Microbiology
Microbiology
Microbiology
Бактерії відрізняються одна від одної головним чином тим, де і на чому вони
живуть, а також формою своїх клітин. Існують кулясті коки, такі як стафілокок
і стрептокок, які часто зустрічаються в ланцюжках або масах, і паличкоподібні
бактерії, такі як мікобактерії, що викликають туберкульоз. Іншими
хвороботворними бактеріями є Eberthella typhi (черевний тиф) і Vibrio cholerae
(холера). Тип бактерій, які утворюють котушки або спіралі, - це спірили.
Вправи :
Learn and translate the following words and word combinations: rod-shaped
bacillus type, disease-causing bacteria, optical microscope, tough outer cell wall, a
protective layer of jelly, a coil of DNA, elongation and branching, in liquid or on
solid culture media, correct pH value of the medium, in aqueous solution, to require
protein degradation products, fastidious pathogens, under certain conditions.
Переклад :
5. Some **nutritious** pathogens need media enriched with blood or other highly
**nutritious** substances.
Переклад :
Ex. 2.4. Say whether the following statements are true or false.
- True. Bacteria typically reproduce by binary fission, where one cell divides into
two identical daughter cells.
- False. Bacteria can be grown in the laboratory using appropriate culture media and
conditions. In fact, cultivating bacteria in the lab is a common practice in
microbiology.
6. The medium enriched with nutritious substances is required for some pathogenic
bacteria.
- True. Some pathogenic bacteria may require a nutrient-rich medium for optimal
growth in the laboratory.
Ex. 2.5. Translate the following sentences into English.
Переклад :
2. Bacteria differ from each other in the shape of their individual cells, as well as
where and on what they live.
8. Different types of bacteria can live in almost any environment, from hot springs
to Arctic frost.
A virus is a tiny parasite living, growing and reproducing its kind inside a host
cell. When viruses damage or destroy the cells they invade, they produce virus
diseases: polio, smallpox and rabies are typical examples. Viruses are the smallest
microbes.
"Virus", or "the virus", has also become a fashionable medical diagnosis. It is
usually applied to minor disturbances of the stomach or intestines ("stomach flu") and
to upper respiratory tract infections related to the common cold. It is as good an
explanation as any for transitory infections, of unproved origin, which make a person
feel miserable and weaken him for a considerable length of time.
In 1898, Loeffler and Frosch discovered the virus that causes hoof-and- mouth
disease in cattle and in 1901, Walter Reed and his associates found the virus that
causes yellow fever in man. Since then, a great many viruses, all parasites on the cells
of plants, lower animals or human beings, have been identified. Viruses that are
parasites on bacteria are called bacteriophage (phage).
Closely related to viruses are rickettsia, microbes which are parasites on host cells
but which are too large to pass through the porcelain filters that let viruses through.
The principal rickettsial disease is typhus.
The exact nature of viruses has not yet been settled. They are on the border- line
between the living and the dead. A "live" virus can apparently be reconstituted out of
inorganic chemicals (the tobacco mosaic virus) and will multiply or replicate itself
within cells. This is the area where chemistry and biology seem to merge.
The crux of the matter appears to lie in the nucleus of the virus, made up of
nucleic acid and nucleoproteins. The outer coat of the virus, which can be stripped, is
a protein. The nucleic acids-chemicals-have a special configuration in their molecular
form. They are twin spirals, like spiral springs, one turning to the right, the other to
the left.
Under certain circumstances of virus reproduction, they split apart and then join
together again. This is much the same process that occurs when the chromosomes in
the nucleus of a living cell split apart and re-join to form new cells. In other words,
viruses act much like genes, and greater similarities between them may be found. The
process of wild multiplication of cancer cells also has much in common with virus
duplication.
How big are viruses? They are unbelievably small - millionths of an inch in
length, breadth and thickness. The largest known virus, that of parrot fever
(psittacosis) - measuring 450 millimicrons is only about 1/20 the size of a red blood
cell. The smallest virus, that of hoof-and-mouth disease, measures only 10
millimicrons.
Viruses come in all kinds of shapes spheres, balls, ovals (egg-shaped), cubes,
rhomboids, commas, and rods.
Habitats. Viruses can be found almost anywhere there is life, including within
prokaryotes. A phage is a virus that infects prokaryotes. Phages are estimated to be
the most widely distributed and diverse entities in the biosphere, even more numerous
than prokaryotic organisms. Phages can be found everywhere their hosts are found,
such as in soil, in the intestines of animals, or in seawater. Up to 109 virions (a
complete virus particle) have been found in a millilitre of seawater, and up to 70
percent of marine bacteria may be infected by phages. They are also found in
drinking water and in some foods, including fermented vegetables and meats, where
they control the growth of bacteria.
