Chapter 1

Introduction

“The essence of our species is to explore- to find new answers and new
meaning for who we are."
–Pat McCarthy

Physical cosmology includes the scientific study of the origin, evolution and dynamics of the
universe. Due to impressive progress both on the theoretical and observational side, scientists
are able to resolve many of the puzzles of the universe. Nevertheless, many questions are not
answered completely. For instance, “What are the constituents of the universe?” and “How
does the dynamics of the universe evolve?” The curiosity to get convincing answers to these
questions, motivates one to work in this field.

It was Einstein who first introduced the modern cosmological model of the universe in
1917, i.e. two years after the completion of the theory of General Relativity (GR) [1]. In this
model, he proposed that the universe is static, closed in space (positively curved) and filled
with matter. He assumed that at large scales the universe is homogeneous. Therefore in order
to construct the solution which can describe the static universe, he added a constant in his
field equations called the “cosmological term”. This was a repulsive term which acts against
the attractive force of gravity in order to keep the universe static. Friedmann (1922) provided
a solution to the Einstein equations with or without the cosmological constant but he did
not comment on the physical meaning of these solutions [2]. Lemaitre (1927) re-derived the
Friedmann equations independently and discussed their physical meaning [3]. From these
solutions, Lemaitre concluded that the universe is expanding with time.

The direct evidence of the expanding universe came from the study of the velocity-distance
relation of galaxies by Edwin Hubble in 1929 [4]. After the discovery of the expanding
2 Introduction

universe, the idea that the universe started from a Big Bang gained acceptance. According
to the hot Big Bang model, the universe started from a bang and its properties change with
time. The discovery of the Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMBR) by Penzias
and Wilson in 1965 was important in making the Big Bang model the accepted model of
the universe [5]. A landmark discovery in 1998 by two groups working independently on
Supernovae Ia was instrumental in changing the way we understand our universe. They
found that the expansion of the universe is accelerating [6, 7].

To explain the accelerated expansion of the universe, various models have been proposed. The
most widely accepted one is the Lambda Cold Dark Matter (LCDM) model [8]. According
to this model, the universe is flat and is expanding at an accelerated rate. It is composed of
baryonic matter, dark matter and dark energy. Dark energy is the name given to the cause
of the cosmic acceleration. We will discuss the accelerated expansion of the universe in the
next chapter. In this Chapter we review some elementary concepts of cosmology.

1.1 Basics of cosmology

The evolution and dynamics of the universe can be described by the standard model of
cosmology. One of the main assumptions of this model is that the universe is homogeneous
and isotropic on large scales (approximately 100 Mpc) [8]. This is known as the Cosmological
Principle. Further, the universe on large scales can be described by General Relativity.

1.1.1 Geometry of the Universe

In General Relativity, the distance between two nearby points at xµ and xµ + dxµ is given by

ds2 = gµn dxµ dxn (1.1)

where xµ = (x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 ) with x0 representing the time component and (x1 , x2 , x3 ) represent-
ing the spatial components of spacetime. Here gµn is the metric tensor. In this thesis, we take
the signature of the metric to be (-1,1,1,1). It is very difficult to find a metric for an arbitrary
mass energy distribution. Fortunately, the Cosmological Principle which says that at large
scales, the universe is homogeneous and isotropic makes it easier to find the metric. It helps
to visualize the geometry of the universe as time ordered three dimensional homogeneous
and isotropic spatial slices.

Many observations like the degree of anisotropy of the Cosmic Microwave Background
1.1 Basics of cosmology 3

Radiation (CMBR) and the study of large scale structure confirm the assumption of homo-
geneity and isotropy [8]. Hence the metric that describes the universe should be such that it is
consistent with this principle, i.e. the metric should describe a time evolving universe which
is homogeneous and isotropic at each epoch. The Friedmann-Leimatre-Robertson-Walker
(FLRW) metric is an example of one such metric. The line element of a FLRW metric in 4
dimensional spacetime is
⇥ ⇤
ds2 = dt 2 + R2 (t) dr2 + fk2 (r)(dq 2 + sin2 q df 2 ) (1.2)

where r is the comoving distance and (q , f ) are the spherical polar coordinates. R(t)
represents the scale factor of the universe at cosmic time t and k represents the curvature
constant. Here we have assumed speed of light (c) and scale factor at present epoch (R0 ) to
be one. fk (r) can be redefined as
8
>
<sinh(r) for k = 1
>
>
fk (r) = r for k = 0 (1.3)
>
>
>
:sin(r) for k = +1

where k = 1, 0 and +1 represents negative, flat and positive spatial curvature respectively.

