marlow appears
there and begins to shout at Tony for deceiving and leading him to feel
humiliated. Constance exits to Aunt Pedigree’s house urging Hastings to
wait for her. Tony assures Hastings that he will make everything right and
asks him to meet at the garden after two hours.
Sir Charles and Mr. Hardcastle laughs at the follies of Marlow who has
mistaken Hardcastle house for an inn. Mr. Hardcastle says that Marlow
will marry Kate as he has seen Marlow holding Kate’s hand. Marlow
enters and asks Mr. Hardcastle to forgive him for his rude behaviour; but
Mr. Hardcastle says that, as he is going to marry Kate, his mistakes do not
matter. However, Marlow refuses to have the intention of marrying Kate
and leaves the room. Kate enters and tells them that Marlow is in love
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with her and she will prove it if they hide behind the screen. In the garden,
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Tony tells Hastings that instead of going to Aunt Pedigree’s house, he has
taken Mrs. Hardcastle and Constance to a circle and brought them back to
the house. He also tells him that Mrs. Hardcastle believes that she is lost in
a dangerous region. Hastings goes to Constance in order to convince her to
run away from the house but she refuses to elope as she is tired from the
journey. In fact, she suggests Hastings to tell the entire situation to Mr.
Hardcastle who can help them to seek the permission of Mrs. Hardcastle
to marry. In one of the rooms of the house, Mr. Hardcastle and Sir Charles
listen to the discussion between Marlow and Kate. Kate now speaks in her
own voice asking Marlow to stay there if he wishes; but Marlow tells her
that he has no intention to marry a woman of lower class against the
desires of his father. Kate tells him that she also belongs to the upper class,
but she is a poor girl; and she is aware that Marlow will not marry her as
he intends to marry a rich girl. Marlow stoops before her revealing his
generous, kind and obedient nature. Sir Charles and Mr. Hardcastle come
out of the screen and ask Marlow why he has not expressed to them his
feelings for Kate. Initially, Marlow becomes confused but then
understands that the girl to whom he supposes barmaid is actually Miss
Kate Hardcastle. Mrs. Hardcastle enters, informing them of the elopement
of Constance and Hastings. Sir Charles tells that Hastings is the
honourable man and so Mr. Hardcastle expresses his approval for
Constance’s marriage with Hastings. Mrs. Hardcastle is happy as she can
now keep the fortune of Constance. Mr. Hardcastle asks Tony whether he
would marry Constance and he says that he does not have any intention of
marrying Constance but his opinion doesn’t matter as he is not twenty-one
years old. Mr. Hardcastle tells Tony that he is already twenty-one years
old but his mother kept it secret so that he can become more mature. Tony
then tells everyone that he does not want to marry Constance and she is
free to get married with the person of her choice and also keep her fortune.
In the end of the play, everyone becomes happy except Mrs. Hardcastle
expecting the marriage of two couples.
6.2 ANALYSIS OF THE PLOT

The opening of the play serves as a background to the later development
of the play. The first act of the play begins with the projection of a couple
– a wife complaining her husband that he has never taken her to see the
fashionable city life. Mrs. Hardcastle’s fascination for the city life reveals
her obsession for the fashionable life whereas Mr. Hardcastle likes only
old things. He thinks that the fashionable city life does not provide a
worthwhile culture; rather it presents the unaffectionate and ruthless face
in the disguise of affections. His attraction for the old things demonstrates
that he does not intend to change anything in his life. As a result, in the
later part of the play, Marlow seems to believe Hardcastle house for an
inn. Mr. Hardcastle rebukes his wife for spoiling the life of their son Tony.
In fact, it is she who provoked Tony from being educated believing that
only money is necessary to live a satisfactory life. She gives the reason of
Tony’s sickness for her not allowing him to educate; but without
education or any occupation, Tony becomes sick and drinks in the
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company of his lower class friends which seems to be inappropriate for the Oliver Goldsmith’s She
social status he has. Furthermore, his disrespect for his elders including his Stoops to Conquer-II
mother and the pranks he plays makes him vagabond who does not care
for anything in his life.
On the other hand, Kate stands totally opposite to her brother as she has
been exposed to the mannerisms of the upper class society and leads a
fashionable life. Unlike her brother, she never argues with her father;
rather she has made a deal with her father. Even though there are
disagreements between Kate and Mr. Hardcastle on the choices of clothes
and the values a man should possess, there is also a mutual understanding
and respect between them which lacks between Tony and Mrs. Hardcastle.
It is this mutual respect that allows Kate to express her opinion as well as
decision about Marlow, when her father describes Marlow’s qualities to
her. She considers the bashful nature of Marlow as a sign of insecurity
which will not end in their marriage; however, if he does possess the
qualities like modesty and intelligence, then his reserved attitude can be
changed. Constance shed further light on the nature of Marlow that reveals
another angle of his life. She tells that he is shy only with the women of
his class and flirts with the women of lower class that shows his use of
dignity to overcome the women of lower social stature.
Constance is the ward of Mrs. Hardcastle and requires her permission to
marry; but Mrs. Hardcastle does not have true feelings for her. She desires
Constance to marry with Tony so that she can acquire the fortune of
Constance. It is very much striking that she ignores the disparity in the
natures of Tony and Constance as Tony is rustic whereas Constance is
cultured and intelligent. However, both Tony and Constance are aware
about their feelings and do not want to marry one another. Constance is
very much clear about her love for Hastings; hence, she just pretends to
love Tony in order to keep away Mrs. Hardcastle from forcing her to think
of Tony as her husband. On the other hand, Tony’s views towards life are
shaped in the company of people he spends much of the time at Three
Pigeons House. All his friends belong to lower class reflecting that
probably Tony has never been introduced in the elite society of his own
class. Mr. Hardcastle does not like Tony’s irresponsible behaviour and
occasionally scolds him; so, when he learns that Marlow is searching
Hardcastle house, he decides to take revenge on Mr. Hardcastle. Tony
meets Marlow who is gentleman and gets easily tricked as he fears of
being mocked by the strangers that prevented him to take the help of
strangers in asking the directions for Hardcastle house. Before exercising
his plan, Tony makes sure about what his step-father told them about him;
and once he confirms that he has been badly reputed, he manipulates all
the available resources to lead the two gentlemen to believe that they are
going to live in the inn instead of a house and that the innkeeper always
presents to his guests as a honourable man.
Act II opens with Mr. Hardcastle who is instructing his servants how to
behave in front of his city guests revealing his attempts to teach them all
the city manners which he always hated. When Marlow and Hastings
arrive in Hardcastle house, they seem to be impressed with the old
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furniture and decorations used in the house. Marlow is not confident to
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speak with Kate even if he has travelled a lot and taken excellent
education, so he becomes nervous and tells his situation to Hastings who
stands in total opposition to Marlow in terms of development of character.
Hastings is confident in engaging the women of his class effectively;
however, he is worried that he will be mistaken in the Hardcastle family
as, though he has taken the permission of Constance’s father, his courtship
remains secrete with the death of her father; hence, he desires to elope
with Constance.
Marlow’s education and travelling experience do not come to rescue him
from his fears of women belonged to his own class which is visible when
he remains reserved in his meeting with Kate. He always wants to do not
be judged by the people around him; hence, he becomes nervous with
Kate, but he exercises his superiority when he mistakenly supposes Mr.
Hardcastle to be an innkeeper. He treats Mr. Hardcastle with rudeness in
all of their interactions: when Marlow talks about the inn business during
election campaign, Mr. Hardcastle believe that he is talking about the
parliamentary elections; when Marlow expects the bed to be freshly made,
Mr. Hardcastle considers it his arrogance; and when Mr. Hardcastle
presents the list of delicious menu, Marlow insists for the regular meal
rejecting all the affections of his host. As a result, Mr. Hardcastle is
disappointed with the behaviour of Marlow and his anger reaches to
extreme point when he finds Marlow’s servant very drunk. He expected to
meet a sophisticated person which is also reflected in his attempt to teach
his servants the manners to put on while attending his guests, but all his
experiences leads him to decide to throw Marlow out.
The relationships between Hastings and Constance are based on mutual
understanding and trust; hence, there is no jealousy in him when he finds
Constance trying to stay tuned with Tony in front of Mrs. Hardcastle.
Hastings convinces Constance to run away with him, but she does not
want to leave behind her inheritance indicating her practical approach
even when she fears of being discovered that she is engaged with another
man. Furthermore, their decision to keep Marlow uninformed about his
mistake confirms their maturity as well as willingness to commit for the
life-long relations.
The third act of the play begins with Mr. Hardcastle who is wondering on
the rude demands and arrogant behaviour of Marlow mirroring the
influence of Tony’s trick. He has planned to impress Marlow in a graceful
way offering Marlow warm welcome and delicacies of a host. However,
for Mr. Hardcastle, the mannerisms of Marlow seem to reflect the wicked
influences of French on the aristocratic life of London youth changing
them into impolite, supercilious, egoistic and rude. Further, the
discussions between Kate and Mr. Hardcastle reveal that Kate experiences
of Marlow who is suffering with shyness that has propelled from his little
or no experiences of social life. She assesses the situation in which he has
been trapped and decides to give another chance to Marlow so that she can
judge him better; and therefore, when her father remarks that she has been
moved with the handsome look of Marlow and ignoring his rude
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behaviour, she reminds him her abilities leading her father to apologize Oliver Goldsmith’s She
and agreeing with her in case of giving Marlow another chance to prove Stoops to Conquer-II
his character.
Tony’s act of stealing the jewellery box is unexpected for Hastings; so he
tells Tony that Constance is trying to convince Mrs. Hardcastle to give her
the jewellery. However, Tony is so sure that his mother will not allow
Constance to take the jewellery. The way he steals the jeweller with a
secrete key of his mother’s cupboard and his later explanations of his
always taking money out for his enjoyment indicate his attempts to get out
from the excessive control of his mother. Tony’s understanding of his
mother’s obsession for the jewellery has been demonstrated when she tries
to convince Constance that wearing a jewellery has become out of fashion.
She gives the example of her relatives – who had not returned from
London with the jewellery they took while going there – in order to
support her argument. Tony takes the advantage of his mother’s reluctance
to give Constance her jewels and suggests her to deceive Constance telling
that her inheritance has been missing which has been very much
disturbing for Constance. Tony, however, could not see Constance
annoyed and tells in aside that her property is safe in the hands of
Hastings, and she can take the advantage of situation any time to run away
from the house.
The development in the relationships between Kate and Marlow starts at
this juncture as Kate determines to take the advantage of Marlow’s
mistake who supposes her the barmaid. She appears in simple dress in
front of Marlow so that he can feel comfortable with her that will also
provide her an opportunity to see his conducts. Marlow, who thinks that
the clothings of a person demonstrate his social status, finds Kate as a
barmaid and immediately starts flirting with her. He becomes more easy in
his speech now as he supposes he is talking to the woman of lower social
status who can be licentious.
Act IV starts with the attempts of Tony, Hastings and Constance to
deceive Mrs. Hardcastle that everything is going on as usual. Hastings
shows that he does not know Constance, while Tony demonstrates that he
is flirting with Constance. However, their plan has been somewhat
disturbed when Marlow unknowingly returns the jewel box to Mrs.
Hardcastle in order to keep it safe. Mrs. Hardcastle also remains unaware
about the fact that the jewel box was stolen by Tony as she supposes the
servant who has returned her the box is thief. When Hastings learns that
Marlow has returned the box to landlady again, he suppresses his feelings
because he does not want to reveal the reality to Marlow otherwise he will
feel embarrassing if he leans that he is in Hardcastle house. Hence, even
though Marlow tells him that a barmaid is ready to sleep with him,
Hastings advises him to do not exploit the honour of a woman. However,
Marlow believes that the lower-class women will have a sex with him as
long as he pays for it.
Mr. Hardcastle becomes disappointed when he finds excessively drunk
Marlow’s servant who may cause to lose his control over his own
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servants. He is surprised to learn that Marlow himself instructed his
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servant to drink which leads him to conclude that Marlow is responsible
for the bad behaviour of his servant. Looking at Marlow’s arrogant
behaviour finally Mr. Hardcastle gives up all his hospitality and begins to
scold Marlow causing to realize him that Mr. Hardcastle is, in fact, a
friend of his father Sir Charles. At this point, Kate glimpses Marlow’s
realization and decides to help in locating that he is in Hardcastle house;
but she does not reveal her true identity as he will be shy again. However,
she tries to present herself equal in his rank exposing him that she is
distant relative of Mr. Hardcastle. She also demonstrates that she is
offended with Marlow’s attitude that she will have a sex with him only
because she belongs to the lower class suggesting him that he cannot judge
the people only through their class. As Marlow tells her that he is going to
leave the house as early as possible because he feels humiliated with his
mistakes, she attempts to distract him from his emotions presenting her
misery that she will regret to part from him. He moves with the emotions
of Kate uncovering his own character that though he treats inferior to the
lower class people, he never exploits them for his own benefits. Kate takes
this opportunity once again to disclose that she belongs to same social
status as he is; but this time Marlow has been out of his awkwardness
without realizing that he is speaking to the woman of his own class. At
this point, instead of shyness, he starts thinking of his family’s consent for
the marriage; but before being overpowered by his emotions, he proposes
Kate.
Constance is now aware that she will not get back her jewel because Mrs.
Hardcastle will be more careful for its safety; so she decides to sacrifice
her inheritance for the sake of love. While she flirts for the last time with
Tony in order to keep her unaware about her plan to run away, a servant
enters with a letter from Hastings to Tony expecting his help for the
elopement. Despite of Constance’s attempt to keep away Mrs. Hardcastle
from the letter, Tony gives her it to read that discloses their plan of
elopement. Tony’s act of giving Mrs. Hardcastle the letter indicates her
total control over her son’s life. She becomes angry once she learns that
she has been deceived by Tony, Constance and Hastings, and decides to
send Constance to the house of Aunt Pedigree indicating her attempts to
retain the family wealth in the house and ruining the plan of elopement.
The disappointed Hastings and Constance start blaming Tony for ruining
their plan; Marlow further joins them and expresses his anger on Tony for
causing him embarrassment. Though Tony tricked Marlow to believe
Hardcastle house as an inn, he has not intended any harm to Marlow; and
he was genuinely helping Hastings and Constance in their elopement.
However, it is he who assures the rest of three that he will plan to unite the
lovers once again.
The final act of the play opens with Hastings who does not hope any help
from Tony, who, as he thinks, is rustic, unintelligible and incapable, in
escaping from the terrible situation he is trapped in. On the other hand,
Mr. Hardcastle discovers that Marlow’s behaviour is the result of Tony’s
trick and feels humiliated by Marlow. However, Sir Charles helps him to
come out of his embarrassment by leading him to laugh at the entire
58
situation of misunderstandings. In fact, both the fathers become happy to Oliver Goldsmith’s She
see that their children are going to marry. Therefore, when the Stoops to Conquer-II
embarrassed Marlow enters to ask forgiveness from Mr. Hardcastle, he
treats him in a friendly manner expecting his engagement with Kate; but
again he has been driven to the disappointment as Marlow denies any
emotions for Kate.
Tony once again tricks his mother leading her to believe that she has been
lost forty miles away from the house in the unknown territory proving his
abilities that he is no less smart than the cultured and educated Marlow
and Hastings. It is interesting to note that Mrs. Hardcastle does not
recognise the backyard of her house and supposes her husband as a
stranger. The other angle of her character is revealed at this juncture
because, though she has tried to control her son for the entire life, she is
now ready to sacrifice everything and request the stranger to pardon her
son. When she realizes is that she has been deceived by Tony, she
becomes angry over his bad treatment for her.
Kate asks her father and father-in-law to hide behind the screen so that she
can prove the love of Marlow for her. She has now casted off pretending
to be a barmaid and adopts her own tone because she knows that she has
gradually transformed Marlow who is now confident and has gone beyond
the prejudices of class. The two fathers are still unaware about the reality
and still wonder why Marlow would have lied to them that he has no
feelings for Kate. However, when Marlow realises that he has been
deceived by Kate pretending to him that she is inferior to him, he becomes
embarrassed, but his awkwardness has not overpowered him at this
moment; rather he starts realising that whatever Kate does was only to
gain his love. The further approval of Mr. Hardcastle and Sir Charles give
him new confidence in his relationships with Kate.
When Mr. Hardcastle learns about the elopement of Constance with
respectable man called Hastings, he becomes happy for her and discards
the notion of his wife to retain the fortune of Constance in the house.
Constance and Hastings return the house same night with the hope that
Mr. Hardcastle will help them to convince his wife for their relationship.
Mr. Hardcastle finds his wife’s attempt to influence the situation and
exposes the truth that Tony has already become of twenty-one years old
and can take his own decisions further leading him to declare that he is not
interested in marrying Constance. Thus, the play ends happily for all the
characters except Mrs. Hardcastle who has now no control over her son as
well as on the fortune of Constance.
6.3 ANALYSIS OF MAJOR CHARACTERS