Переклад:
"Вірус", або "вірус", також став модним медичним діагнозом. Зазвичай його
застосовують до незначних розладів шлунку або кишечника ("шлунковий
грип") та до інфекцій верхніх дихальних шляхів, пов'язаних із застудою. Це
таке ж гарне пояснення, як і для транзиторних інфекцій недоведеного
походження, які змушують людину почуватися нещасною і послаблюють її на
тривалий час.
Learn and translate the following words and word combinations: to damage or
destroy cells, minor disturbances, transitory infection, unproved origin, infective
agent, to settle the nature of viruses, to join together again, to form new cells, to have
much in common.
Ex. 3.2. Choose the best word for each sentence. Use each word only once.
Переклад :
1. False. Viruses are much smaller than microbes; microbes include bacteria, fungi,
and protozoa.
2. False. The exact nature of viruses is still a subject of ongoing research and is not
completely settled.
3. True. The outer coat of a virus, called the capsid, is often composed of proteins.
4. The statement is unclear and seems to have a grammatical error. Please provide
more information or clarification.
6. False. There are similarities between genes and viruses, as viruses can contain
genetic material.
7. True. The largest known viruses, such as pandoraviruses, are as big as some
bacteria and can approach the size of a red blood cell.
9. False. The virus that causes hoof-and-mouth disease is not the largest in size.
10. True. Bacteriophages (phages) are viruses that infect bacteria, and they can be
found wherever their bacterial hosts are present.
1. **What is a virus?**
A virus is a microscopic infectious agent that can only replicate inside the living
cells of an organism. It consists of genetic material, either DNA or RNA, surrounded
by a protein coat called a capsid. Some viruses also have an outer envelope derived
from the host cell membrane.
The discovery of viruses dates back to the late 19th century. The first virus
discovered was the tobacco mosaic virus, identified by Dmitri Ivanovsky in 1892.
However, the nature of viruses as distinct entities from bacteria was fully recognized
in the early 20th century through the work of researchers like Martinus Beijerinck
and Wendell Stanley.
Viruses that infect and replicate within bacteria are called bacteriophages.
Bacteriophages are viruses that specifically target and infect bacterial cells.
Reconstituting a "live" virus typically involves providing suitable host cells for the
virus to infect and replicate. This process is done in a laboratory setting where
researchers can culture cells that support the growth of the virus. The virus is
introduced to these cells, and under favorable conditions, it can replicate, producing
new viral particles.
The nucleic acid in viruses can be either DNA or RNA. The configuration can be
single-stranded or double-stranded, and the nucleic acid carries the genetic
information necessary for the virus to replicate and produce new viral particles.
Viruses split apart during the process of viral replication within host cells. After the
viral genetic material is replicated and new viral components are synthesized, the
virus particles assemble within the host cell. Once assembled, the new viruses can
then exit the host cell, often causing the cell to burst in the process.
Viruses can come in various shapes, including helical, icosahedral, and complex
structures. Helical viruses have a coiled shape, icosahedral viruses have a roughly
spherical shape with 20 equilateral triangular faces, and complex viruses have
irregular shapes that do not fit into the helical or icosahedral categories. The outer
envelope of some viruses can also give them a more diverse range of shapes.
Ex. 3.7. Translate into English.
5. A virus is a tiny parasite that lives, grows, and reproduces inside the host cell.
6. Viral diseases weaken the human body for a very long period.
Ebola is the virus that causes Ebola virus disease. Ebola virus disease is a serious
illness that causes viral hemorrhagic fever and is deadly in up to 90 percent of cases.
Ebola damages blood vessel walls and inhibits the blood from elotting. This results in
internal bleeding that can be life-threatening. Ebola outbreaks have garnered serious
attention as there is no known treatment, vaccine, or cure for the disease. These
outbreaks have primarily affected people in tropical regions of Central and West
Africa. Ebola is typically transmitted to humans through close contact with the bodily
fluids of infected animals. It is then transmitted between humans through contact with
blood and other bodily fluids. It can also be picked up through contact with
contaminated fluids in an environment. Ebola symptoms include fever, diarrhea, rash,
vomiting, dehydration, impaired kidney and liver function, and internal bleeding.
Ebola is a single-stranded, negative RNA virus that belongs to the virus family
Filoviridae. Marburg viruses are also included in the Filoviridae family. This virus
family is characterized by their rod-shape, thread-like structure, varied length, and
their membrane enclosed capsid. A capsid is a protein coat that encloses the viral
genetic material. In Filoviridae viruses, the capsid is also enclosed in a lipid
membrane that contains both host cell and viral components. This membrane assists
the virus in infecting its host. Ebola viruses can be relatively large measuring up to
14,000 nm in length and 80 nm in diameter. They often take on a U shape.