1.1.2 Einstein Field Equations

If the metric gµn of the universe is known, one can determine the geometry of the spacetime
and the motion of a particle in it. If X g is the path traced by the particle moving in a curved
spacetime such that X 0 represents time and the other three indices represent the spatial
components, then the equation of motion (also called the geodesic equation) is given by

dU g g
+ Gµn U µ U n = 0 (1.4)
ds
where U g is the four velocity of the particle relative to the observer and is defined as

dX g
Ug = (1.5)
ds
g
Gµn are the Christoffel symbols and can be defined in terms of the metric and its derivative

g 1 ⇥ ⇤
Gµn = gag gna,µ + gµa,n gn µ,a (1.6)
2
4 Introduction

where

∂ ga µ
ga µ,n ⌘
∂ xn
µ
Using the Christoffel symbol, we can define the Riemann tensor (Rnga ) which describes
the curvature of the Riemannian manifold (a tensor field).

µ µ µ b µ b µ
Rnga ⌘ Gng,a Gna,g + Gng Gab Gna Ggb (1.7)

The Riemann tensor is a measure of the change in position of a vector when it is transported
parallely along a closed loop [9]. The spacetime is flat if the Riemann tensor is zero. The
contraction of the Riemann tensor over two of the indices gives the Ricci tensor (Rµn ).

g
Rµn ⌘ Rµgn (1.8)

Further contraction of the Ricci tensor over the remaining two indices using the metric tensor
gives the Ricci scalar (R).
R ⌘ gµn Rµn (1.9)

The Ricci scalar remains invariant under general coordinate transformations and it is also
the simplest quantity that can be constructed with the second order derivatives of the metric.
Hence it can be used to construct the action for the gravitational field, known as the Einstein-
Hilbert action Z
1 p
SEH = gRd 4 x (1.10)
8pG
where G is the Newtonian gravitational constant and g is the determinant of the metric
component gµn . Varying Eq. (1.10) w.r.t. the metric tensor, we get
Z
p
d SEH = d( gR)d 4 x (1.11)

Z 
p 1
d SEH = d x 4
g Rµn Rgµn d gµn (1.12)
2
Eq. (1.12) should vanish for any arbitrary variation,

1 d SEH 1
p = Rµn Rgµn = 0 (1.13)
g d gµn 2

which are the Einstein field equations in vacuum. Einstein field equations relate the spacetime
curvature with the matter content of the universe. In order to get the Einstein equations for
1.1 Basics of cosmology 5

a non-empty spacetime, one needs to add matter action to the Einstein-Hilbert action [Eq.
(1.10)] Z
1 p
SEH = g(R + Lm )d 4 x (1.14)
8pG
where Lm represents Lagrangian for matter. Repeating the steps as above gives

1
Gµn ⌘ Rµn Rgµn = 8pGTµn (1.15)
2
which are Einstein field equations for the non-empty universe. Here Gµn is the Einstein
tensor, a particular combination of the Ricci tensor (Rµn ) and Ricci scalar (R) which is
consistent with the conservation of the energy-momentum tensor (Tµn ). In order to explain
the accelerated expansion of the universe, Einstein equations are modified by adding a term
( Lgµn ) for some constant L to the Einstein tensor without affecting the conservation of the
energy-momentum tensor. Hence the Eq. (1.15) can be written as

1
Gµn Lgµn ⌘ Rµn Rgµn = 8pGTµn (1.16)
2
where L is called the cosmological constant.
• Energy-Momentum Tensor: In GR, the energy-momentum tensor (Tµn ) is the source
that gravitates or curves spacetime and it should be chosen such that it remains
consistent with the assumptions of homogeneity and isotropy of the universe. To
a good approximation, the matter-energy content of the universe can be treated as a
perfect fluid. The energy-momentum tensor for a perfect fluid is given by

Tµn = (r + p)Uµ Un + pgµn (1.17)

Here Uµ is the four velocity relative to the observer. p and r are the pressure and
energy density in the rest frame of the fluid. If we make the slices of the spatial surfaces
at different times, then the amount of momentum flux passing through a spatial surface
µ
at a particular instant is the energy density. In the rest frame of the fluid Tn can be
written as
µ
Tn = diag( r, p, p, p) (1.18)

According to the law of conservation of energy, the covariant derivative (i.e., derivative
along the tangent vector of any surface) of the energy-momentum tensor is zero. This
gives us the continuity equation (using the FLRW metric).