6.3.1. Marlow:
Marlow is the protagonist of the play She Stoops to Conquer. He is a very
smart, intelligent and handsome person belonging to the distinguished
family; however, he is shy and has no confidence to speak with the women
born in sophisticated upper class society. He always feels embarrassed and
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remains reserved while speaking with them, but his awkwardness never
Literature - II
obstructs him while he speaks with the women belonging to the lower
class society. He has been deceived by Tony, Hastings and Kate for the
greater part of the play and all his behaviour is the result of his mistakes
Marlow mistakenly supposes Mr. Hardcastle as an innkeeper and behaves
rudely with him. Similarly, he makes mistakes in judging Kate who
appears in front of him in a simple dress and considers her to be a
barmaid. All his shyness has been shed off as soon as he notices a
beautiful barmaid and starts speaking with her in his attempt to impress
her. However, when he met her earlier, he had not even looked at her face
for once and concluded that she is an unattractive and tall girl. He was
neither eager to speak with her nor fascinated with her appearance when
Hastings introduced her for the first time. His shyness may have resulted
from his lifestyle as he has spent much of his time in the college or
travelling that may not have provided him an opportunity to mix with the
women of his own class.
Marlowe is also a generous and kind person, who intended to help his
friend without any selfishness. He tells Hastings that he is going to visit
the Hardcastle house so that he can help him meet his ladylove Constance.
He is aware that Hastings will get an opportunity to enter the Hardcastle
house only if he is in the company of Hastings. He is also a dutiful boy
who obeyed his father Sir Charles and travelled to the countryside only to
meet the daughter of Mr. Hardcastle. He is emotionally attached to his
father and, hence, when Kate tells him that she also belongs to the upper
class, he decides not to marry her against the desires of his family.
Marlow becomes humiliated and very angry when he realises that he has
been tricked to believe Mr. Hardcastle house for the inn. He throws bitter
words at Tony for deceiving him. However, he is still under the
impression that he has not been emotionally attached to Miss Hardcastle;
rather he is in love with the barmaid. His confusion has been cleared only
when he comes out of his shyness. There is a kind of transformation in his
character as he becomes comfortable with the lady of his own class in the
end of the play.
6.3.2. Kate Hardcastle:

Kate Hardcastle is the heroine of the play and the only child of Mr.
Hardcastle. She is beautiful, intelligent and a smart girl, who lives at her
will in the company of her father. She has been given complete freedom
and has an affectionate relationship with her father. She learns from her
father that Marlow is going to visit them and he can be her suitor. She also
learns about the character of Marlow from her father and expresses her
own views about him. When she first time meets Marlow, she finds him
terribly shy and tries to motivate him in the conversation with her.
Kate learns from her maid that Marlow supposed her to be a barmaid and
the Hardcastle house as an inn. She decides to take the opportunity of
Marlow’s mistake to find out his real character. Despite her father’s advice
to not change her clothing, as he has already rejected Marlow, she appears
60
in front of Marlow in the simple dress so that he can speak with her freely. Oliver Goldsmith’s She
Eventually, Marlow tries to impress her with his speech and even attempts Stoops to Conquer-II
to kiss her. When her father tells her that he is determined to let Marlow
go, she requests her father to give Marlow another chance so that she can
prove his character. Her attempts to prove Marlow’s character show that
she likes Marlow and does not want to lose him.
Kate is smart and resourceful girl who identifies that the shyness of
Marlow can affect their relationships; hence, she decides to work on it by
helping Marlow to come out of his reserved shell. She informs Marlow
that she is a poor relative of Mr. Hardcastle and shows that she has been
offended with Marlow’s attitude towards her in order to clear his
prejudices about the lower class women and let him realise that one cannot
judge a person’s character based on his class. When Marlow admits that
he is in love with her, she makes sure that Marlow’s nervousness will not
come in their way of love. She then prepares herself for her final move
where Marlow realises that she is the daughter of Mr. Hardcastle. Thus,
the play ends with Kate successfully conquering her love interest.
6.3.3. Mr. Hardcastle:

Mr. Hardcastle is a significant character in the development of the plot. He
belongs to the upper class society but lives in the countryside and
therefore he has developed his interest in everything which is old. He is
conservative in his views and loves to lead the old fashionable life. He
likes old books, old stories and old wine including his old wife. After the
death of his first wife, he married and adopted Tony, the son of his second
wife. Though his second wife complains to him that he has never taken her
to see the fashionable life of the city, they seem to be a happy couple.
Though he finds his step-son to be rude and disrespectful to the elders, he
tolerates his excessive behaviour and follies.
Mr. Hardcastle is a very respectful person, having a sense of dignity and
morality. When he learns that the son of his best friend Sir Charles is
going to visit his house in order to meet his daughter, he prepares for
Marlow’s warm welcome and starts instructing his servants how to behave
in front of his guests. However, he soon realises that Marlow is treating
him as an inferior person and starts wondering how the young generation
in the city has been influenced by the French fashion that has spoiled them
by converting them into impolite, rude and arrogant.
Mr. Hardcastle has a particular affection for his daughter Kate; and there
is a mutual understanding and respect between them. He has given
freedom to his daughter because he believes in her abilities and confident
that she will frankly tell him everything in her life. He informs her that the
son of Sir Charles Marlow is going to visit them so that he can meet her.
He freely tells his intentions to her that he looks at Young Marlow as the
Suitor of his daughter and future husband. However, when he finds
Marlow as rude and arrogant, he rejects him as the future husband of his
daughter and plans to throw him out of the house. Yet Kate convinces him
that Marlow is a modest and dignified person, so he grants her a second
61
chance to prove the character of Marlow. He loses his patients only when
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he finds that Marlow has ordered his servant to behave badly leading him
to scold Marlow for such indecency.
Mr. Hardcastle is a kind-hearted gentleman who finally excuses Marlow
as he learns that Marlow has been tricked by his step-son Tony to believe
him as an innkeeper. He forgives Marlow and accepts him as his son-in-
law. He also helps Constance to find her inheritance, disclosing his wife’s
deception leading the couples to end happily.
6.3.4. Mrs. Hardcastle:

Mrs. Dorothy Hardcastle is a second wife of Mr. Hardcastle. She has a son
called Tony from her first husband. She expects herself to be a fashionable
lady and attempts to imitate French fashions she reads in the magazines.
She is obsessed with the fashionable life of London and always desires to
visit it. She complains to her husband that he has never taken her to see the
city life.
Mrs. Hardcastle has spoiled her son Tony by pampering and preventing
him from the education, who has now been illiterate and wastes his time in
rustic fellows of the country. She aims to marry Tony with Constance
Neville so that she can keep the fortune of Constance in the family only.
She continuously forces Constance to love Tony; but she fails to realise
that she has been deceived by Constance who just pretends to flirt with
Tony for the sake of her jewels.
Though Mrs. Hardcastle tries to control Tony, she becomes the victim of
Tony’s tricks. Tony advises her to tell Constance that her jewel box has
been misplaced which he has stolen from her drawers; and when she finds
the theft of the jewel box, he plays jokes causing her annoyance. However,
she learns the secret plot of Tony, Hastings and Constance through the
letter of Hastings and decides to send Constance to the house of Aunt
Pedigree. Yet, she has again been the victim of Tony’s prank and supposes
that she has been lost in the unknown territory forty miles away from her
own house. In the end of the play, she becomes happy that she has retained
the jewels of Constance as Constance eloped with Hastings without the
permission of Tony; but Mr. Hardcastle exposes the reality to Tony
leading her to be disappointed as she realizes that now she has neither
control over her son nor on the jewels of Constance.
6.4 THEMES IN THE PLAY SHE STOOPS TO