Ebola Virus Infection
The exact mechanism by which Ebola infects a cell is not known. Like all viruses,
Ebola lacks the needed components to replicate and must utilize the cell's ribosomes
and other cellular machinery to replicate. Ebola virus replication is thought to occur
in the host cell's cytoplasm. Upon entering the cell, the virus uses an enzyme called
RNA polymerase to transcribe its viral RNA strand. The viral RNA transcript
synthesized is similar to messenger RNA transcripts that are produced during normal
cellular DNA transcription. The cell's ribosomes then translate the viral RNA
transcript message to create viral proteins. The viral genome instructs the cell to
produce new viral components, RNA, and enzymes. These viral components are
transported to the cell membrane where they are assembled into new Ebola virus
particles. The viruses are released from the host cell through budding. In budding, a
virus uses components of the host's cell membrane to create its own membrane
envelope which encloses the virus and is eventually pinched off from the cell
membrane. As more and more viruses exit the cell through budding, cell membrane
components are slowly used up and the cell dies. In humans, Ebola primarily infects
the inner tissue linings of capillaries and various types of white blood cells.
Studies indicate that the Ebola virus is able to replicate unchecked because it
suppresses the immune system. Ebola produces a protein called Ebola Viral Protein
24 that blocks cell signaling proteins called interferons. Interferons signal the
immune system to increase its response to viral infections. With this important
signaling path blocked, cells have little defense against the virus. The mass
production of viruses triggers other immune responses that negatively impact organs
and causes a number of the severe symptoms seen in Ebola virus disease. Another
tactic employed by the virus to evade detection involves cloaking the presences of its
double-stranded RNA that is synthesized during viral RNA transcription. The
presence of the double-stranded RNA alerts the immune system to mount a defense
against infected cells. The Ebola virus produces a protein called Ebola Viral Protein
35 (VP35) that prevents the immune system from detecting the double-stranded RNA
and thwarts an immune response. Understanding how Ebola suppresses the immune
system is key to the future development of treatments or vaccines against the virus.
Переклад :
ВІРУС ЕБОЛА
Вірусний геном дає клітині вказівки виробляти нові вірусні компоненти, РНК
та ферменти. Ці вірусні компоненти транспортуються до клітинної мембрани,
де вони збираються в нові частинки вірусу Ебола. Віруси вивільняються з
клітини-хазяїна через брунькування. Під час брунькування вірус використовує
компоненти клітинної мембрани хазяїна для створення власної мембранної
оболонки, яка оточує вірус і врешті-решт відщеплюється від клітинної
мембрани. Оскільки все більше і більше вірусів виходять з клітини через
брунькування, компоненти клітинної мембрани повільно використовуються, і
клітина гине. У людини Ебола в першу чергу вражає внутрішню оболонку
капілярів і різні типи білих кров'яних тілець.
Ex.4.3
1. Studies show that antibodies can be detected in the blood up to 10 years after
survivors of Ebola virus infection have recovered.
8. Scientists later discovered that the two outbreaks were caused by two genetically
distinct viruses.
1. **Ebola is a single-stranded, positive RNA virus that belongs to the virus family
Filoviridae.**
2. **These viral components are transported to the nucleoid where they are
assembled into new Ebola virus particles.**
- **False:** The assembly of Ebola virus particles does not occur in the nucleoid.
Instead, it takes place in the cytoplasm of the host cell.
3. **Ebola is typically transmitted to humans through close contact with the bodily
fluids of infected animals.**
- **True:** Ebola is primarily transmitted through close contact with the blood,
secretions, organs, or other bodily fluids of infected animals (including humans).
- **False:** Ebola is not transmitted through the air. It requires direct contact with
the bodily fluids mentioned in statement 3 for transmission between humans.
8. **In humans, Ebola primarily infects the inner tissue linings of capillaries and
various types of red blood cells.**
- **True:** Ebola primarily infects endothelial cells lining blood vessels and
certain types of immune cells.
- **True:** Interferons play a key role in signaling and boosting the immune
response to viral infections.
11. **The mass production of viruses triggers other immune responses that
negatively impact organs.**
12. **Ebola Viral Protein 35 prevents the immune system from detecting the single-
stranded RNA and thwarts an immune response.**
- **True:** Ebola Viral Protein 35 is known to inhibit the host immune response
by interfering with the detection of viral RNA by the immune system.
Ex. 4.6
1. The Ebola virus disease is one of the deadliest viral illnesses. It was discovered in
1976 when two consecutive outbreaks of fatal hemorrhagic fever occurred in
different parts of Central Africa. The first outbreak occurred in the Democratic
Republic of the Congo in a village near the Ebola River, which gave the virus its
name. The second outbreak occurred in what is now South Sudan.
2. Symptoms can appear 2 to 21 days after contact with the virus, typically averaging
from 8 to 10 days. The course of the illness usually progresses from "dry" symptoms
such as fever, body aches, and fatigue, and then transitions to "wet" symptoms,
including diarrhea and vomiting, as the person worsens.
3. Ebola is a severe illness. Recovery from Ebola depends on proper clinical support
and the patient's immune response.
Edward Jenner, the discoverer of vaccination for smallpox, was born at a time
when the patterns of British medical practice and education were (1)
coming/undergoing gradual change.
Jenner was a country youth, the son of a clergyman. Because Edward was only
five when his father died, he was (2) brought up/grown by an elder brother who was
also a clergyman. Edward (3) visited/attended grammar school and at the age of 13
was apprenticed to a (4) near/nearby surgeon. In the following eight years Jenner (5)
acquired/inquired a (6) sound/superficial knowledge of medical and surgical practice
that helped him much in his future work. On (7) graduating/completing his
apprenticeship at the age of 21, he went to London and became the house pupil of
John Hunter, who was on the staff of St. George's Hospital and was soon to become
one of the most (8) prominent/top surgeons in London. Even more important,
however, he was an anatomist, biologist, and experimentalist of the first (9)
rank/range; not only did he collect biological (10) specimens/specimen but he also
concerned himself with problems of physiology and function.
Thinking over this phenomenon Jenner (16) concluded/completed that cow pox
not only protected against smallpox but also could be transmitted from one person to
another (17) as/like a deliberate mechanism of protection.
The story of the great breakthrough is well known. Complications were many,
Vaccination seemed (18) common/simple, but the vast number of persons who
practiced it did not necessarily (19) precede/follow the procedure that Jenner had
recommended, and deliberate or unconscious innovations often (20)
collaborated/lessened the effectiveness. Pure cow pox vaccine was not always easy to
obtain, nor was it (21) easy/common to preserve or transmit.
Despite errors and occasional chicanery, the process of vaccination spread (22)
fastly/rapidly and the death rate from smallpox plunged. Jenner, although he received
worldwide recognition and many honours, (23) made/did no attempt to enrich himself
through his discovery and actually devoted so much time to the cause of vaccination
that his (24) private/personal practice and his (25) private/personal affairs suffered
(26) severely/several. In 1802 Parliament voted him a sum of £10,000 and in 1806 a
(27) father/further sum of £20,000.
Jenner not only received honours but also (28) aroused/ arouse opposition and
found himself subjected to attacks and calumnies, (29) in spite/despite which he
continued his activities (30) in behalf/in sake of vaccination. His wife, (31) sick by/ill
with tuberculosis, died in 1815, and Jenner retired from public life.
Переклад :
ВАКЦИНАЦІЯ ВІД ВІСПИ
Nations around the world are preparing for a possible major outbreak of a new deadly
virus. The coronavirus, which started in the Chinese city of Wuhan, has already killed
17 people. It has spread to the USA, Japan, Korea and Thailand.
More than 540 people have caught the virus and are in hospital. The World Health
Organization (WHO) is meeting to decide whether the outbreak is a global health
emergency. China is urging people not to panic ahead of the Chinese New Year next
week. Millions of Chinese will be travelling across the country to spend the holiday
season with their families. Meanwhile, the city of Wuhan has suspended its public
transport systems to help stop the spread of the virus.
The new coronavirus is suspected to have come from illegally traded animals in a
Wuhan market. The virus mutated and spread from an animal to a human. There are
fears it could mutate and spread further. Scientists say the virus is contagious and can
be passed from person to person through the air. Dr Linfa
Переклад:
Ex.6 p. 80
2. If she had brought her work this week, I would have been able to look it through,
and then she would have finished it in time.
3. If your brother were here now, he would be surprised at your behavior, and I am
sure he would not approve of it.
4. If we were not writing this exercise now, I would give you my pen.
5. If it were raining now, the children would not be running about in the garden.
6. If she goes to the booking office now, she will buy a ticket.
8. If I were not busy with this article, I would help you about the house.
10. If you did not have a watch, I would buy you one. But since you have a watch,
and not a bad one, your friend, when she goes to want to be a student, will have one.
3. Якби твій брат був зараз тут, він був би здивований твоєю поведінкою, і я
впевнений, що він би її не схвалив.
10. Якби у тебе не було годинника, я б тобі його купив. Але оскільки в тебе є
годинник, і непоганий, то й у твоєї подруги, коли вона захоче стати
студенткою, буде такий самий.