Ṙ
ṙ + 3 (r + p) = 0 (1.19)
R
6 Introduction

The equation of continuity describes the relation between pressure and density of the
universe. The dots over r and R indicate derivative w.r.t. cosmic time.

1.1.3 Friedmann equations

By inserting the energy-momentum tensor given in Eq. (1.18), along with the Ricci tensor
and Ricci scalar derived from the FLRW metric into the Einstein field equations, we get two
independent equations known as the Friedmann equations.
✓ ◆2
2 Ṙ 8pGr k
H ⌘ = (1.20)
R 3 R2

R̈ 4pG
= (r + 3p) (1.21)
R 3
where r and p are the total energy density (matter and radiation) and pressure of the universe.
The first equation (Eq. 1.20) relates the evolution of the scale factor with the curvature and
energy content of the universe. The second Friedmann equation (Eq. 1.21) is about the
change in the expansion rate (Ṙ) of the universe. If one includes the cosmological constant
(L) then Eqs. (1.20) and (1.21) become
✓ ◆2
2 Ṙ 8pGr k L
H ⌘ = 2
+ (1.22)
R 3 R 3

R̈ 4pG L
= (r + 3p) + (1.23)
R 3 3

1.1.4 Cosmological redshift

Photons from distant objects are the only source of the information about the universe. In
other words, everything we know about the universe comes to us in the form of radiation
from distant objects. But because there is time difference between the light emitted from the
source and light observed by the observer, we observe the object as it was in the past. To see
this, consider two photons emitted by a distant object at time te and te + dte and reaching the
earth at time t0 and t0 + dt0 respectively, where d represents the infinitesimal change. Let
the comoving radial coordinate of the observer be r = 0 and of the source be r1 . As photons
travel along null geodesics, the comoving distance between source and observer is constant.
1.1 Basics of cosmology 7

From the FLRW metric (assuming q , f to be constant and c = 1)

Zt0 t0Z+dt0 Zr1

dt dt dr
= = p = constant (1.24)
R(t) R(t) 1 kr2
te te +dte 0

This expression can also be expressed as

t0Z+dt0 teZ+dte
dt dt
= (1.25)
R(t) R(t)
t0 te

Differentiating Eq. (1.25) w.r.t. t gives

dt0 dte
= (1.26)
R(t0 ) R(te )

The frequency n0 observed here is related to the frequency ne when emitted by

dt0 ne l0
= = (1.27)
dte n0 le

Here l0 and le and n0 and ne are the observed and emitted wavelengths and frequencies
of the radiation respectively. Using Eq. (1.26) and (1.27), one can define a cosmological
redshift (z) as
l0 R(t0 ) dt0
1+z = = = (1.28)
le R(te ) dte
Or
Dl l0 le
z= = (1.29)
le le
Note that the cosmological redshift is the increase in the wavelength of the photon due
to the expansion of the universe and not due to the special relativitistic Doppler effect.
Cosmological redshift gives us information about the size of universe at the time when light
left the source or emitter.

1.1.5 Key parameters in cosmology

While studying the universe and its dynamics, there are some important terms which we will
use frequently. Here we explain a few of these terms.
8 Introduction

• Equation of state parameter (w): It is the ratio of pressure (p) to density (r), i.e.

p = wr (1.30)

where w represents the equation of state parameter. Its value for the different compo-
nents of universe is
8
>
>
> 0 for dust
>
>
< 1 for radiation
w= 3 (1.31)
>
> 1 for cosmological constant
>
>
>
: 1
3 for curvature

• Hubble parameter (H(t)): According to Hubble’s law, the galaxies that are at a larger
distance are moving away from us faster than the nearer ones, i.e. the recessional
velocity of a galaxy is proportional to its physical distance. The proportionality constant
is known as the Hubble parameter and is represented by H. Hence, Hubble parameter
can be defined as the ratio of the derivative of scale factor and the scale factor (because
the comoving distance being a constant cancelled out), i.e.

Ṙ(t)
H(t) = (1.32)
R(t)

The Hubble parameter is a measure of the expansion rate of the universe. It is a time
dependent parameter, i.e. its value changes with time. The value of the Hubble param-
eter at the present epoch is called the Hubble constant (H0 ). Recently, data from the
Planck satellite gives us a value of H0 = 67.8 ± 0.9 kms 1 Mpc 1 [8]. It is frequently
parametrized by the dimensionless parameter h, i.e. H0 = 100h kms 1 Mpc 1 . The
inverse of the Hubble parameter which is known as is the Hubble time is defined as,
tH = H10 and the Hubble radius is defined as rH = Hc0 .