CONQUER
6.4.1. Mistakes and deception:
Mistakes and deception have become a significant theme in the play She
Stoops to Conquer. At the centre of the deception is the protagonist of the
play Marlow who is tricked to believe in Tony and supposes that he has
been living in the inn instead of the house of Mr. Hardcastle. Since the
appearance of Marlow on the stage, he has been deceived for the greater
part of the play. Tony pranks on him and leads him to think that he has
62
taken the wrong way to Hardcastle house. Tony further describes the Oliver Goldsmith’s She
house in such a way that Marlow begins to think it as one of the finest inns Stoops to Conquer-II
in the countryside converted from the old house. Tony’s description of his
father as an innkeeper affects Marlow in such a way that he begins to treat
Mr. Hardcastle in a very rude manner. As a result, Mr. Hardcastle, who
has been described the character of Marlow as a very decent and honest
person, begins to think that Marlow has been spoilt with the influences of
French fashion confirming his belief that only pretentious people live in
the city. He even rejects Marlow as the suitor of his daughter only because
of his false belief. The misunderstanding between Mr. Hardcastle and
Marlow reaches to the extreme point when he finds the servant of Marlow
has been excessively drunk that can spoil the behaviour of his own
servants leading them to be confused once again on what they are
expecting as a response from another. Marlow mistakes that Mr.
Hardcastle is expecting his servant to drink excessively so that Mr.
Hardcastle can make a profit. He calls his servant to show how much he
has been drunk that annoys Mr. Hardcastle who thinks that Marlow has
purposefully asked his servant to act badly which is not a good example
for his own servants, who are, as he instructed, behaving in a modest way.
He is already under the impression that French fashion has influenced the
youth of London causing them to be impolite, arrogant and condescending
which is the result of his earlier interactions with Marlow. Thus, Tony’s
prank not only works on Marlow but Mr. Hardcastle also becomes a
victim of his joke.
Hastings’ deception of Marlow gives another angle to the development of
play. Constance tells Hastings that they are in the Hardcastle house, but
Hastings thinks that they will not tell the fact to Marlow as knowing the
reality he will get away from the house. Therefore, both Constance and
Hastings decide to use Marlow’s mistakes for their own benefit in eloping
from the place. Furthermore, they also agree that Marlow will not stop
there when he learns that he is in the Hardcastle house which will also
effect on his meeting with Kate. Hence, the deception is aimed at the
benefit of Marlow as well as Hastings. Constance deception of Mrs.
Hardcastle is also notable here as she does not want to be controlled by her
guardian. She deceives Mrs. Hardcastle pretending that she is flirting with
Tony only to show her that her persuasion has worked and that she is
ready to marry with Tony. Mrs. Hardcastle is also under the impression
that she has been deceiving Constance by tricking her to marry Tony so
that she can keep the inheritance of Constance in the family only.
Tony also deceives his mother pretending that he is in love with Constance
so that he can help Hastings in his preparations to run away with
Constance. He has stolen the jewel box from his mother’s drawers and
then deceived her to tell lie to Constance that her jewel box has been
missing. Believing in him, she lied that the jewel box has been misplaced
but later discovers that the jewel box actually has been stolen from the
drawers. When Mrs. Hardcastle discovers the affair between Hastings and
Constance, she decides to send Constance to Aunt Pedigree’s house. Tony
promises to Hastings that he will make all the things right and then tricks
his mother to believe that they are in the unknown territory forty miles
63
away from the house. Mrs. Hardcastle also deceived Tony by not
Literature - II
disclosing him that he has come to the age so that she can keep control
over his life. However, when Mr. Hardcastle finds that his wife’s
deception is harmful to the wellbeing of Constance, he tells Tony that he
has already been of the age and can take his own decisions.
In the end of the play, all mistakes have been cleared in order to reveal the
deceptions of each character leading them to finally resolve the
relationships between them. Kate’s masquerading as a lower class woman
led her to find the real character of Marlow which would have been
impossible if she had not deceived Marlow. Thus the play ends in the
happy union of two couples viz. Kate and Marlow, and Constance and
Hastings.
6.4.2. Social structure and class divide:

Social structure and class divide is another significant theme reflected in
the play She is Stoops to Conquer that reveals the picture of 18 century
th
British society. The then British society was divided strictly in the social
classes of upper and lower social stature which has been further
complicated with the mass movement of the people from the country to
the urban areas. The elite class people residing in urban areas regard
themselves as superior, more cultured and sophisticated than the rich
aristocrats living in the country who reflect the rustic life as well as little
education and limited behavioural codes of conduct. Goldsmith presents
this class conflict artistically in the play through the mistakes of Marlow
and his interactions with the Hardcastle family.
Marlow’s mistake to believe Hardcastle house as an inn leads him to
exercise his superior power over Mr. Hardcastle supposing him to be the
innkeeper. He insults Mr. Hardcastle at every situation, interrupts his war
stories supposing his stories are his attempts to show his dignity, orders
him to freshly make his bed and serve the food as per his demands,
rejecting all the hospitality Mr. Hardcastle intended to serve and
demonstrating his rude behaviour with the lower class people. Every time,
Marlow tries to show that he is smart and intelligent than Mr. Hardcastle
only because of his class. This class consciousness is also in the mind of
Mr. Hardcastle who, in his attempt to impress sophisticated Marlow,
instructs his servants to behave modestly. The interaction between
Diggory and Mr. Hardcastle at the time of Mr. Hardcastle’s bombarding
lessons reveals that there are close connections between master and
servant at the countryside which is not possible at urban areas.
The character of Kate represents the mixture of upper and lower class as
she is comfortable in all the situations. In terms of the fashion, she wears
fashionable dresses of her choice during the day indicating her upper class
behaviour, whereas she follows the orders of her father and puts on simple
dresses of lower classes during the evening reflecting her adjustments at
any situation. Furthermore, she treats her maid Pimple in a respectable
manner showing her attitude towards the lower classes. As a result, she
does not mind when she learns that Marlow has mistaken her to be a
64
barmaid; rather, she decides to take this opportunity to know Marlow. Oliver Goldsmith’s She
Keeping in mind the demands of the situation, she performed the roles of Stoops to Conquer-II
barmaid and a housekeeper before revealing her true class that leads her
finally to win the man she started loving.
The character of Tony is the bridge between upper and lower class as he is
born in sophisticated and rich family at countryside, but leads a life of
uneducated, rustic fellow with most of the men who belong to the lower
classes. Unlike Marlow, he does not respect his elders; rather, he wants to
free from the controls of his mother. Hence, he stands totally opposite to
Marlow and Hastings who represented sophisticated upper class; but he is
intelligent and a man of actions who knows how to manipulate the
situation. However, he has not harmed anyone with his pranks, but all his
jokes provoke the audience to laugh. Thus, class divide and social
structure of contemporary society is visible through the delineation of the
characters in the play.
6.4.3. Courtship and love:

Courtship and love is the central theme of the play She Stoops to Conquer
where the course of love of the couple’s overcome all the obstacles in
order to end in a happy union. The play projects the obstacles in the love
that has been aroused out of individuals’ psychology as well as the
invaluable constraints that affect the development of romantic
relationships. The main obstacle to the development of love relationships
between the central couple is the shyness of its protagonist Marlow. Both
Kate and Marlow belong to the upper class family and are well educated,
cultured and sophisticated. Mr. Hardcastle, who is the father of Kate,
promised her that he will not force her to marry anyone against her
wishes; but he anticipates that the visit of Marlow will turn in the marriage
knot of their children. Similarly, Sir Charles has also sent his son Marlow
to meet Kate with the hope that he will like her, but he has also not forced
him to marry her. Thus, both the fathers have permitted their children to
fall in love with one another. The real obstacle that comes in the way of
Kate and Marlow’s love relations is the fear of Marlow to speak with the
women of his own class. He remains reserved and never dares to propose
to the lady of upper class only because he fears that he will be rejected and
humiliated. This fear of rejection leads him to realise that he will not have
long lasting relationships with any woman; and, as he confesses to
Hastings, he can only dream of a marriage. Rather he sought another way
in the form of temporary relationships by seducing lower class women
who are ready to sleep with him for money.
In the beginning of the play, Marlow is so shy and self-conscious that he
even avoided looking at Kate in his first meeting. He just assumes that she
is an attractive and tall girl, and, therefore, rejects her before knowing her.
Although Kate finds him a handsome person, she is also shocked with his
reserved attitude. She tries to motivate him by completing his unfinished
sentences and touching to the new topics for the discussion, but he
becomes so nervous that he leaves her immediately. When she learns that
Marlow has mistaken her to be a barmaid, she determines to present
65
herself in the form of a barmaid so that she can know more about the
Literature - II
character of Marlow. Once Marlow finds her in a simple dress of a lower
class woman, he tries to impress her and even attempts to kiss. When
Marlow realises that he is in the Hardcastle house, she pretends to be the
housekeeper in the house, and reveals to him that she is not a type of
woman who can sleep with him for the sake of money. As Marlow learns
that she is a respectable girl with her own values, he begins to give her that
respect revealing his true character. Finally, he woos her before she
exposes her real identity, gradually coming out of his shell and developing
a romantic relationship with Kate.
The course of love between Hastings and Constance faces the obstacle in
the form of Mrs. Hardcastle who tries to convince Constance to marry
Tony in order to keep her jewels in the family. Though Hastings has taken
the permission of Constance’s father, he dies before their marriage that has
transformed the guardianship of Constance to Mrs. Hardcastle. Constance
is not ready to leave behind her inheritance and, therefore, she tells
Hastings that she will convince Mrs. Hardcastle to give her the jewels and
then run away from the house. Although she elopes with Hastings without
her fortune, Mr. Hardcastle later helps her to sick her jewels, turning their
course of love to be successful in the end of the play. Thus, courtship and
love have become significant theme in the play She Stoops to Conquer.
6.4.4. The upbringing of children:

The upbringing of children is another prominent theme in the play She
Stoops to Conquer. The relationships between Mrs. Hardcastle and Tony
demonstrate the consequences of smothering and pampering the children.
As Mr. Hardcastle points out, Tony is a healthy child, but his mother
treats him to be a sick person who always needed her help and care. As a
result of her excessive care, she has not educated him resulting in his
dependence on her for the rest of his life. Consequently, instead of being
sophisticated, cultured and educated, he becomes rustic, who spends most
of his time in the company of lower class men in the bar. He realizes this
control of his mother over him and attempts to escape from it through
various pranks and by going to the Three Pigeons House. It is very much
clear from the beginning that once he has become of the age, he is not
going to listen to his mother. He has already made his decision that he is
going to marry Bet Bouncer who seems to be a girl belonging to lower
classes which she may not approve of. As his mother said, he is
determined to spend his life on the inheritance he is going to receive,
indicating that he has no abilities to do anything on his own.
The relationships between Sir Charles and Marlow are also indicative of
neglected parenting. Marlow has not been able to socialize himself with
the women of his own class which is the result of his living alone in the
colleges or by travelling to distant places. Consequently, he never feels
comfortable with the upper class women as he feels humiliation and fear
of being rejected. This fear has made him crippled in forming successful
relationships with the ladies of his own class leading him to not think for
66
the lifelong relationships with them. He just visited Hardcastle house only Oliver Goldsmith’s She
to satisfy his father as he feels obeying his father is his duty. Stoops to Conquer-II
On the other hand, the relationship between Kate and Mr. Hardcastle is
based on mutual understanding and trust. As a father, Mr. Hardcastle
always respected her feelings and set her free to act on her own.
Therefore, she has been confident and can make her own decisions
because she knows that her father is going to support her every decision. It
is clearly visible when he informs her about the prospective visit of
Marlow as a suitor of her, but at the same time assures her that he is not
going to force her to marry him. Thus, parenting and upbringing of the
children has emerged as a dominant theme in the play.
6.5 CONCLUSION
The play She Stoops to Conquer is a comedy of manners where, with the
series of misunderstandings and deceptions, laughter is created to throw
light on the social structure and class consciousness of the eighteenth
century British England along with the contrasts between country and
urban life, and the appearance and reality. Each character seems to deceive
or mistaken of others that leads them to judge and comprehend the
situation created. The series of mistakes leads finally the central character
to understand his own nature and come out of his shell which has been
possible only because Kate stoops to conquer him.

1. Critically comment on the development of the plot in the play She
Stoops to Conquer.
2. Discuss the theme of appearance versus reality reflected in the play She
Stoops to Conquer.
3. The play She Stoops to Conquer is a commentary on the social structure
and class divide during eighteenth century British England: Elucidate.
4. Write a brief note on the theme of mistakes and deceptions in the play
She Stoops to Conquer.
5. Sketch the character of Marlow.
6. Write a note on the theme of love and courtship reflected in the play
She Stoops to Conquer.
7. Draw the character sketch of Miss Kate Hardcastle.
67
16th to 18thCentury English 6.7 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Literature - II
1. Goldsmith, William. She Stoops to Conquer. London: Harper and
Brother, 1887. Print.
2. <https://www.litcharts.com/lit/she-stoops-to-conquer>
3. <https://www.encyclopedia.com/arts/educational-magazines/she-stoops-
conquer#:~:text=Tony
%20refuses%20Constance%2C%20whom%20he,and%20Constance%
E2%80%94ready%20to%20wed.>
4.<https://study.com/learn/lesson/she-stoops-to-conquer-oliver-goldsmith-
summary.html>
5. She Stoops to Conquer. Drama for Students. Encyclopedia.com. 20
Dec. 2022 <https://www.encyclopedia.com>.

68
7
SELECTED VERSE FROM THE PURITAN
ERA AND THE 18TH CENTURY
RESTORATION PERIOD - I
Unit Structure
7.0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction to Puritan Age
7.2 Introduction to John Milton’s Paradise Lost
7.3 Paradise Lost: Its Style
7.5 Bibliography
7.0 OBJECTIVES
This Unit intends to make the learners to understand:
 why Paradise Lost stands as one of the best epics ever written
 The aim of the poem, Paradise Lost Book I
 The relevance of the poem in the present century.
7.1 INTRODUCTION TO PURTIAN AGE

In a secular age, the epic, Paradise Lost not only remains as a work of
unparalleled imaginative genius that shapes English literature even now
but is also a source of a powerful meditation on rebellion, longing and
desire for redemption. To understand the book in better manner, it will be
worthwhile to have an insight into the Puritan era that shaped Milton as a
poet.
The Puritan age is named after the rise of the Puritan movement in
England in the 17thcentury. Puritans, were a group of English-speaking
Protestants who were dissatisfied with the religious reformation movement
carried out during the reign of queen Elizabeth. They wanted a complete
purification of Church of England and removal of practices such as
hierarchical leadership, clerical vestments and various rituals of the
church, which were associated with Rome. They stood for what they
believed was pure Christianity (hence, the name Puritan). The Puritans
emerged as a strong political force during the English Civil War (1642-
1651), the Puritans as a group are often denounced as narrow-minded and
repressive, yet in reality they also aimed for religious and civil liberty. The
Puritans emphasized preaching that drew on images from scripture and
69
from everyday experience. Still, because of the importance of preaching,
Literature - II
the Puritans placed a premium on a learned ministry. The moral and
religious earnestness that was characteristic of Puritans was combined
with the doctrine of predestination inherited from Calvinism to produce a
covenant theology, a sense of themselves as the elect and chosen by God
to live godly lives both as individuals and as a community. This age is
often called an age of great persecution with the phrase “no bishop, no
king.” According to WH Hudson, ‘The Puritan’s had strict rules regarding
life and conduct’ and ‘an uncompromising spirit’, which sought to
‘Confine literature within the circumscribed field of its own particular
interests’. Literature of the Puritan Age was characterized by a spirit of
somberness and pensiveness. In keeping with the religious ideals and
political standards of the Puritans; religious verse, theological tracts and
political treatises replaced romantic poetry. According to John Richard
Greene, a great ‘moral change’ came over the people and England became
the people of a book and that book was the Bible. With the outbreak of the
Civil War, theatres were closed down. In 1642, under the influence of the
Puritans, the English Parliament issued an ordinance suppressing all stage
plays in the theatres. The strict religious views of the Puritans spread to
encompass many social activities within England. Therefore, this time
period saw very little theatrical activity in England as the Puritan
considered theatre as immoral and depraved and they brought the curtains
down on a glorious age of Drama. The impact of Puritan age has been
extremely strong on Britain and it still remains.
7.2 INTRODUCTION TO JOHN MILTON’S PARADISE

LOST
The twelve-book poem is a retelling of the story of Genesis, beginning
with the story of the archangel Lucifer's rebellion in Heaven, his defeat at
the hands of God, and his imprisonment (along with his fellow fallen
angels) in Hell, where he becomes the fiery prince of demons, Satan.
Paradise Lost was written between 1660-65 in a politically disturbed
world of 17th century England but set in Biblical times. Written in blank
verse, the greatest epic poem in the English language Paradise Lost Book I
is an equivalent of the unrhymed forms of Homer’s and Virgil’s classical
epics. John Milton is one of the most quoted poets from Puritan Era.
Known for his ‘grand style’, he went on to become “the God gifted organ-
voice of England”. Milton, a name to resound for ages to come. A devout
Puritan who mirrored the most dominant facet of his personality as ‘Man
of letters’ in Paradise Lost Book I. Written in the last phase of his life
Paradise Lost fulfilled his lifelong dream of creating an incomparable
magnificent piece of unprecedented poetry that would remain unequalled
for times to come and make him immortal in the world of English
Literature. For the world Milton meant to display his belief in the
infallible love of God and his invincible trust in His ways: That, to the
height of this great argument, I may assert Eternal Providence, and justify
the ways of God to men”. Milton (9December1608-8November 1674) was
an English poet and intellectual who served as a civil servant for the
70
council of commonwealth of England and later under Oliver Cromwell. Selected Verse from The
His writings pan from being an English poet, pamphleteer, and historian. Puritan Era and The 18th
While studying at Cambridge, Milton was strongly drawn to the sensual Century Restoration
Period - I
poetry of Ovid and the Roman lyrical poets. He was an outspoken
defender of religious and civil rights. He had fluent command over Latin,
Greek, Hebrew, and Old English. Milton is considered as the most learned
poet of England. Milton’s life was divided between a political activist and
life of poetry and arts. His political life suffered a lot of set back and in
1651 his eyesight failed him completely. As soon as Charles II re-assumed
his power as a king, his restoration government swiftly executed almost all
the commonwealth’s leading dignitaries. Thanks, to the intersession of
Andrew Marvell, who had been elected to a seat in parliament, spoke on
Milton’s behalf and thus Milton was spared from a certain execution.
Milton would spend his remaining years, despite being old, blind,
impoverished, and completely forgotten, composing one of the greatest
epics ever written which became the best seller during his life time. He
died in 1674.
LINES 105-124: “And shook his throne…what though the field be lost?”
Vaunting revolutionary rhetoric. This is the first speech that Satan has
with Beelzebub, who is his nearest angel and is bewildered at the physical
change Beelzebub has undergone because of this fall. Although they were
able to shake the heavenly seat of God but they lost because God has
thunder. They did not know about the technology of thunder and that is
could not win. Here Satan is trying to convince his followers that they are
stronger than God and now they know all about His power. Although they
have changed physically but their minds can never be ruled by an unjust
God. Satan is not going to appeal or repent or ask forgiveness from God
but instead in his mind the hatred is fixed, because his merit or greatness
was injured as to God choose him next-in-power rather than him as His
heir. The battle that Satan raged against God was dubious as it was clash
of power but unsure which side will win. Glorifying himself Satan speaks
that one moment of defeat is not a big loss, his soul is undefeated and
mind steadfast in hatred, he has unyielding will which has courage never
to submit or even be repent.
Over here Satan totally rejects total submission and repentance to God
which each Christian is required for the confession so he is granted
forgiveness for his sins. Instead, he has will power never to bow with
suppliant knee. He endorses his desires to gain back what he has lost
through a study in revenge by finding means and ways to win a victory
over God. Now onwards his plans will be dominated by unconquerable,
uncompromising and conniving mind that has unquenchable thirst to
destroy God completely, “To wage by force or guile eternal
war…Irreconcilable, to our grand Foe…”(I.120-122) Satan tries to
convince Beelzebub that his calculations henceforth will never go wrong
against this so-called tyrant, misuser of thunder (power)who rules in
heaven.“What though the field be lost? All is not lost;” (I. 105) Though
the fallen angels corrupt their "heavenly Essences" with disobedience and
revolt, they still have a keen understanding of the powers of perception.
The tone of the entire speech is defiance and confidence; he will never
71
stop the eternal war of opposing Heaven by use of either force or guile.
Literature - II
The first speech of Satan, still addressed as apostate angel, cherub by his
follower’s say that by fate the strength of God has thrown him out of
heaven but the heavenly substance he has been granted cannot fail.
Implied is the fact that Satan's imperial substance cannot fail either. The
most striking and perplexing element of Paradise Lost Book I is the fissure
opened between Milton’s presence as guide and coordinator in the
narrative and our perception of the characters as self-determined figures,
his third-person interjection between Satan’s first speech and Beelzebub’s
reply: “So spake the apostate angel, though in pain, /vaunting aloud, but
racked with deep despair”(I.125)Like a true hero, Satan refers to conquest
and courage, a response to the tyranny that he and his cohorts have
received from the hand of God. It is this attitude of adventurous
righteousness is sufficient to show the fallen Archangel to be the hero of
the work. Satan, the most attractive character is shown to have a strong
sense of a variable inner life that is liveliest with being self-bigoted, self-
raised not created, given God’s apparent reticence about the nature of
things. Here Satan’s pride is intellectually justified with all grandeur,
bravery and strength.
LINES 242-270: “In this the region, this the soil, the clime…regained in
Heaven, or what more lost in Hell”.
These lines have been taken from the third speech of Satan in Paradise
Lost Book I. Bidding farewell tranquil and peaceful fields of happiness in
heaven Satan is asked that is this the place that we have exchanged with
the beautiful serene heaven? Should we live in this darkness away from
the celestial heavenly light? Then reconciling and accepting the fate of
their fall Satan’s ego concludes to the fact that, yes! they have forever left
behind the peaceful and tranquil place known as Heaven for this place of
damnation and suffering because “Farthest from him is best”
…(I.260)Moreover, they are not less equal in reason to God, “Whom
reason hath equaled” …(I.225) he became supreme because, “Force hath
made supreme above his equals” …(I.226-227) In using the farewell,
Satan shows no remorse of leaving “happy fields where joy forever
dwells” (I.228) He welcomes himself as the new ruler of the Hell, “Hail
horrors, hail infernal world, and thou profoundest hell”.(I.209-211) In the
following lines Satan like a true hero speaks of psychologically of “mind
over matter” and states that as long as you possess an unconquerable mind
accompanied by a strong will, you can make whatever you would like of
the situation and place you find yourself in. “Here at least we shall be
free” (I.222) says the speaker, since they are not under the supremacy of
God, they are under the democratic rule of Satan. The fallen angel goes on
to question whether to fight for the riches of heaven was greater than
consequence of losing? Satan rises to this occasion and reminds them that
it is better to rule in Hell than to serve in heaven. Milton brings in sharp
contrast between the aristocratic and democratic type of governments, and
displays a degree of heroic stoicism in defeat. His use of military images
that can be compared to a defeated general reviewing his options while
refusing to disclose any notion of final submission or despair to his troops.
This speech is a characteristic stubborn tenacity that has evolved into
72
composure and authority. “The mind is its own place, and in itself Can Selected Verse from The
make a heaven of hell, a hell of heaven…Here at least We shall be free; Puritan Era and The 18th
Here we may reign secure, and in my choice… To reign is worth ambition Century Restoration
Period - I
though in hell. It is better to rule in Hell, then to serve in heaven.”(I.212-
221) God can use thunder to expel us from peaceful world of heaven but
here in Hell we remain equal to God in power. We will rule this world as
per our ambitions along with all our loyal friends, re-assemble armies,
build our courage instead of lying prostrate on the lake of fire and fearing
the heaven. We, with our wisdom and reason will make this region a
world of everlasting happiness and not with remorse. Freedom in heaven
had no room to commit mistakes, in Hell freedom will have the sunlight of
spirit and dignity, for to live in freedom is to have an independent will.
Satan has now entered a new universe from contempt to decision. Satan, a
tragic hero, one whose catastrophic fall is implicated in his gorgeous
merits… “to which the Hell I suffer seems a Heaven”. (Paradise Lost,
Book IV, [ The Argument]
LINES 315-356: “Of Hell resounded: ‘Princes, Potentates…Forthwith,
from squadron and each band.” This is Satan’s fourth speech that has a
deliberately proactive tone and is intended to incite the fallen angels into
action. Despite the circumstances, he does not address them as though
they are defeated, but as if they still have the power, calling them “Princes,
Potentates, Warriors” (I.315) He tries to prompt by rebuking them
mingling promises, mockery and menace and says that if they do not rise
from their prostration, he says, then heaven will be lost forever. Pouring
out his contempt he asks whether they are deliberately wailing and
mourning there to enjoy a rest in Hell after an excruciating war or show
their utter surrender. He also asks them if in their “abject posture” or their
unpleasant and degrading condition, they have switched allegiance and
now worship God. In any case God, the “swift pursuers from Heaven”
(I.325) may take further advantage of them if they do not rally against
God. The resounding line, “awake, arise, or be forever fall’d’’ (I.330)
sums up the attempt to move the fallen angels, by a mixture of hope,
shame, and fear. Satan’s persuasive power is displayed in the suffering,
pride, and resolves to retaliate against God. He looks at his huge army
fallen and groveling in the lake of fire like locusts in the cloud or autumn
leaves thickly strewn on the streams of Vallombrosa and he exhorts the
angels to get up from their mourning state. This entire speech adds to the
lingering trace of sweetness to the character of Satan as his eyes swells
with pride and tears. As soon as the fallen angels hear the voice of their
supreme commander they rise immediately and gather around him on the
land despite their terrible injuries: “Yet to this Generals Voice they soon
obeyd”(I.337) They are great in numbers and “fill all the plains and are
awesome to behold in even their defeated state: “Godlike shapes and
forms/Excelling humans, Princely Dignities/And powers that earst in
Heaven sat on Thrones”(I.360) as their names have been erased forever
from ‘Books of Life’ by God. Here they sit to council at Pandemonium
anointing Satan to destroy Man, who has been created in ‘God’s own
image’.
73
16th to 18thCentury English 7.3 PARADISE LOST: ITS STYLE
Literature - II
The grand style of Milton propelled the invention of free verse at the
beginning of the twentieth century. Paradise Lost, like Dante's Divine
Comedy, is notable because it draws together a number of thoughts on
spirituality and the afterlife which, though not strictly biblical, have
become commonplaces for most regions across the world. Compared to
epics like Ramayana, Paradise lost is retelling of the story of man’s fall
whereas Ramayana explores the goals of human life.
In Milton one finds unique expression in the use of epic similes beautifully
rendering the multiple circles of Hell and stages of Heaven, of Satan’s
physical form as a prince of the devils. Milton, a Puritan reading of the
Book of Genesis presents intriguing views on predestination and the
existence of evil in the world. Paradise Lost Book I borrow the
Shakespearian techniques of soliloquy and interior monologue, of
psychological drama, and applies them to the ancient figures of the Old
Testament. The epic is fascinating for its rhetorical and poetical technique
as it uses the flash back technique as it begins in medias res in the burning
lake of hell. What makes Paradise Lost Book I so influential and
enduringly popular can be assessed in one sentence, “The characteristic
quality of his poem is sublimity”, which Milton's uses in the empathetic
depiction of Satan and made subsequent observations that ‘villainy’ is
often more dramatically interesting than ‘virtue’. William Blake, a great
admirer of Milton and illustrator of the epic poem, said of Milton that "he
was a true Poet, and of the Devil's party without knowing it."
Here, in Milton, we find the character of Satan lamenting his own
imprisonment in Hell, and yet still daring and dreaming wildly of his own
possible victory, refusing, to the bitter end, to ever give in or surrender.
We find a villain who is not simply one of Homer or Virgil's larger than
life and unbelievable cut out hoarding, but a character with immense depth
and personality that we not only listen to him but are beguiled and
mesmerized by his words and plight tempted to be on his side if
judgement comes. Milton revitalizes all important characters of the Bible
— from Adam and Eve to Moloch and Beelzebub, from God and Christ to
Gabriel and Uriel—with the same vitality through his masterful sense of
drama and character. While not altering the substance of Genesis, Milton’s
style would remind contemporary readers of Henry V addressing his
troops, Mark Antony stirring the passions of the crowd, even Richard III
giving expression to his personal image of the political future, all exert the
same command of the relation between circumstance, rhetoric and emotive
effect. Milton’s Satan is a literary presence in his own right, an
embodiment of linguistic energy. In his first speech he is inspired yet
speculative but by the second the language is precise, relentless, certain:
‘The mind is its own place … We shall be free… We may reign secure’.
The arrogant symmetry of line (I. 263) has turned it into an idiom, a cliché
of stubborn resistance: ‘Better to reign in hell, than serve in heaven’. The
question raised here is why Milton chose to begin his Christian epic with a
heroic presentation of Satan. May be Milton wanted to build a Jerusalem
74
in the green wet lands of England. He had approved the killing of a king, Selected Verse from The
who was regarded as God’s representative on earth. This man had fallen Puritan Era and The 18th
from grace was the fall of a century and what does he do? He went on to Century Restoration
Period - I
write an epic poem which begins with war in Heaven and Satan and the
other rebel angels falling into Hell. As for the cultural difference this epic
was written for a very particular kind of public reading: deeply religious,
with some training in logic and rhetoric, and an interest in theological
questions, a passionate interest in arguing, as to why people are tempted
by Satan and how they go wrong in different directions. Significantly, the
central role of lust, seduction and ambition is evident in the action of the
fall of Satan who laments, “there is neither joy nor love, but fierce
desire…” (Paradise Lost, Book IV [The Argument]
Still, it is the character of Satan who would, despite Milton's intentions,
became his most enduring creation and exert the greatest literary
influence. In Paradise Lost Book I Milton initiates a tension, a dynamic
that will attend the entire poem, between the reader’s purely literary
response and our knowledge that the characters and their actions are
ultimate, a foundation for all Christian perceptions of the human
condition. The mood of admiration that Satan’s speeches create will face
apparently insurmountable tasks and challenges and his struggles against
the complex balance of fate and circumstance will cause us to admire, to
identify with him. Milton in Paradise Lost Book I invoked the heroic, cast
Satan and his followers as tragic, defeated soldiers, and at the same time
reminded the Christian reader that it is dangerous to sympathize with these
particular figures. Throughout the Paradise Lost Book, I we encounter an
uncertainty that is unmatched in English literature: has the author
unleashed feelings, inclinations within himself that he can only partially
control, or is he in full control and cautiously manipulating the reader’s
state of perplexity?
The answer can be found in unrhymed iambic pentameter, which Milton
called "blank verse," a form that had fallen out of favor since the time of
Shakespeare and the Jacobean playwrights such as Ben Jonson be used to
write Paradise Lost.
Milton's choice of style for his late epics is curious, especially considering
his earlier admiration for and imitation of Petrarch, Dante, and Ovid. Yet,
as an old man, Milton turned towards a densely philosophical style of
writing, influenced by the dialogues of Plato and to the Book of
Revelations, which the aged Milton prized as the highest achievement in
all of literature. Milton's late, ‘grand style’ which found its full expression
in Paradise Lost and its sequel Paradise Regained, is clearly influenced by
the language of the Holy Bible(KJV), and particularly Revelations and the
Psalms, both of which Milton could read, before his blindness, in the
original. The epic shape of his late poems, and their concern with a
concept as grand as the existence of good and evil, is clearly also
influenced by his extensive reading of idealist philosophy. C.S. Lewis
opines that Milton used unfamiliar words and constructions, including
archaisms. The use of proper names is for the sound as the names are
splendid, remote, voluptuous or celebrated things. The sense -experience
75
is through use of words like light, darkness, storm, flowers, etc. with an air
Literature - II
of austerity. The allegorical language consists of words from Latin, Greek,
and French. Omission of article is found in lines: “to pass rhene” (I.352-
353), the pronoun: “as whom the fable name” (I.197) of verb: “cruel his
eyes (I.604) and of preposition: “fallen such a pernicious high” (I.282)
The syntax and word order is highly organized, and to some extend on the
pattern of Latin poetry. Repetitions of words and inversion of adjectives:
“dungeon horrible (I.61) “shapes immense” (I.790) all constitute to word-
compression which is a rare gift Milton’s style and subject matter that
would have an immense influence on succeeding generations of poets.
Among his immediate contemporaries, Lady Hutchinson would publish an
epic on the subject of good and evil explicitly modeled on Milton entitled
Order and Disorder in 1679; and the noted poet John Dryden would
publish a libretto, The State of Innocence and the Fall of Man, in 1677.
Paradise Lost and its immediate successors would themselves become
some of the most widely read works of English literature well into the
Romantic period, and Milton's influence on the Romantics, particularly on
Percy and Mary Shelley and John Keats, is notable even more than a
hundred years after his death. Keats regarded Milton's style as a "beautiful
and grand curiosity," echoing the reaction that many readers would have
as the excitement over Milton's poetry distilled into serious contemplation
which had the tendency to create his world. The Victorians of the late
nineteenth century, particularly George Eliot and Thomas Hardy, would
continue to hold Milton in high esteem; but by the early twentieth century
a critical backlash against Milton moved into full swing. Ezra Pound and
T.S. Eliot, two of the most prominent poets of modernism, would point out
that despite his undeniable gifts, Milton would sometimes write sentences
so convoluted as to be indecipherable. A famous example, Paradise Lost
Book I, in a long speech from Satan where either an adjective or a verb is
pushed to the end of nearly every line: until bumping into the question
mark. However, if one can forgive Milton his occasionally
incomprehensible syntax, there is little doubt that he is a remarkable poet
whose legacy has affected not only poetry, but the English language itself.
Words which Milton coined in his epics that have found their way into the
language include: dreary, pandemonium, acclaim, rebuff, self-esteem,
unaided, impassive, enslaved, jubilant, serried, solaced, and satanic.
Generally agreed to be the greatest epic, even the greatest work of
literature written in the English language, it is rather strange to find a
benign strain of criticism which denies the very Englishness of this epic.
From as early as the eighteenth century when Samuel Johnson concluded
that Milton 'wrote no language', to the twentieth century when T.S. Eliot
claimed that Milton 'did damage to the English language' and F.R. Leavis
asserted that 'Milton had renounced the English language', the language of
Paradise Lost has been embroiled in controversy.
Although one can safely conclude that Milton did write in the English
tongue (to be more precise, the early modern English of the Renaissance),
different languages resonate throughout this epic. Biographers postulate
that Milton knew as many as ten languages, among them Latin, Greek,
Italian, Dutch and even Hebrew. Given this range of linguistic knowledge,
76
it is hardly surprising to find a high level of awareness regarding the Selected Verse from The
etymology (i.e., the linguistic origins) of the words he used. But before we Puritan Era and The 18th
consider how he manipulated the senses in which he used his words, we Century Restoration
Period - I
must make a foray into biblical realms in order to understand how Milton
viewed language.
And shook his throne. What though the field be lost?
All is not lost; the unconquerable Will,
And study of revenge, immortal hate,
And courage never to submit or yield:
And what is else not to be overcome?
The language of Prometheus in defying Joe and in asserting
unconquerable will is rather asserting. What evidence did Milton have
with regarding Prometheus in mind in other passages of Paradise Lost, i.e.,
the use of the word study is to signify endeavor or desire. But was this
ever necessary. Some few do read this line as not to be overcome, as if
what is this – but this. Though, the majority explain it as meaning, if
anything else is capable of being overcome that is not lost. “That Glory
never shall his wrath or might/Extort from me. To bow and sue for
grace/With suppliant knee, and deifie his power,/Who from the terrour of
this Arm so late/Doubted his Empire, that were low indeed,/That were an
ignominy and shame beneath/This downfall; since by Fate the strength of
Gods/And this Empyreal substance cannot fail,/Since through experience
of this great event/In Arms not worse, in foresight much advanc't,/We may
with more successful hope resolve/To wage by force or guile eternal Warr
/Irreconcileable, to our grand Foe,/Who now triumphs, and in th' excess of
joy/Sole reigning holds the Tyranny of Heav'n.”
Paradise Lost Book I is concerned with the destruction of ego-centrality,
ego-idolatry, the will to power, the will to be highest, and the will to
dominate. Satan appeals to a complete d icy inversion of the heart’s logic
by seeing some hope in defeat. And, now that he has gained enough hate
to muster the courage and force an eternal war, and the experience to
predict how his enemy might counter in the future, we see the both shame
and irreversible sense of ego driven strength within the same passages. He
tells his troops to find themselves their unconquerable wills, and the desire
for revenge which in itself is an act of humility yet the will of being to
retaliate. In many ways Satan here is the reflection of man, for beneath
layers of humbling there will also remain the will to win and if not a
victory in the moment, the desire to win in the future.
Another device that Milton uses for impact and grandeur is that he inverts
the arrangement of the identification of the voice and the spoken words
themselves, thus absorbing Satan’s voice to assert a metrical alignment
that parallels the semantic and tangible fulfilment. In both the Bible and
Paradise Lost Book I, the coordinating conjunction 'and' asserts the
success of this speech act, as Satan only has to say the words for their
77
substance to be realized. Milton's language is the Felix culpa (or fortunate
Literature - II
fall both of Satan and man, an idea that celebrates the fall as the
occasioning of Christ's sacrifice) is a concept which extends to language.
That is to say, the fall is actually a blessing in disguise as it enabled the
existence of multiple languages and sanctioned each language's own
complexities and ambiguities -the very features of language which are
most prominently at play in poetry. Raphael and Milton narrate 'what
surmounts the reach ‘Of human sense' and they do so 'By likening spiritual
to corporeal forms' (V.571, 573), making the 'unspeakable' (V.156)
writeable through poetic means, which have been sanctified by God in
order to allow man to come closer to comprehending the divine ineffable.
More recently, there has been renewed interest in the poet's greatest work
following the publication of Philip Pullman's His Dark Materials trilogy,
which is heavily based on Paradise Lost.
James Thomson’s The Seasons (1730), William Cowper’s The Task
(1785) and William Wordsworth’s Tintern Abbey (1798) and The Prelude
(1850) would not be the poems that they are had they not had the influence
of Miltonic style.