• Deceleration parameter (q): The time derivative of the Hubble parameter gives
✓ ◆
2 R̈
Ḣ = H 1 = H 2 (1 + q) (1.33)
RH 2

where q, the deceleration parameter, is defined by

R̈
q= (1.34)
H 2R
1.1 Basics of cosmology 9

The sign of the deceleration parameter tells us whether the expansion rate of the
universe is decreasing or increasing. From Eq. (1.34), it is clear that positive and
negative q represent decelerated and accelerated expansion of the universe respectively.

• Critical energy density (rc ): The critical energy density of the universe is defined as,

3H 2
rc = (1.35)
8pG
which comes out to be the same as the density of flat universe (k = 0) given the
condition that the cosmological constant is zero (L = 0). The spatial geometry of the
universe will be closed, open or flat depending upon whether the density of the universe
(r) is greater than, less than or equal to the critical energy density rc respectively. The
present critical energy density of the universe is, rc0 = 1.86 ⇥ 10 29 h2 g/cm3 . If we
divide Eq. (1.22) by H 2 , we get

8pG(rm + rr ) k L
+ =1 (1.36)
3H 2 R2 H 2 3H 2
This allows us to define the dimensionless energy density of different components
of the universe as the ratio of the density of that particular component to the critical
density of universe, i.e.
ri
Wi ⌘ (1.37)
rc
where i stands for m, k, r and L, i.e. matter, curvature, radiation and dark energy
respectively. In terms of the critical energy density, the dimensionless energy densities
are written as,
8pGrm k
Wm = 2
Wk = 2 2 (1.38)
3H R H

8pGrr L
Wr = 2
WL = (1.39)
3H 3H 2
Eq. (1.36) then implies that the sum of all energy density fractions is one (assuming
radiation density to be negligible), i.e.

Wm + Wk + WL = 1 (1.40)

In terms of dimensionless density parameters, Eq. (1.22) becomes

H 2 = H02 [Wm0 R 3
+ Wk0 R 2
+ WL0 x (R)] (1.41)
10 Introduction

where Wm0 , Wk0 and WDE0 represent the dimensionless energy density of matter,
curvature and cosmological constant at present epoch respectively. x (R) is some
function of R which represents the dependence of dark energy density on the scale
factor.

1.2 Cosmological observables

In cosmology, most of the observations are made in terms of the cosmological distances.
However, measuring distances in cosmology is tricky because while making these measure-
ments one has to consider the effect of the expansion of the universe as well. In order to
make the measurement process easier, cosmologists define a comoving distance. It is the
distance that remains constant with time, i.e. it is independent of the expansion. It is the most
fundamental distance as all other cosmological distances can be written in terms of it. For a
good exposition on cosmological distances see [10, 11].

Comoving distance between two objects moving with the Hubble flow can be defined
as the distance that remains constant with time or does not depend upon the scale factor. In
the lower panel of Fig. (1.1) comoving distance of an object lying at different redshifts is
shown (arrow indicates high to low redshift direction). To find the expression for comoving

Fig. 1.1 Upper and lower panel show the variation of physical distance and the comoving
distance with redshift. Arrows are in high to low redshift direction.1

1 Image Courtesy: Observational cosmology by Stephan Serjeant. [10]

1.2 Cosmological observables 11

distance, let us consider a photon coming to earth from some distant object. As the photon
travels along a null trajectory, ds = 0. Considering dq = df = 0 and c = 1, we get, from the
FLRW metric,
Zr Zt0
dt dr
Dc ⌘ = p = fk (r) (1.42)
R(t) 1 kr2
0 te

where 8
>
<sin(r) k = +1
>
>
Dc = fk (r) = r k=0 (1.43)
>
>
>
:sinh(r) k= 1

This expression is in terms of the variables k and r which are not directly observable. To get
the comoving distance in terms of the observable quantities, consider

dt dR
dt = dR = (1.44)
dR RH
R0
where H = ṘR . We know from Eq. (1.28) that R = (1+z) . Differentiating R w.r.t. time (t)
gives
R0 dz
dR = (1.45)
(1 + z)2
Putting back this value in Eq. (1.44) gives

1 R0 dz dz
dt = = (1.46)
RH (1 + z)2 H(1 + z)

Using Eq. (1.46) in Eq. (1.42) gives the comoving distance in terms of observables via the
Hubble parameter. We also put R0 = 1.