1)Write a short note on the grand style of Milton in Paradise Lost Book I?
2) Is Satan the real hero of the entire epic Paradise Lost?
3) Discuss Puritanism and its impact on England of 17th Century.
4)Write critical appreciation on any of the lines prescribed in the course on
Paradise Lost Book I by John Milton.
7.5 BIBILOGRAPHY
Hudson, W.H. An Outline History of English Literature, London: G. Bell
& Sons, Ltd.1913
Daiches, David. A Critical History of English Literature: Shakespeare to
Milton. Tamilnadu, India; Allied Publishers, 1976.Print.
Hale, John K.” Milton’s Languages: The impact of Multilingualism on
Style.” Cambridge, New York, and Melbourne: Cambridge University
Press,1997:232-245.Web.12 Jan.2015.From http://www.cambridge.org
Tennyson, Lord Alfred. Milton. Thomas Humphry Ward, ed. The English
Poets1880-1918. Vol. V. Browning to Rupert Brooke
Daniel, Clay. Death in Literature. Lewisburg, PA: Bucknell University
Press, 1994. ISBN 0838752489
Rudrum, Alan. A Critical Commentary on Milton’s Paradise Lost.
London: Melbourne (etc.)
78
Jokinen, Anniina "Sentence et solas: Joy and Sensuality in Paradise Lost Selected Verse from The
Before and After the Fall" [1] Retrieved March 8 2008 Puritan Era and The 18th
Century Restoration
"John Milton." New World Encyclopedia, 3 Aug 2022, 06:59 UTC. 1 Oct Period - I
2022,
<https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/p/index.php?title=John_Milton
&oldid=1075220>.
Lewis’s, C.S. A Preface to Paradise Lost Publisher: Oxford University
Press, N.Y.,1963
Milton, John,1608-1674.Paradise Lost. London; New York: Penguin
Books 2000
http://davidpollard.net/the-poetry-of-keats/keats-overcoming-milton/
Nasrullah, Mambrol. Analysis of John Milton’s Paradise Lost. Literary
Theory and Criticism. July 12,2020
Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopedia. "Puritanism summary".
Encyclopedia Britannica,
https://www.britannica.com/summary/Puritanism. Accessed 19 October
2022.
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8
SELECTED VERSE FROM THE PURITAN
ERA AND THE 18TH CENTURY
RESTORATION PERIOD - II
Unit Structure
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Historical Background to 18th Century England
8.2 Alexander Pope and his Rape of the Lock
8.3 Dryden and his The Fire of London
8.5 Bibliography
8.0 OBJECTIVES
This Unit aims at making the learners familiar with:
 Historical background to 18th century England
 Alexander Pope and his Rape of the Lock
 The genre of mock Epic
 John Dryden and his The Fire of London
8.1 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND TO 18th CENTURY

ENGLAND
Alexander Pope (1688-1744) is considered as the greatest poet of the
Classical period. He is ‘prince of classicism’ as Prof. Etton calls him. He
was an invalid, of small stature and delicate constitution, but highly
intellectual, extremely ambitious and capable of tremendous industry.
These qualities brought him to the front rank of men of letters, and during
his lifetime he was looked upon as a model poet.
It was poet Oliver Goldsmith who first designated the early 18thcentury, as
the Augustan Age. It has also been called the age of Pope. The Augustan
age includes the age of Dryden and Pope. The restoration of Stuart
monarchy in 1660 marked the beginning of the Augustan age. Eighteenth
century in England was an age equal to the age of Augustus Caesar, when
the Roman society had reached the peak of its glory. The name Augustan
Age was chosen by writers who saw in Pope, Addison, Swift, Johnson and
Burke the modern parallels to Horace, Virgil and Cicero, and all that
80
brilliant company who made Roman literature famous in the day of Selected Verse from The
Augustus. England at that time was looked upon as barbarous, and the Puritan Era and The 18th
classics of Greece and Rome were regarded as models which men of taste Century Restoration
Period - II
were to follow. This period, in the first place, is called the classical age,
because reason dominated emotion; social conventions became
more important than individual convictions; form became more important
than content. The term “classic” is applied to designate writing of the
finest quality. According to Goethe, “Everything that is good in literature
is classical.” Every national literature has at least one period in which
an unusual number of exceptional writers produce books of outstanding
quality, and this is called the classical period of a nation’s literature. The
age of Queen Anne is often called the classical age of England. Addison,
Swift, Richardson, Fielding, Goldsmith, Dr. Johnson, Burke, Gibbon and
Pope are the great luminaries of the age
This movement in the decorative and visual arts, literature, theatre, music,
and architecture drew inspiration from the art and culture of classical
antiquity. The literary thinkers could use the past as a guide for the present
because they assumed that human nature was constant essentially the same
regardless of time and place. Art, they believed, should express this
essential nature. An individual character was valuable for what he or she
revealed of universal human nature. They returned to the ideologies set in
place by Greeks and Romans during the classic period. The classical
poetry merged the new and the old together to produce poetry that exalted
the human condition without the frills that defined the Renaissance. The
poets used logic and sparse language to build bodies of work that define
this school, including John Dryden, Oliver Goldsmith, and Alexander
Pope. They meant to re-envision a focus on human nature, meter and
rhyme as rigid. Instead, the content of the poems focused on topics in the
public sphere and not on notions of the speaker's personal life. The period
is also called the age of reason and good sense, because it was based on
the good sense ideal of the French critic Boileau. It was an age of
enlightenment when a literature which had been lucid and clear began
to diffuse knowledge among a growing public. The supremacy of
reason was scarcely challenged. There reigned a common belief in the
advancement of human mind. The most popular style of poetry was satire,
though its form and language were logical and restrained, with a dash of
wit. The dictionary tells us that satire is a way of criticizing a person, an
idea or an institution in which humour is used to show their faults or
weaknesses. The word is derived from Latin ‘satura’ or ‘satira’ meaning
medley or a mix. When applied to writing it was primarily associated with
verse of some length that attacked individuals, institutions, social groups
or classes or ideas. The main intention or function of such an exercise was
to expose faults, vices, evil tendencies and limitations. It uses a wide range
of language and devices in order to ridicule the subject chosen. Among the
other forms of literature, the most famous were the essay, both in verse
and prose. While drama declined and almost disappeared during the latter
part of the period, Novel made its beginnings. The literature of the age
was mostly comic and satiric. An important failure of the age was to
produce tragedy.
81
The classical poets brought back heroic, rhymed couplets by including
Literature - II
allusions to the Bible and other major writings. Under the influence of
empirical philosophy and experimental science, writers of the age
narrowed both their vision of man and view of life. The affairs of men,
their politics, their morals, and manners became the chief concern.
8.2 ALEXANDER POPE AND HIS THE RAPE OF THE

LOCK
8.2.1. Alexander Pope:
Alexander pope (born May 21, 1688, London, England—died May 30,
1744, Twickenham, near London), is a well-known poet and satirist of the
English classical period, best known for his poems An Essay on Criticism
(1711), The Rape of the Lock (1712–14), The Dunciad (1728), and An
Essay on Man (1733–34). He is one of the most epigrammatic of all
English authors.
8.2.2. The Rape of the Lock:

The Rape of the Lock is a mock-heroic narrative poem written by
Alexander Pope. One of the most commonly cited examples of high
burlesque, it was first published anonymously in Lintott’s Miscellaneous
Poems and Translations (May 1712) in two cantos (334 lines); a revised
edition followed in March 1714 as a five-canto version (794 lines)
accompanied by six engravings. The poem of The Rape of the Lock
satirizes a minor incident of life, by comparing it to the epic world of the
gods, and is based on an event recounted to Alexander Pope by his friend
John Caryll. Arabella Fermor and her suitor, Lord Petre, were each a
member of aristocratic recusant Catholic families. Petre had cut off a lock
of Arabella's hair without permission, and the consequent argument had
created a breach between the two families. The central figure is a pretty
young girl, and other characters are a rash youth, a foolish dandy and a
few frivolous women. The place of deep and genuine passions found in
the ancient epics is given to a succession of mock passion.
Canto II lines from 1-54 focuses on three major episodes. Belinda's river
cruise, the Baron's alter of love, and Ariel's instructions to his troops.
The first episode is all about raising the Baron’s attention to Belinda’s
beauty. It is obvious that Belinda is a beautiful woman in the poem,
surrounded by gentlemen, but it is also clear that she does not intend to
choose a partner as this immense attention might fade in case of doing so:
“Favours to none, to all she smiles extends; / Off she rejects, but never
once offends.” (Canto II 11-12). Rivaling with the sun in her beauty and
radiance, Belinda sets off for Hampton Court Palace, traveling by boat on
the river Thames. A group of fashionable ladies and gentlemen
accompanies her, but “every eye was fixed on her alone” (Canto II.6). Her
“lovely looks” and “quick” eyes command the attention and adoration of
those who see her (Canto II.9, 10). Belinda’s glittering raiment includes a
“sparkling cross,” which she wears on her “white breast,” inspiring the
82
worship of her admirers (Canto II.7). Her most striking attribute is the Selected Verse from The
“two locks which graceful hung” in ringlets on her “ivory neck” (Canto Puritan Era and The 18th
II.20, 22). Pope describes these curls as labyrinths of love intended for the Century Restoration
Period - II
“destruction of mankind,” imprisoning any hearts that get caught in their
snares (Canto II.19).
One of her devotees, the Baron, greatly admires her ringlets and has
resolved to steal them for himself, “by force [...] or by fraud” (Canto
II.32). On this particular morning he rose early to build an altar to love at
which to pray for success in this venture. He created a pyre and on it
sacrificed “all the trophies of his former loves” (Canto II.40). Fanning the
flames with “three amorous sighs,” he burned “three garters, half a pair of
gloves” and “tender billet-doux” (Canto II.42, 39, 41). The powers heard
his prayer and chose to grant half of it. As the boat makes its way to
Hampton Court, Belinda and her companions enjoy a lighthearted journey.
Ariel, who is the guarding angel, however, is anxious, remembering the
foretold “impending woe” (Canto II.54)
Canto II opens with Belinda traveling down the river Thames. This is the
main river that runs through London. People in the 18th century used to
hire boats—kind of like a water taxi—to take them to destinations up and
down the river. Belinda's on her way to a party at Hampton Court, a few
miles upriver from her house.
The boat is full of her equally well-dressed and good-looking friends, male
and female, but Belinda outshines them all. To onlookers she is as
magnificent as Queen Cleopatra was when she traveled in her barge. She's
wearing a jeweled cross necklace as part of her ensemble, and she's
making a lot of small talk as she is flirtatious, superficially nice to
everyone and she looks so good that everyone forgives her if she
accidentally hurts someone's feelings. Belinda totally belongs to one those
schools where etiquette and artificial mannerism is taught to get along
socially.
We are back to the sun again in these first few lines of Canto II.
Remember how "Sol" (the sun) was so shy about peeping through
Belinda's window curtains at the beginning of Canto I, because Belinda's
very eyes would rival his beams for beauty? Here Pope continues the
metaphor that relates Belinda and the sun, taking it to the absolute contrast
in the first four lines, where she is "the rival of his Beams” (Canto II-3) as
they are in competition to outshine each other.
The jeweled cross around her neck in (Canto II - 7-8) the one "Which
Jews might kiss, and Infidels adore"? Pope is gently poking fun at
religious prejudices here, telling us that Belinda is so beautiful at this
moment, that even a Jewish person or an ‘infidel’ (those who do not
follow Christianity) would kiss the very Christian cross she wears on her
bosom of how darn good she looks.
Finally, Pope introduces us to the locks themselves, the main subject of
the poem's title, which he describes as hanging, perfectly curled and shiny
(brushed a thousand times) down the back of Belinda's neck. In religious
83
traditions a women hair represents beauty and perhaps dangerous sexuality
Literature - II
and cutting or shaving it off is surrendering worldly gifts. It is also called
the crowning glory as St Paul writes in 1Corinth 11:14-15 (Holy Bible)
“Doth not nature itself teach you, that if a man has long hair, it is shame
unto him? But if a woman has long hair, it is a glory to her. Pope further
emphasizes Belinda’s beauty by describing her hair as a labyrinth of love,
which ignites desires in the Baron to cut the girl’s lock. “Pope recognizes
the inherent sexual significance of hair and effectively exploits it in the
poem” (Jeffrey M., 1969. page 71.). This element undoubtedly serves as
the source of the whole sexual intercourse. After this meeting, the Baron
decides to build an altar to honour Belinda’s beauty:” Th’ advent’rous
baron the bright locks admir’d; / He saw, he wish’d, and to the prize
aspir’d. (…) / But chiefly love-to love and altar built, / Of twelve vast
French romances, neatly gilt” (Canto II 30-31; 37-38). Hair as a
symbolized as initiation, marriage, high esteem and mourning ritual in
Rape of the Lock Belinda’s lock is symbolized as absurdity of the
importance afforded to female beauty in society. But when Baron snipped
the lock, Belinda’s reputation is lost as she exclaims, “methinks already I
your tears survey/Already hear the horrid things they say” (Canto IV)
Belinda’s lock is the symbol of her -virginity and the rape of it can
therefore be regarded as the loss of her innocence. In Pope’s era religion,
was a regulative policy as, women and men, were not allowed to have
open intercourse and secret relationships. This resulted in the suppression
of their natural instincts considered that this could had led to the loss of
one’s reputation. Belinda’s Chastity, beauty and virtue is compromised.
The lock’s final ascension into the heavens is an underlined idea that lock
is too precious to remain on earth and no mortal deserves to be so blest as
to possess it, proves and preserves her being chaste and pure. The last five
lines are about the lock, precisely it is about the apotheosis of the lock,
which is the most beautiful description of Belinda’s beauty, which is
timeless, as Pope writes.
“For, after all the Murders of your Eye,
When, after Millions slain, yourself shall die;/When those fair Suns shall
sett, as sett they must, /And all those tresses shall be laid in Dust;/This
Lock, the Muse shall consecrate to Fame, /And 'midst the Stars inscribe
Belinda's Name!”
In conclusion, the poem is about a sexual intercourse concealed behind a
cut of a lock. This intercourse is about stealing Belinda’s treasure, her
virginity by cutting her hair. Belinda’s untouchability attracts the Baron to
steal her treasure, and after losing the lock Belinda has the fear to be
worthless. The word rape is an exaggeration, because Pope wants to make
fun of the eighteenth-century aristocrat’s behaviour, because in this era
aristocratic people usually sensationalize their problems. The intercourse
has preparation and after the actual act happens Belinda feels shame. In
the end of the story, they form a love affair and they forget about the lost
lock as memory or the virginity, which “flies” to the sky, and does not
make Belinda unforgettable or worthless. Another symbol Pope uses is the
‘queen of spleen’ that represents melancholy, hysteria and other emotional
84
turbulences that exclusively maladies of the moods present in women. we Selected Verse from The
also meet the Baron, the male protagonist of the story, who Pope tells us Puritan Era and The 18th
has been plotting and planning to steal those locks for a long time. Century Restoration
Period - II
In fact, (Conto.II.35-44) he has spent the early morning of this very day
praying for the opportunity to steal the shiny lock and hence his prayers
have been halfway granted. Belinda's doom is sealed.
These locks of hair that are hanging down Belinda's neck are accidental.
She's actually "Nourish'd" (II.20) them, knowing full well that a few
strategic curls can be very attractive. Pope gives two metaphors (II.23-24)
the locks that are the crowning glories resting on her “iv’ryneck” like
"slender Chains" with the power to enslave their beholder; in lines 25-28
they are tools for catching admirers, much like "Sprindges" (i.e., snares) or
fishing line might catch a bird or a fish.
If love was a battlefield in the first Canto, here at the beginning of the
second Canto love is a little more like a hunting trip, where Belinda is set
out to catch herself a rich boyfriend. She is literally planning on tying up
an extremely rich man with her beauty which is preserved like an art form
“nature to its advantage dressed”. The vanities and idleness of the 18th
century high society is mocked in the lock being stolen or cut is equal to a
rape being committed. Pope transforms numerous striking and loaded
moral implications in the cosmetics and jewelry which are substitute of
religious sacrifices, armor and weapons.
The verse form of the Rape of the lock is written in heroic couplet which
consists of rhymed pairs of iambic pentameters lines (lines of ten syllables
each, alternating stressed and unstressed syllables)
There is no finer gem than this poem in all the lighter treasure of English
fancy. Technical innovations like density of allusions, metaphors and
mimicking to maintain what J.S. Cunningham calls a continuous
doubleness of apprehension by which the poet combined the flirtation with
sublime, bathetic with poignant and trivial with significant. Pope is a
master of the type of humor, which emerges from presenting small things
in a grand form for instance, consider these lines: “Slight is the subject,
but not so the Praise/If She inspires and He approved my Lays.
(ContoI.11.5-6) Pope makes the serious use of what is basically Homer’s
style. The idiom that Pope used are brilliant and more labored into the
texture of the verse. Pope also uses many periphrases as uncommon
appellations. For instance, for scissors with which Lord Peter performs the
rape, two-edgd Weapon, little Engine, glittering forex, fatal Engine,
Sheers and meeting points. The epic methods of heightening the effects
are used not for ridiculing them but to produce the desired ends. Through
them he emphasizes the artificiality of the milieu, which he represents
strongly satirical effect to show topsy turvy values in Belinda’s world.
Belinda’s behaviour fully matches her retinue though everything she says
or does is a plain coquetry. Pope has made her perform on the Thames
barge, in the most natural and fascinating manner. She executes a tour de
force of flirtation to borrow an expression. Pope presents her thus: “Fair
85
Nymphs, and well-drest Youths around her shone, /But every Eye was
Literature - II
fixed on her alone…/Favours to none, to all she Smiles extends, /Oft she
rejects, but never once offends, /Bright as the sun, her Eyes the Gazers
strikes, /And, like the Sun, they shine on all alike.”Belinda skillfully
maintains the style that suits her charms without losing her grace. She
keeps her chastity intact even when she offers temptations and she rejects
the advances of some young men. Belinda’s motive is, living in the
present and enjoying her status as a maiden of infinite beauty. She shuns
the dull glories of a virtuous housewife. Her motives are threefold: Vanity,
the desire of conquest and self-love. With a characteristic inconsistency in
her behaviour she says: Oh had I rather un-admired remain’d/in some lone
isle”. Belinda has taken all pains with her charms and has got her tresses
curled to seize and enslave the hearts of men before she comes to the
Hampton Court. She plays her cards against the two dashing, adventurous
Knights for the fame in the game of Ombre. Here Pope renders that
Belinda’s ruling passion is unmistakably pride, which asserts in her
personality in the dual sense of self-conceit and self-love.
It is relevant to note that Pope’s poem contains a large number of mock-
heroic images which intensify the effect of the fundamental irony, for
example consider the comparison of Belinda to the sun at the beginning of
Canto II: “Not with more Glories, in the Etherial plain, /The sun first rises
over the purpled Main, /Than issuing forth, the Rival of his
beams/Launch’d on the Bosom of the silver Themes”. In a mock-heroic
poem the subject of the poem is compared to something great and made
ridiculous by comparison, “Belinda smil’d, and all the World was gay”.
There is an element of incongruity and the heroic idiom of the poem has
its measure of appropriateness as well as inappropriateness, which
establishes its claim as a mock-heroic masterpiece.
Briefly, The Rape of the Lock is not a poem against anybody. Pope only
wished to laugh the quarrel out of the court and does not want to give
serious offence to anybody. In short, his purpose is to conciliate
everybody by means of mirth to use the expression of Ian jack.
Pat Rogers rightly comments in his book, Introduction to Pope, that
“Pope was a representative writer of his time, to a far greater degree than
Swift, Richardson and even Defoe. An outsider in the social sense, he was
nonetheless able to infuse his best work with a sharp contemporary tang.
Furthermore, he did not disdain the superficial polish of Augustan vers de
societe.”
8.3 DRYDEN AND HIS THE FIRE OF LONDON