Zz
dz0
Dc = (1.47)
H(z0 )
0

1.2.1 Physical distance

Physical distance is the actual proper distance between two objects that can be measured
using a physical scale. In an expanding universe, the physical distance of an object with
redshift (z) increases with increasing scale factor and can be written in terms of the comoving
distance as
D p = R(t)Dc (1.48)
12 Introduction

R(t) represents the scale factor of the universe which is a function of time. In Fig. (1.1), the
upper panel shows the physical distance between the two objects at different redshifts.

1.2.2 Luminosity distance

The luminosity distance of an object (DL ) can be defined in terms of the ratio of its bolometric
absolute luminosity (total power emitted (L )) to its bolometric flux (F ) (flux integrated
over all wavelengths ).
L
D2L = (1.49)
4pF
To understand this, let us consider a radiating object lying at the centre of a sphere with
comoving radius Dc and a detector placed at the surface of the sphere [see Fig. (1.2)]. The
physical distance between the radiating object and detector is R0 Dc . If we assume a static
universe, the observed flux will be

L
F= (1.50)
4pR20 D2c

However, if the universe is expanding, then the motion of photons will also get affected.

Fig. 1.2 Propagation of a photon to the surface of the sphere which is measured as the flux by
the detector.

Firstly the energy of each photon will be reduced by a factor of (1 + z) and secondly the
1.2 Cosmological observables 13

arrival of photons will be delayed by another (1 + z) factor. Hence now the observed flux
will be
L
F= 2
(1.51)
4pR0 D2c (1 + z)2
If we compare Eq. (1.51) with the Eq. (1.49), the luminosity distance in an expanding
universe becomes
DL = R0 (1 + z)Dc (1.52)

Assuming the scale factor at the present epoch (R0 ) to be one and using Eq. (1.47),

Zz
dz0
DL = (1 + z) (1.53)
H(z0 )
0

1.2.3 Angular diameter distance

For an object with physical size l, under the assumption of Euclidean geometry, the angular
diameter distance can be defined as the ratio of its transverse physical size to its angular size
(q ), i.e.
l
DA = (1.54)
q
To derive the expression in an expanding universe in terms of the comoving distance, let us

θ l

DA

Fig. 1.3 Measuring angular diameter distance by estimating the angle subtended by the object
on the detector.

consider the observer to be at the origin and the object to be at the distance Dc . From the
FLRW metric
l = ds = R(te )Dc dq (1.55)
14 Introduction

where R(te ) is the scale factor of the universe at the time when light is emitted from the
source. Comparing Eq. (1.55) with Eq. (1.54) gives

R0 Dc
DA = R(te )Dc = (1.56)
(1 + z)

Using Eq. (1.47) and putting R0 = 1,

Zz
1 dz0
DA = (1.57)
(1 + z) H(z0 )
0

From the expressions of luminosity distance and angular diameter distance, it is clear that
they have almost the same form but they depend on redshift differently. In an expanding
universe, the luminosity distance and angular diameter distance are related by the relation
DL = (1 + z)2 DA , while in a static, flat universe, the two are equal.

1.2.4 Comoving volume

Comoving volume is defined as the ratio of physical volume of the universe to the cube of
the scale factor. Comoving volume in a solid angle dW and in redshift interval dz is defined
as [11].
dVc D2 (1 + z)2
= A (1.58)
dWdz H(z)

1.2.5 Lookback time

Lookback time (tL ) for an object at redshift (z) is defined as the difference between the age
of the universe at the time of the observation (tage ) and the age of universe at the time when
light was emitted from the object (te ) [12].

Zz
1 dz0
tL (z) = tage te = H0 (1.59)
(1 + z0 )E(z0 )
0

where H0 1 = 9.78h 1 Gyr and E(z) = H(z)/H0 .

1.2 Cosmological observables 15

Fig. 1.4 Lookback time and age of universe.2

Fig. (1.4) explains the lookback time and age of universe pictorially. In Fig. (1.4), tL (z f )
represents the lookback time at the redshift when the object was formed (known as redshift
of formation). So according to the definition tL (z f ) = tage -df where tage represents age of the
universe at the time of observation and df is age of the universe at redshift z f . The delay
factor (df) (also known as incubation time) accounts for the time from the beginning of the
universe to the time when an astronomical object starts to form.

2 Image Courtesy: Nilza Pires et. al [12]