8.3.1. Restoration Period:
In the history of English literature, the period dating from 1660 to 1700 is
called the Age of Dryden. Also called the Restoration Period, this was an
era of change in political and social as well as in literary fields. In politics
the period saw the reign of three rulers, two dynasties and a revolution.
The social life of this period was influenced much by the French manners.
86
The life of the people of England was greatly affected by the Great Plague Selected Verse from The
of 1665 and the Great Fire of 1666. The city ravaged by the violent Puritan Era and The 18th
outbreak was later devastated by fire. The entire city was re-built. There Century Restoration
Period - II
was also a change in literary tastes during this time owing to the French
influence. Literature appealed more to the head than to the heart and
reason and good sense replaced emotion and imagination. The year 1660
was a landmark in the history of England. The Stuart Dynasty which had
been removed from throne and exiled to France following the beheading
of Charles I was restored in the form of his son Charles II. Charles II was
born and brought up in France. So, he brought back with him French
manners and language. His court was notorious for its licentiousness and
deceit. The Puritan Age which preceded the Restoration period was known
for its moderateness in morality and earnestness in religion. But with the
fall of the Puritans, the moral ideals were discarded and there was an
apparent lowering of the general moral tone. The theatres which had been
closed because of the extreme moral sense of the Puritans were reopened.
This era had a great impact on English literature, as it was during this time
that some of England’s finest authors were born.
The Age of Dryden was a time of classical English literature, spanning
from 1660 to 1700. Its name is derived from John Dryden, who is
considered the most important poet during this time. The basis for his
work is Roman and Ancient Greek literary tradition. He was influenced by
Petrarch and Horace, and his poems are about moral struggles and self-
restraint. The Age of Dryden is characterized by trends to be more
intellectual than emotional in literature. He was interested in the lessons of
history and gleaned meaning from what he saw. His writings tended to be
laced with satire, irony, and wit. John Dryden is often called the father of
English drama. He contributed to many genres during his lifetime,
including poetry, lyric verse, satire, translations, and criticism. John
Dryden was a major figure in the literary world of the 17th century. He is
credited with being one of the most influential poets from that time period.
Besides his contributions to poetry, he also played an important role in the
development of the drama of England.
8.3.2. John Dryden

John Dryden was a poet who became the first Poet Laureate of England.
He was born on 27 August 1631 and died on 1 May 1700.
8.3.3. The Fire of London:

The Fire of London is written by John Dryden and published in 1667. It
commemorates the year 1666, which despite the poem's name 'year of
wonders' was one of great tragedy, involving both the Plague and the
Great Fire of London. Samuel Johnson wrote that Dryden used the phrase
'annus mirabilis' because it was a wonder that things were not worse.
The Great Fire of 1666 ripped a fiery path through London stretching at
least 40 miles long, destroying more than 15,000 homes, nearly 100
churches and an unknown quantity of businesses. The cause behind such
devastation was easily to determine: all those buildings were constructed
87
of wood and many were lined with tar paper to keep out the famous
Literature - II
London rain. Add to this mix the fact that most streets were very narrow
and the distance between neighbors close enough to reach out and touch
and the fact that London had no organized fire brigade at the time points to
such a destructive event as a matter of when and not a matter if. The task
of rebuilding London the day after the fire was finally extinguished looked
hopeless, but over the years new buildings of brick or stone replaced the
space where wood and tar had once stood a stack of kindling next to a
fireplace. The Great London Fire of 1666 also directly inspired the most
famous architect of his day, Christopher Wren, to commence work on St.
Paul’s Cathedral. That magnificent church was not the only phoenix to rise
from the ashes of the Great London Fire of 1666. Another inspirational
creation owing a debt of genesis of the death rattle of inferno was John
Dryden’s epic poetic call to the patriotic spirit of Londoners, Annus
Mirabilus, Where others views the destruction wrought by the fire as yet
more evidence—along with the waste being laid across the city by the
Black Plague—as proof that God was punishing the city, Dryden saw in
the massive damage caused by the fire the opportunity to cleanse and
purify London of its flaws and erect in its wake a much greater metropolis.
The fire, as Dryden outlines its path across the city in his poem, could be
transformed into a redemptive act of God rather than a punishment from
God to provide the opportunity for the salvation of an entire city.
Ultimately, this poem makes it greatest appeal to the patriotic fire still
burning among the dying embers of the flames with the suggestion that
what appeared to be pure havoc transform into the moment at which
England took its rightful and deserved placed as the greatest city in the
greatest country destined to lead the world into the future. The overall tone
of John Dryden is patriotic. it is a great tribute to the city of London and
its people. Those who subscribe to such beliefs will confidently assert that
one of Nostradamus’ many intricately abstruse quatrains foretells the
coming of the Great London Fire of 1666. As far as city-wide
conflagrations go, the 1666 blaze that made its way across much of
London makes the Great Chicago Fire look like a smoldering waste basket
by contrast. On the other hand, certain distinct similarities exist between
the two great metropolitan wildfires, not the least of which is that both
cities rose from the ashes significantly more modern than they had been
before which directly led to both Chicago and London taking a more
prominent place in their respective societies.
Dryden wrote this poem in response to the eventful year of 1666. In
England, the year marked a great deal of destruction and change, but the
nation came out on the other side richer and more victorious than ever
before. Dryden relates the events of the year in grand poetical manner,
painting a picture of divine fate throughout the many interactions. The
year held three great obstacles for the British: war with the Dutch, the
plague, and the great fire in London. Each of these events proved a unique
challenge for the nation under the leadership of Charles II. Whether in
military pursuits or defense against natural disaster, the people were
forced to look to their monarch for a sort of supernatural deliverance. In
Dryden's analysis, he credits God's blessing with the endurance of his
88
country through these various trials. In a puritanical sense, Dryden views Selected Verse from The
the suffering of his nation as a blessing. He believes that God is chastising Puritan Era and The 18th
the nation as a test because it will be blessed on the other side of these Century Restoration
Period - II
trials. This view of God causing suffering in order to test his people is
later picked up by John Calvin. He believed that God is the origin of
suffering and evil, but that He is still a good God amidst this because He
transcends human perspective of suffering. If God is a perfect god, then
He is allowed to test his creation however He sees fit. In England in 1666,
Dryden simplifies this belief to an acceptance of pain. He is hopeful
despite present suffering because he believes patient endurance will be
rewarded with divine blessings. The poem contains over 1200 lines of
verse divided into 304 quatrains. Each line is ten syllables long, with an
'abab' rhyming scheme, a pattern known as a decasyllabic quatrain.
Dryden's poem narrates the events of the Great Fire of London, from its
beginning at night in the bakery on Pudding Lane, to its final
extinguishment after King Charles II ordered houses to be torn down or
blown up with gunpowder to create 'fire breaks' which prevent the flames
from spreading.
In the extract above Dryden describes the streets on the first night of the
fire being 'thronged and busy as by day' as people rush to attempt to put
out the flames with buckets of water fetched from local churches. Despite
the tragic subject matter, Dryden remains optimistic. After the fire is
spent, he imagines a new city of London rising from the ashes 'with silver
paved, and all divine with gold' which is to last until the 'death of time'.
The great fire of London raged from Sunday 2 September to Wednesday 5
September 1666, and destroyed the homes of up to 70,000 inhabitants of
the city. The death toll traditionally was thought to be small, with only six
deaths recorded. This may, however, be a consequence of the social
hierarchy of the time, and deaths of poor Londoners may have gone
unnoticed and unrecorded.
This poem has a rhyme scheme is abab cdcd cece dbdb baba bfbf fcfc
gggg and it is written in iambic pentameter. The stanza type is tercets in
blank verse form. The poet used lexical repetitions to emphasize a
significant image; ‘her’, ‘and’ are repeated. The poet used anaphora at the
beginnings of some neighboring lines. The same word the is repeated. The
poet used the same word the at the beginnings of some neighboring
stanzas. The figure of speech is a kind of anaphora. “London After the
Great Fire, 1666” compares the city of London to a phoenix. A phoenix is
a legendary bird from mythology that perpetuates a cycle of death by fire.
When the bird gets old, it bursts into flame and then rises from its ashes as
London rises again.
In John Dryden’s poem, the fire is described as beautiful and constructive
through the use of religious imagery, this is clearly reiterated in the final
line of the first stanza, saying it is now “silver paved and all divine with
gold”, the use of ‘silver’ and ‘gold’ implies almost royalty and could be
the smelted. In John Dryden’s poem, the fire is described as beautiful and
89
constructive through the use of religious imagery, ‘mould’; this is to say,
Literature - II
the fire has created valuable elements out of ‘mould’. The flames work to
wreak havoc, described with vivid imagery and the use of alliteration in
the stanza 249: “No help avails: for, Hydra-like, the fire /lifts up his
hundred heads to aim his way”.
The word ‘divine’ is an introduction to the religious imagery used,
implying the fire may have been God’s plan. This idea can be seen to
continue when the East and West bring ‘incense’ and ‘gold’ reminding us
of the three Wise Men in the Holy Bible. The question as to what or who
they bring it to could be the river Thames, who – as ‘she’ is personified –
undergoes transformation as well: now a ‘shepherdesses’, as the shepherds
who led the sheep towards the ‘northern star’ – which here could be the
fire – possibly implying the Thames has now become Jerusalem with
Christ reborn with the fire as the leading light. She then turns into
something else “like a maiden queen” – maybe the Virgin Mary? – these
two similes illustrating a visible evolution of the river into something
more beautiful thanks to the fire. The tone is awe-struck in the poem and
almost simulating a religious enhancement and repeat of scenes from the
bible, here the ‘churches’ are on fire, being burnt down, symbolizing a
loss of hope and possibly of faith, a prophecy of the final days of earth
using apocalyptic image. “At length the crackling noise and dreadful
blaze/Call'd up some waking lover to the sight;/And long it was ere he the
rest could raise, /Whose heavy eyelids yet were full of night. /The next to
danger, hot pursued by fate, /Half cloth'd, half naked, hastily retire:/And
frighted mothers strike their breasts, too late, /For helpless infants left
amidst the fire”. Moreover, its rhythm and pace are fast when describing
the fire moves to engulf the entire world. Dryden describes its beauty with
a resigned acceptance and agrees that the fire is something completely out
of their hands, operates on a different, more powerful clock. Dryden
extracts use descriptive words to show the fire is beautiful at some points
but the poet admires the Thames as a result of the fire: “New deified she
from her fires does rise”, the verb ‘deified’ gives the river a goddess-like
quality, as a reflection from the fire. This element of inherited beauty from
the fire is continued when the wind longs to meet “his mistress[‘s] face
again,” the ‘fire’ has made the river into a deity. The poet uses gratifying
words to describe the fire, or what has arisen due to the fire. It can be
argued the poet does describe the fire as destructive. Dryden argues his
fire flushes out the crime and evil, working as a cleanser to make the city
better than before. The fire is destructive, causing there to be a ‘flood’
however, it could be alluding to the flood God incited to wash out evil in
the world, like with the Ark of Noah. Dryden could be saying right now
the fire is destructive, but it is to ensure beauty in the future, just like the
river “shakes the rubbish from her mounting brow”, as the water level
rises there is destruction, as the rubbish may be a metaphor for housing or
evil humans but it is portrayed as something that must be disposed of. The
principal differences are presented graphically in the form and structure:
the poem has even sized stanzas – an aesthetically pleasing view which
may imply the fire has succeeded in completely transforming London into
a better place. The fire in Dryden’s account begins as the nemesis of
90
Monarchy but then turns into its own alchemical furnace. He distinguishes Selected Verse from The
his earthly and cynical cataclysm from the apocalypse. Puritan Era and The 18th
Century Restoration
Examining the origins of the fire, Dryden writes: “As when some dire Period - II
usurper Heav'n provides/To scourge his country with a lawless sway, /His
birth perhaps some petty village hides, /And sets his cradle out of fortune's
way…”
The lawless sway is an unlikely characterization of the Protectorate, and
he is certainly not attributing low birth or mean fortune on the people or
the geography plagued by the flames. The fire even though it stands for
rebellion is kept away from the political discourse surrounding Charles I
and thus its origins are attributed to the country.
Till fully ripe his swelling fate breaks out,
And hurries him to mighty mischiefs on:/
His Prince, surpris'd at first, no ill could doubt, /And wants the pow'r to
meet it when 'tis known/Such was the rise of this prodigious Fire, /Which
in mean buildings first obscurely bred, /From thence did soon to open
streets aspire,
And straight to palaces and temples spread”.
Dryden makes an impersonal attempt at public political poetry. The use of
personification and antithesis, both uniquely favorite devices of Augustan
poets add a further formalizing tonality in the bounds of the strict rhythm
d rhyme. Dryden attempts at trying to imitate a heroic stanza with the use
of clever placement of words (swelling fate, mighty mischiefs) is at points
a shallow commentary on the royalty and its disinterest in the matters
concerning the mass. The allusion works analogically rather than verbally,
the fire resembling a rising of the spirit, an uprising from obscurity, to
surprise a prince in a series of biblical events sanctioned by the heavens.
The not uncommon phrases palaces and churches are almost self-
conscious from an emotional and a linguistic point of view.
“The diligence of trades and noiseful gain,
And luxury, more late, a sleep were laid:
All was the night's, and in her silent reign
No sound the rest of nature did invade.
In this deep quiet, from what source unknown, /Those seeds of fire their
fatal birth discloses;/And first, few scatt'ring sparks about were blown,
/Big with the flames that to our ruin rose”.
His description of the ‘Fire’ is painted by resolute meditation, out of a
mind better formed to reason than to feel. The conflagration of a city, with
all its tumults of concomitant distress, is one of the most dreadful
spectacles which this world can offer to human eyes; yet it seems to raise
little to emotion in the breast of the poet; he watches the flame coolly from
street to street, with now a reflection and now a simile, till at last he meets
91
the King, for whom he makes a speech, rather tedious in a time so busy,
Literature - II
and then follows again the progress of the fire. The expression All was the
night's is taken from Seneca, who remarks on Vergil, in his letter to
Lucilius.
His prediction of the improvements which shall be made in the new city is
elegant and poetical, and, with an event which poets cannot always boast,
has been happily verified. The poem concludes with a simile. Dryden also
personifies the city as a woman, first as a “rude and low” shepherdess
prior to the fire to “a maiden queen” after, who is now desirable to all.
Thus, Dryden employs similes, comparison of two unlike things where
one thing is said to be like or as the other, in order to characterize to
London before the fire. Dryden also personifies various rivers describing
Thames as “proud” of its beautiful mistress, London, while all the other
famous rivers in Europe will find that the “glory of their towns” will be
diminished and no one will visit them anymore. London will grow so
beautiful that she will draw all visitors there; people will come and never
want to leave. London itself is personified as a strong woman who labors
diligently. Shaking off the “rubbish” of the destruction and who stands
ready to rebuild in silver and gold. London is given goddess-like qualities
as she is “more great than human now” and deserves to be “deified”. The
poem ends also with imagery of a “venturous merchant” who lands on
London’s soil and is so charmed that he can “depart no more”. The poem’s
tone of strength propels a theme of perseverance using personification and
similes to convey the power of London, standing as a burnt city explaining
the process by which she must ensure her survival and rebirth, “she from
her fire does rise”
Dryden, when he wrote this poem, seems not yet fully to have formed his
versification, or settled his system of propriety. From this time, he
addicted himself almost wholly to the stage, 'to which,’ says he, 'my
genius never much inclined me,' merely as the most profitable market for
poetry. By writing tragedies in rhyme, he continued to improve his diction
and his numbers.
If this poem be considered as a poem political and controversial, it will be
found to comprise all the excellences of which the subject is susceptible;
acrimony of censure, elegance of praise, artful delineation of characters,
variety and vigour of sentiment, happy turns of language, and pleasing
harmony of numbers; and all these raised to such a height as can scarcely
be found in any other English composition.
It is not, however, without faults; some lines are inelegant or improper,
and too many are irreligiously licentious. The original structure of the
poem was defective; allegories drawn to great length will always break;
king Charles could not run continually parallel with David (Holy Bible).
The subject had likewise another inconvenience; it admitted little imagery
or description, and a long poem of mere sentiments easily become tedious;
though all the parts are forcible, and every line kindles a new rapture, the
reader, if not relieved by the interposition of something that soothes the
fancy, grows weary of admiration, and defers the rest. But as Dryden
92
wrote On The Function of Poetry, “that the poet is neither a teacher nor a Selected Verse from The
bare imitator …but a creator, one who, with life or nature as his raw Puritan Era and The 18th
material, creates new things together resembling the original”. It comes Century Restoration
Period - II
very true as far as this poem is concerned, the paintings on the great fire of
London done by many painters have been inspired by this poem.
1. What are the qualities of Belinda’s character? Illustrate your answer.

2. Trace Pope as a social satirist with special reference to Canto II lines
1-54.
3. Critically examine the age of Dryden.
4. Write a critical analysis of the poem.
5. Write a short note on the poetical style of Dryden with special
reference to the poem.
8.5 BIBLIOGRAPHY
 Compton-Rickett, A. A History of English Literature. London:

Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd, 1947.
 Dennis, B. (2004). The Rape of the Lock": Desire between Couple(t)s

- a Counselling Intervention Critical Survey Vol. 16, No. 3, pp. 1-16.
Retrieved from: http://www.jstor.org/stable/41557285
 Douglas Knight, Pope and the Heroic Tradition, A Critical Study of

His Iliad, New Haven and London, 1951.
 Edith Sitwell, Alexander pope, London, 1930
 Hudson, William H. An Outline History of English Literature.

Bombay: B.I. Publications, 1964.
 Hugo M., R. (1954). The Love Affair in Pope's Rape of the Lock.
PMLA Vol. 69, No. 4, pp. 887-902. Retrieved from:
https://www.jstor.org/stable/459937?read-
now=1&refreqid=excelsior%3A4c49796ce49913fa994ce89b69ba0869
&seq=12#page_scan_tab_contents
 Ian Jack, Augustan Satire: intention and Idiom in English Poetry 1660-
1750. Oxford, 1952. Chaps. V-VII.
 Jeffrey M. (1969). The Personality of Belinda's Baron: Pope's 'The

Rape of the Lock'. American Imago Vol. 26, No. 1, pp. 71-77.
Retrieved from:
https://www.jstor.org/stable/26302506?reanow=1&rfreqid=esior%3A7
af038c156b693019b1b4c4b3d7517c0&seq=4#page_scan_tab_content
shttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Rape_of_the_Lock
 Miner, Earl, ed. Selected Poetry and Prose of John Dryden. New York:
The Modern Library, 1985.
93
 The Poems of Alexander Pope: The Twickenham Edition. General
Literature - II Editor, John Butt, 6 vols. Its 7, London, 1939-6I.
 Wilson, John B. English Literature: A Survey for Students. London:

Longmans.
 https://Keytopoetry.com.
 https://uniquescritique.wordpress.com.https://www.newworldencyclop
edia.org
 https://www.utpjournals.press.

94

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31

SUBJECT CODE - 97001

Prof. (Dr.) D. T. Shirke

Program Co-ordinator : Dr. Santosh Rathod

Course Co-ordinator : Dr. Kalpna N. Shelke

Course Writer : Dr. Benjamin Khan

: Dr. Namdev Patil

: Dr. Deepali Awasare

May 2023, Print - I

1. Background and Important Concepts – The

1. Syllabus as per Choice Based Credit System

i) Name of the Program : T.Y.B.A. English

ii) Course Code : UAENG501 & UAENG601

v) References and Additional : Enclosed in the Syllabus

viii) No. of lectures per week : 04

ix) No. of Tutorials per week : --

2. Scheme of Examination : 5 Questions of 20 marks each.

3. Special notes , if any : No

5. Fee Structure : As per University Structure

16TH TO 18TH CENTURY ENGLISH LITERATURE

1) To introduce students to English Literature of the 16th, 17th and

2) To show them how background influences shaped the writer’s

3) To present them to the literary masters who dominated the scene

Outcome of the Course:

Unit 1: Background and Important Concepts: 20 Lectures

A. The Restoration Period (1660-1700)

B. Neo-Classical Period (1700-1798)

a. John Milton: from Paradise Lost Book I

c. John Dryden: “The Fire of London”

1. Alpers, Paul E. Elizabethan Poetry: Modern Essays in Criticism (OUP:

Dr. Sr. Ananda Amritmahal, Sophia College Member

Dr./Prof. Sumali Bose, NES Ratnam College Member

1.2 The Restoration Period or the Age of Dryden (1660 -1700)

1.4 Check Your Progress

● To make the students familiar with the Neo-Classical Age

● To enable the students to understand the contribution of various writers to the

● To introduce the students with socio-economic, political, historical and

1.2 THE RESTORATION PERIOD OR THE AGE OF

1.2.2 Major events of the Restoration Period and their impact on

The restoration of King Charles II to the throne of England brought sweeping

1.2.2.2 Impact on Literature: It is important to note that literature reflects the

1.2.2.4 Development of theatre and creation of new genres like heroic

1.2.2.5 Beginning of Journalism - Newspapers, Periodicals and Coffee

1.2.3 Literary Characteristics of the Restoration Period: As discussed in the

1.2.3.4 Development of New Genres: The Restoration writers developed and

‘To err is human, to forgive divine’

1.2.3.7 Restoration Drama – (Comedy of Manners, Heroic Tragedy): The

1.2.3.7.2 Comedy of Manners: This was a popular genre which combined

1.2.4 Important Writers and their Works would be helpful to understand

● Dryden's (“Mac Flecknoe” and “Absalom and Achitophel”) and Butler’s

● John Locke's “Essay Concerning Human Understanding” was an important

● Dryden’s “Essay on Dramatic Poesy” established him as the first modern

● The influence of French literature is seen on the plays of Dryden and

● John Milton’s “Paradise Lost” and John Bunyan’s “Pilgrim’s Progress”

1.4 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

● Holman, C. Hugh and Harmon, William (eds.) (1986). A Handbook to

● Hume, Robert D. (1976). The Development of English Drama in the Late

● Hunt, Leigh (ed.) (1840). The Dramatic Works of Wycherley, Congreve,

● Miller, H. K., G. S. Rousseau and Eric Rothstein, The Augustan Milieu: