SRI CHAITANYA PU COLLEGE (AS0756)

RJ GARDENS, CHINNAPANAHALLI, MARATHAHALLI,BANGALORE-560037

 LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

1. To determine the resistivity of the material of a given wire (of known radius and length) by
finding its resistance using Ohm’s law.
2. To determine resistance per unit length of a given wire by plotting a graph of potential
difference versus current.
3. To determine resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection method and to find its figure
of merit.
4. To convert the given galvanometer (of known figure of merit and resistance) into an
ammeter of desired range.
5. To find the focal length of a concave mirror by finding the values of v for different values
of u.
6. To find the focal length of a convex mirror using a convex lens.
7. To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting a graph between u and v.
8. To find the focal length of a concave lens using a convex lens.
9. To determine the angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a graph
between the angle of incidence and the angle of deviation.
10. To determine the refractive index of a glass slab using a travelling microscope.
11. To determine the refractive index of a liquid by using (i) concave mirror, (ii) convex lens
and plane mirror.
12. To draw the I-V characteristics curves of a p-n junction in forward bias and reverse bias.
 RESISTIVITY OF GIVEN MATERIAL

Aim: To determine the resistivity of the material of a given wire (of known radius and length)
by finding its resistance using Ohm’s law.

Apparatus: A wire of unknown resistance, battery eliminator (0 to 3V), voltmeter (0-5 V),
ammeter (0–500 mA), rheostat, plug key, connecting wires.

Principle:
Ohm's law states that the electric current flowing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference across its ends, provided the
physical state of the conductor remains unchanged.

Formula:
1
R= Ω.
slope
Resistivity 𝜌 =

Procedure:
1. Connect various components - resistance, rheostat, battery, key, voltmeter and
ammeter as shown in circuit diagram.
2. Note whether pointers in ammeter and voltmeter coincide with the zero mark on
the measuring scale. If it is not so, adjust the pointer.
3. Insert the key K and slide the rheostat contact to one of its extreme ends, so that
current passing through the resistance wire is minimum.
4. Note the ammeter and voltmeter readings.
5. Remove the key K and allow the wire to cool, if heated. Again insert the key.
Shift the rheostat contact slightly to increase the applied voltage. Note the
ammeter and voltmeter reading.
6. Repeat step 5 for five to six different settings of the rheostat. Record your
observations in a tabular column.
7. Plot a graph between the potential difference across the wire (V) v/s current (I).
8. The resistance of the given wire is equal to the reciprocal of the
slope.
9. Resistivity can be calculated by given formulae
10. We will repeat the procedure with one / two more wires
Circuit Diagram: Nature of graph:
Ba
K

A
+

I (ampere)
A C
_ R Rh
B

+ V _ V ( volts )

Where:
Ba – Battery, K – Plug Key, A – Ammeter, V – Voltmeter, Rh – Rheostat, R – Resistance of
Given Wire
Observations:

Length of the given wire ( l ) = …………….m

Applied Potential
Sl Current through the wire
difference
No. ( I in ampere )
(V in volts)
1
2
3
4
5
6

Calculation:

From graph, Slope = =

The Resistance of the given wire is R = = …….. Ω

Result: Resistivity of given wire is given by

 RESISTANCE PER UNIT LENGTH

Aim: To determine resist of a given wire by plotting a graph of potential difference

versus current.

Apparatus: A wire of unknown resistance, battery eliminator (0 to 3V), voltmeter (0-5 V),
ammeter (0–500 mA), rheostat, plug key, connecting wires.

Principle:
Ohm's law states that the electric current flowing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference across its ends, provided the
physical state of the conductor remains unchanged.

Formula:
1
R= Ω.
slope

Resistance per unit length =

R = Resistance
l = length
Procedure:
1. Connect various components - resistance, rheostat, battery, key, voltmeter and
ammeter as shown in circuit diagram.
2. Note whether pointers in ammeter and voltmeter coincide with the zero mark on
the measuring scale. If it is not so, adjust the pointer.
3. Insert the key K and slide the rheostat contact to one of its extreme ends, so that
current passing through the resistance wire is minimum.
4. Note the ammeter and voltmeter readings.
5. Remove the key K and allow the wire to cool, if heated. Again insert the key.
Shift the rheostat contact slightly to increase the applied voltage. Note the
ammeter and voltmeter reading.
6. Repeat step 5 for five to six different settings of the rheostat. Record your
observations in a tabular column.
7. Plot a graph between the potential difference across the wire (V) v/s current (I).
8. The resistance of the given wire is equal to the reciprocal of the
slope.
Circuit Diagram: Nature of graph:
Ba
K

+ A

I (ampere)
A
_ R Rh C
B

V _ V ( volts )
+

Where:
Ba – Battery, K – Plug Key, A – Ammeter, V – Voltmeter, Rh – Rheostat, R – Resistance of
Given Wire
Observations:
Length of the given wire ( l ) = …………….m

Applied Potential
Sl Current through the wire
difference
No. ( I in ampere )
(V in volts)
1
2
3
4
5
6

Calculation:

From graph, Slope = =

The Resistance of the given wire is R = = …….. Ω

Result:
-1
The resistance per unit length of the wire is = ......Ωm
 FIGURE OF MERIT OF GALVANOMETER

Aim: To determine resistance of a galvanometer by half deflection method and to find its
figure of merit.
Apparatus: Galvanometer, battery, two resistance boxes, one way key(two numbers) and
connecting wires.
Theory: A galvanometer is a device used to detect small current in a circuit. It has a coil
pivoted in a radial magnetic field. When electric current is passed through the coil, it gets
deflected. Its deflection is noted by attaching a pointer to the coil. The deflection is
proportional to current passed. A galvanometer has a moderate resistance and has a small
current carrying capacity. The resistance of a galvanometer can be found by half deflection
method. The circuit is shown for this method. Key K is inserted and deflection 0 is
determined with a suitable value of R. If E is the emf of cell and I be the current in circuit, the
galvanometer resistance,

𝑅𝑆
𝐺=
𝑅−𝑆
Figure of merit of galvanometer: It is defined as current required for producing deflection of 1
division. It is measured in ampere/div. When a high resistance R is taken out from resistance box, a
current I flow in the circuit and it produces a deflection 

𝐸
𝐼= = 𝑘𝜃
𝑅+𝐺
Therefore
𝐸
𝑘=
(𝑅 + 𝐺)𝜃

By varying R and noting corresponding value of  , we can find a set of values of figure of merit. The
mean of these values gives the figure of merit
Circuit Diagram:

Ba K1 R

I
Ig
G -
+

S K2
Where:
Ba – Battery, G – Galvanometer, R & S – Resistance boxes, K1 & K2 – Plug keys
Observation:
S.No Resistance Deflection in 𝜃 Shunt S Galvanometer Figure of
Ω galvanometer 𝜃 2 Ω Resistance G merit
(divisions) (divisions) Ω 𝑘=
𝐸
(𝑅 + 𝐺)𝜃

Mean (K) = A/division

Procedure:
a) Make the connections as shown.
b) See that the plugs of resistance box are tight.
c) Introduce a resistance of 5000 from the resistance box R and then insert the K1 only
d) Adjust the value of R so that the deflection in the galvanometer is maximum (say 30 div)

e) Note the deflection. Let it be  i.e.,  = 30 div.

f) Now, insert the key K2. Without changing the value of R, adjust the value of k, suc that deflection
in galvanometer reduces exactly to half the value obtained. i.e.,  /2.
g) Note the value of R.
h) Repeat the above steps for various values of R

Precautions: S\All the connections should be neat, clean and tight.

b) Ensure that the plugs of resistance box are tight.
c) Initially a high resistance from the resistance box should be introduced or else a small resistance
can damage the galvanometer.

Result: 1). The resistance of galvanometer is found to be

2). Figure of merit of galvanometer is A/division.
 CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER INTO AMMETER

Aim: To convert the given galvanometer into an ammeter of the required range and verify the same.
Apparatus: pointer galvanometer, battery, ammeter, wire, rheostat and plug key.
Principle:
A galvanometer of resistance G is converted into an ammeter of range 0-I by connecting a
suitable low resistance S parallel to the galvanometer.
From circuit, potential difference across S = potential difference across G
(I – Ig) S = Ig G
The value of shunt resistance is 𝑆 = , where Ig is current for full scale deflection.
Formula:
Current through the galvanometer for full scale deflection, Ig = Nk ampere
Shunt resistance, 𝑆 = 𝛺

Length of the wire, 𝑙 = 𝑚

Where:
k – Figure of merit of the galvanometer
N – Number of divisions on either side of zero of galvanometer.
G – Galvanometer resistance.
I - Range of the converted galvanometer into ammeter.
r – Radius of the given wire.
ρ– Resistivity of the wire material.

Procedure:
1. The shunt resistance S is calculated using the formula, 𝑆 = .
2. The given wire radius is measured using the screw gauge.
3. Using the value of radius of the wire r and resistivity ρ of the material of the wire, the length l of
the wire is calculated using the formula 𝑙 = .
4. The wire of slightly longer length than the calculated is connected in parallel with the
galvanometer and connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.
5. The length of the wire is adjusted for full scale deflection in the galvanometer and its length l' is
measured.
′
6. Shunt resistance S' is calculated using the formula 𝑆′ = .
7. S' is equal or nearly equal to S and hence conversion is verified.
Circuit Diagram:
Ba
K

Ig
A -
+ + G -
Rh
I- Ig S

Where:
Ba – Battery, A – Ammeter, G – Galvanometer, Rh – Rheostat, S – Shunt resistor and K – Plug
key.

Observations:

1. Galvanometer resistance, G (given) = ………Ω

2. Figure of merit of the galvanometer, k (given) = ………A/div
3. Number of divisions on galvanometer scale, N = …………..div
4. Required range of ammeter, I = …………..A
5. Current required for producing full scale deflection of N divisions, Ig = Nk = ………A
6. Shunt resistance(by calculation) 𝑆 = = ………….Ω
7. The resistivity of the material wire 𝜌 = …………… Ωm
8. The radius of the given wire is r = …………….. m
9. Length of the shunt resistance wire, (by calculation) 𝑙 = ……….m
10. Length of the shunt resistance wire by experimentally, 𝑙 ′ = ……….m
11. Shunt resistance (by experiment), 𝑆 ′ = ………….Ω

Calculations:
𝑆= Ω

𝑙= m
′
𝑆′ = Ω

Result: The given galvanometer is converted into an ammeter of the range, 0 to ….A.
Theoretical value of shunt resistance S = …….Ω and Experimental value of shunt resistance S' =
…….Ω
Since 𝑆 ≈ 𝑆′ this verifies the conversion of galvanometer into ammeter.
 FOCAL LENGTH OF CONCAVE MIRROR

Aim: To determine the focal length of a concave mirror by u – v method.

Apparatus: Optical bench, two sharp edged pins with holder, mirror holder, concave mirror and
meter scale.
Principle:
A object is placed at a distance u from the pole of a concave mirror of focal length f, the image
is formed at a distance v from the pole. The relation between u, v and f is
= + or 𝑓 = .cm
If an object is placed in front of the reflecting surface of the concave mirror such that the object
is lies between principal focus F and centre of curvature C, then a real inverted and magnified image
is formed beyond C, the focal length is determined using above relation.

Formula:
Focal length of concave mirror, 𝑓 = cm
Where:
u – Distance of the object from the mirror
v - Distance of image from the mirror.

Procedure:
1. The given concave mirror fixed on mirror holder and mirror is moved so that to obtain sharp
image of the distant object on the screen. The distance between the mirror and screen is
measured. This is the approximate focal length ‘f’’of the mirror.
2. The uprights mounted with concave mirror, object pin P1 and image pin P2 are placed on one
side of the optical bench as shown in figure,
3. The height of the object pin P1 and image pin P2 are adjusted such that their tips lie on the
principal axis of the mirror.
4. The position of the object pin P1 is adjusted such that it will be a distance u which is greater
than ‘f’ and less than the ‘2f’ from the mirror.
5. Seeing the inverted and enlarged image of the object pin P1, the position of the image pin P2 is
adjusted so that P2 coincides with the image of P1 without parallax. Then the distance between
the concave mirror and image pin P2 becomes image distance v is measured.
6. The focal length ‘f’ of the mirror is calculated using the formula.
7. Experiment is repeated for different values of u and corresponding value of v is measured. Then
average focal length found.
Diagram:
M

C F
P

P2 P1

Mˡ
u
v

Where:
MM' – Concave Mirror, P – Pole of the concave mirror, P1 – Object pin, P2 – Image pin, I –
Image,
C- Centre of curvature of the mirror, F- Focus of the mirror, u – Object Distance, v – Image
Distance.
Observations:
The approximate focal length of the concave mirror (the distance between screen and mirror) (f) =
………..cm

Object distance Image distance Focal length of mirror

Sl No.
u in cm v in cm 𝑓= in cm

1
2
3

Mean focal length, f = …………cm

Calculation:
Focal length of the mirror is 𝑓 =

Result : focal length of concave mirror =

 FOCAL LENGTH OF CONVEX MIRROR

Aim: To determine the focal length of a convex mirror using a convex lens.
Apparatus: optical bench, convex mirror, convex lens, two sharp edged pin, mirror holder and meter
scale.
Principle:
A convex mirror always forms virtual image, hence its focal length cannot be found directly.
However it can be determined by introducing a convex lens in between the object and the convex
mirror.
Object is placed in front (in b/w F & 2F) of a convex lens such that its real, inverted and magnified
image I is formed at position C on other side of convex lens. Now the convex mirror is introduced in
between lens and point C such that the real and inverted image Il coincides with object. This is
possible if the light rays from object after passes through lens falls normally on the mirror and retrace
the path. For this point C must be the centre of curvature of the convex mirror. The distance PC is the
radius of curvature R and half of it, is the focal length of convex mirror. 𝑓 = =

Formula:
Focal length of the convex mirror, 𝑓 = 𝑚
Where: R – radius of curvature of the convex mirror.

Procedure:
1. The given convex lens is moved forward and backward to obtain the sharp image of distant
object on screen. The distance between the lens and screen is measured, this is the approximate
focal length ‘f’ of the lens.
2. The uprights mounted with convex lens, object pin P1 and image pin P2are placed on the optical
bench as shown in the figure.
3. The heights of the object pin P1 and image pin P2 are adjusted such that their tips lie on the
principal axis of the lens.
4. The position of the object pin P1 is adjusted so that it will be at a distance u which is greater than
f and less than 2f from the lens.
5. Seeing the inverted and enlarged image of the object pin P1, the position of the image pin P2 is
adjusted so that its tip coincides with the tip of the image without parallax. The position C of the
pin P2 is noted.
6. The given convex mirror is introduced between the lens and image pin P2 as shown in figure-2.
7. The position of the mirror is adjusted such that the pin P1coincides with its image, the mirror
position M is noted.
8. The distance between the position of the convex mirror (MM1) and the position of the image pin
P2 (C) is measured which is equal to the radius of curvature of the convex mirror.
9. Focal length of the convex mirror is calculated using the formula 𝑓 =
10. The experiment is repeated by changing the distance between object pin P1 and the lens, and
hence focal length is calculated in each case. The average value of focal length f is found.
 L
Diagram: 1

F O 2F C
2F F
P1 P2

L11

Figure- 1
M
L

Il

P 2F C
2F F O F
P1 R

L1
M'
Figure- 2
Where:
MM' – Convex Mirror, P – Pole of the convex mirror, R – Radius of the convex mirror, C –
Centre of curvature of the convex mirror,P1 – Object pin, P2 – Image pin, I – Image, LL' – Convex
lens, O – Optic centre of the convex lens, F- Focus of the convex lens,

Observations:
The approximate focal length of the convex lens ( f ) = ………..cm
Radius of
curvature Focal length
Position of the convex Position of the
Sl mirror MM' image pin P2 𝑅 = (𝑎~𝑏)
𝑅
No. 𝑓=
a in cm b in cm 2
in cm
in cm

1
2
3

Mean focal length, f = …………cm

Calculation:
Focal length of the mirror is 𝑓 =
Result : Focal legth of convex mirror =

FOCAL LENGTH OF CONCAVE LENS

Aim: To determine the focal length of a concave lens using convex lens.
Apparatus: Optical bench, convex lens, concave lens, two sharp edged pin, lens holder and meter
scale.
Principle:
A concave lens always form virtual and erect image. Hence its focal length cannot be
determined directly. However it can be determined by introducing a convex lens in between the object
and the concave lens and producing real image.
A convex lens LLl converge the light rays from the object to form a real and inverted image I
at position I1. A concave lens L1L1' is inserted between the convex lens and position I1 as shown in
figure-2. For concave lens image I behave as virtual object, a real and inverted image is formed at
position I2.
The focal length of concave lens can be calculated from the relation = − or 𝑓 = .
Formula:
Focal length of concave lens, 𝑓 = 𝑚
Where:
u - Distance of virtual object from the concave lens.
v – Distance of real image from the concave lens.
Procedure:
1. The given convex lens is moved forward and backward to obtain the sharp image of distant
object on screen. The distance between the lens and screen is measured, this is the approximate
focal length ‘f’ of the lens.
2. The uprights mounted with convex lens, object pin P1 and image pin P2are placed on the optical
bench as shown in the figure.
3. The heights of the object pin P1 and image pin P2 are adjusted such that their tips lie on the
principal axis of the lens.
4. The position of the object pin P1 is adjusted such that it will be at a distance which is greater than
f and less than the 2f from the convex lens.
5. Seeing the inverted and enlarged image of the object pin P1, the position of the image pin P2 is
adjusted so that its tip its tip coincides with the tip of the image of the pin P1 without parallax.
The position (a) of the image pin P2is noted( position of the first image).
6. Concave lens is introduced between convex lens and image pin P2.
7. The position of the image pin P2is adjusted so that P1coincides with the image of the object pin
P1without parallax. The position (b) of the image pin P2is noted.
8. The position (c) of the concave lens is also noted.
9. 𝑎~𝑐 gives the object distance u and 𝑏~𝑐 gives the image distance v.
10. The focal length f of the concave lens is calculated using the formula.
11. Experiment is repeated by changing the distance between the convex lens and the object pin P1,
the object distance and image distance found then focal length is calculated, average focal length
f is found.
Diagram:
LL

2F F O F 2F I1
P1 P2

1
LL
Figure1 – 1

LL L1

Il

I2
2F F O I1
P1 P2

'
LL L'1
1
Where: Figure – 2
LL' – Convex lens, O – Optic centre of the convex lens, L1L1' – Concave lens, P1 – Object
pin, P2 – Image pin, I1 – Image formed by convex lens,I2 – image formed by concave
lens, F- Focus of the lens, u – Object distance, v – Image distance.

Observations:
The approximate focal length of the convex lens (f) = ………..cm

Position of Object
Image distance Focal length
Sl. Second concave lens distance
First 𝑣 = (𝑏~𝑐) 𝑓=
No image I1. image I2. L1L1' 𝑢 = (𝑎~𝑐)
in cm in cm
a in cm b in cm c in cm in cm

1
2
3

Mean f =………..cm
Calculation:
Focal length, 𝑓 =
Result: The focal length of the given concave lens is (f ) = ………….cm = …………..m
 FOCAL LENGTH OF CONVEX LENS

Aim: To determine the focal length of a convex lens by plotting a graph of u versus v.
Apparatus: Optical bench, two sharp edged pin, lens holder, convex lens and meter scale.
Principle:
For an object placed at a distance u (>f ) from the optic centre of thin convex lens of focal length
f, a real and inverted image is formed on the other side of the lens at distance v from the optic center.
The relation between u,v and f is
= − , (By sign convention u is negative and v is positive)
A graph of u versus v is a hyperbola as shown. The bisector line OC intersect the graph at point
C,
From graph, OA = OB = 2f ( u = v =2f), focal length of lens is 𝑓 = . cm
Formula:
Focal length of convex lens, 𝑓 = cm

Procedure:
1. The given convex lens is moved forward and backward to obtain the sharp image of distant
object on screen. The distance between the lens and screen is measured, this is the approximate
focal length of the lens.
2. The uprights mounted with convex lens, object pin P1 and image pin P2 are placed on the optical
bench as shown in the figure.
3. The height of object pin P1 and image pin P2 are adjusted such that their tips lie on the principal
axis of the lens.
4. The position of the object pin is adjusted such that it will be at a distance u which is greater than
f from the lens.
5. Seeing the inverted image of the object pin P1, the position of the image pin P2 is adjusted so
that P2coincides with the image of pin P1without parallax. Then the distance between the
convex lens and image pin P2 becomes image distance v.
6. The experiment is repeated for different value of u and corresponding v value measured.
7. A graph is plotted for u versus v and angular bisector OC is drawn as shown in nature of graph.
8. OA and OB are noted and focal length f of the convex lens is calculated using the formula.

Diagram:
L
Nature of graph

I
v in cm

O
2F F F 2F
C A
P1 P2
2f

u v 450
O
L1 u in cm B 2f
Where:
LL' – Convex lens, O – Optic centre of the lens, P1 – Object pin, P2 – Image pin, I – Image,
F- Focus of the lens, u – Object distance, v – Image distance.
Observations:
The approximate focal length of the convex lens (f) = ………..cm

Sl Object distance Image distance

No. u in cm v in cm

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
.
.
10

Calculation:

From graph

𝑓=

Result: The focal length of the given convex (converging) lens is ( f ) = ………….cm =
…………..m
 REFRACTIVE INDEX OF GLASS

Aim: To determine the refractive index of glass using travelling microscope.

Apparatus: Travelling microscope, a glass slab, chalk dust and paper.
Principle: If a glass slab is placed in air on horizontal surface and its bottom surface is viewed from
top, it appears to be elevated due to the refraction. The distance between the apparent bottom and the
top surface of the slab gives the apparent thickness of the slab. In case of normal observation, the
refractive index of the glass with respect to air is the ratio of real thickness of glass slab to the
apparent thickness.
Formula:
1. Total reading TR = MSR + (CVD x LC). cm
2. Refractive index of glass slab 𝑛 =
Where: MSR – Main scale reading
CVD – Coincide vernier scale division
LC- Least count
R1 – travelling microscope reading when focused on object (ink mark) through air
R2 - travelling microscope reading when focused on image when glass slab is kept on object.
R3 – travelling microscope reading when focused on the particles on the surface of glass slab.

Procedure:
1. The least count of travelling microscope is calculated.
2. A sheet of white paper with ink mark is placed on the base of travelling microscope.
3. The microscope is adjusted to focus on the ink mark on the paper and reading are noted in
vertical scale and total reading (R1) is found using relevant formula.
4. Now glass slab is placed on the paper and the microscope is focused on the ink mark through
glass slab and corresponding reading R2is found.
5. Some chalk dust is sprinkled on the upper surface of the glass slab the microscope is focused
on chalk dust and corresponding reading R3 is found.
6. Refractive index of glass slab is calculated using the formula 𝑛 = .
7. The experiment is repeated for one more trail to raise the position of glass slab and hence
calculate the refractive index. Then mean refractive index is found.

Diagram:

R3 A B

R2 I

R1 C
D O
Where:
ABCD – Rectangular glass slab, O – object, I – Image
R3 - position of the particles on glass slab, R2- position of the image (object seen through glass
slab),
R1 - position of the object
Observations:
The value of the 1MSD of travelling Microscope (S) = ………….cm
Total number of VSD (N) = ……………….
ℎ
Least count (L C) = .
= __________ = ⋯ 𝑐𝑚

Travelling Microscope Reading for

Mark made on paper through Particles on the top of glass
Mark made on paper
Sl glass slab surface
No. TR TR TR
MSR CVD MSR CVD MSR CVD
in cm in cm in cm
in cm in div in cm in div in cm in div
(R1 ) (R2) (R3)
1
2
3

Calculation:
ℎ ℎ
Refractive index of the slab (ng) = ℎ ℎ

𝑛 = =

Result: the refractive index of glass is (𝑛 ) = …………….

 REFRACTIVE INDEX OF WATER BY CONCAVE MIRROR

Aim: To determine the refractive index of water using a concave mirror

Apparatus: Concave mirror, laboratory stand with rigid base and clamp arrangement, water, a pin, a
plumb line and a meter scale

Principle:
For a concave mirror, when object is at centre of curvature C, the image also will be at centre
of curvature C, since the rays retrace the path in this case.
When water is poured above the mirror, the image coincides with the object when placed at C'
(apparent centre of curvature). In this case the rays also undergo refraction at the surface of water.
′
′
We have, 𝑛 = = ′ = ′

For mirror having small aperture, 𝑁𝐶 ≈ 𝑃𝐶 = 𝑅 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑁𝐶 ′ ≈ 𝑃𝐶 ′ = 𝑅 ′

𝑛 = ′

Formula:
Refractive index of water with respect to air 𝑛 = ′

Where:
R- Radius of curvature of concave mirror
R1 – Apparent radius of curvature of concave mirror with water

Procedure:
1. A concave mirror is placed on the base of laboratory stand as the shown in the figure
2. A sharp edged bright pin AB is placed horizontally just above the pole of the mirror and
clamped
3. The position of the pin AB is adjusted such that it coincides exactly with the image
𝐴′ 𝐵′ without parallax.
4. The vertical distance R between the mirror and pin tip is measured using plumb line.
5. Now some water is poured into the concave mirror.
6. The position of the pin AB is lowered such that it coincides its image 𝐴′′ 𝐵′′ without parallax.
7. Then vertical distance 𝑅 ′ between the mirror and the pin tip is measured.
8. Refraction index of water is calculated using the formula 𝑛 = ′

9. The experiment is repeated by changing the position of the mirror and the mean refractive
index calculated.
Diagram:

A' B' B A A' B' C B A

A'' B''C' B A
R
i

Z r R'

M' i
M M N P' M'
Q Q' Z'
P S S'
P

Where:
AB – Object Pin, A'B' - Image by concave mirror, A''B'' - Image by water filled concave mirror
MM' - Concave mirror

Observations:
Approximate value of the focal length of the concave mirror ( f ) = …………...cm

Position of the pin tip with respect to pole P

For empty concave mirror, For water filled concave mirror,
Sl No 𝑅
distance PC. distance PC'. 𝑛 =
𝑅′
R cm R' cm
1
2

Mean nw = ……………
Calculation:
Refractive index of the water (nw) = ℎ

𝑛 = ′

Result: The refractive index of water (𝑛 ) =……………

 REFRACTIVE INDEX OF WATER BY CONVEX LENS

Aim: To determine the refractive index of water using convex lens and plane mirror.
Apparatus: Plane mirror, convex lens, laboratory stand with rigid base and clamp arrangement,
water, a pin, a plumb line and a meter scale.
Principle: The reciprocal of the equivalent focal length of the combination of the lens is the equal to
the sum of the reciprocal of focal lengths of individual lenses.
In figure – 1, OF = f is the focal length of the convex lens. In figure- 2, OF' = f ' is the
equivalent focal length of combination of convex lens and the plano – concave lens of water. If fw is
the focal length of plano – concave lens of water.
′ = +

= ′ −
′
∴𝑓 = ′

From lens maker formula the focal length of Plano – concave water lens
= (𝑛 − 1) Where Fw – magnitude of the focal length of plano-concave water lens

𝑛 =1+|
|

Formula:
′
1. Focal length of Plano-concave water lens, 𝑓 = ′
ℎ
2. Radius of curvature of convex lens 𝑅 = ℎ
+
3. Refractive index of water, 𝑛 = 1 +
Where: f – Focal length of convex lens.
f ' – Equivalent focal length of combination of convex lens and Plano-concave water lens.
l – Distance between legs of spherometer.
h – Thickness of the convex lens
Procedure:
1. A plane mirror is placed on the base of laboratory stand keeping its reflecting surface upward.
2. A convex lens is placed on the plane mirror as shown in figure.
3. A sharp edged bright pin AB is placed horizontally just above the optic centre (O) of the convex
lens and clamped.
4. The position of the pin AB is adjusted such that it coincide with its image A'B' without parallax.
5. The vertical distance between the optic centre (O) of convex lens and pin is measured using
plumb line. Its equal to the focal length f of convex lens.
6. A few drops of water is put under the lens with the help of syringe so that the space between the
mirror and lens is filled with water.
7. The position of the pin AB is raised such that it coincides with its image A''B'' without parallax.
8. Then vertical distance between the optic centre (O) of convex lens and pin AB is measured by
plumb line, which is equal to the effective focal length f ' of combination of convex lens and
water lens.
9. The focal length of water lens is calculated using the relevant formula.
10. The radius of curvature of the spherical surface of the convex lens in contact with water is
found by using spherometer.
11. Refractive index of water is calculated using the formula.
 A'' B'' F' B A
Diagram:

A' B' F B A

f'

L L O
O
M
M M'
M1 M M'

Figure-1
Figure-1 Figure-2

Where:
L – convex lens, MM' – plane mirror, AB- object Pin , A'B' – image by convex lens,
A''B'' – image by combination of water lens end convex lens, O- optic centre

Observations:
The radius of curvature of the given convex lens (R) = ………….cm
To measure the focal length of water lens:

Position of pin with respect to the optical centre O

𝑓 𝑓′
Distance of the pin without water from Distance of the pin with water from 𝑓 =
Sl 𝑓 − 𝑓′
No Upper Plane 𝑑 +𝑑 Upper surface Plane 𝑑′ + 𝑑′
mirror 𝑓= mirror 𝑓′ =
surface of the 2 of the lens 2 in cm
lens (d1cm) (d2 cm) in cm (d'1cm) (d'2 cm) in cm
1
2

Mean fw = ………….cm

th
Calculation:
′
Focal length of the plano-concave lens of water 𝑓 = ′

Refractive index of water 𝑛 = 1 +

Result: The refractive index of the water (𝑛 ) = ……………….
 ANGLE OF MINIMUM DEVIATION
Aim: To determine the angle of minimum deviation for a given glass prism by plotting graph between
angle of incidence and the angle of deviation.
Apparatus: Drawing board, prism, drawing pins, and white paper.
Principle:
A ray of light incident on one of the refracting surface of prism of angle A and refractive index n,
it will deviate while passing through prism as shown in figure-1. The deviation is given by
d = (i1 + i2) – A where i1 and i2 are angle of incident and angle of emergence.
As the angle of incidence is gradually increased, the angle of deviation first decreases reaches a
minimum value (dm) and then increases as shown in graph. When the angle of incidence equal to the
angle of emergence, the deviation is minimum.
Procedure:
1. A straight line XY is drawn on the sheet of white paper fixed on the drawing board.
2. The points O1, O2, O3 … are marked on line XY.
3. A normal N1O1 is drawn to XY at O1 and straight line D1O1is drawn to represent ray of
incidence which makes an angle 450 with N1O1.
4. The prism ABC is placed on the paper as shown in the figure and its boundary is drawn.
5. Two pins P1 and Q1 are vertically fixed about 5cm apart on the ray of incidenceD1O1.
6. While seeing the images of the pins P1 and Q1 through the other refracting surface BC of the
prism, two more pins R1 and S1are fixed on the side of AC so that R1,S1 and the images of the
pins P1 and Q1 will be collinear.
7. Pins are removed and their pricks are marked. A straight line is drawn through the pin pricks of
R1 and S1 to obtain the ray of emergence.
8. The ray of incidence and emergence are extended as shown in the figure – 2 to find the angle of
deviation (d).
9. The experiment is repeated for different value of angle of incidence and to find the
corresponding angle of deviation.
10. A graph of angle of incidence (i) versus angle of deviation (d) is drawn and angle of minimum
deviation dm is found from the graph.

Diagram:
A Nature of Graph

Q M
i1 i2 d
d

r1 r2 R

P N S
B dm
C
Figure -1
i

N2 N3
N1
P1
P2 P3
Q 1 i1 i2
Q2 Q3 i3
X Y
B O1 A B O2 A B O3 A

d2 d3
d1
C R1 C CR
R2 3

S1 S2 S3

Figure – 2
Where:
ABC – Prism, P1Q1R1S1, P2Q2R2S2… - pins, i1i2&i3 – different angle of incidence,
d1d2&d3 –angle of deviation

Observations:

Sl. Angle of incidence Angle of deviation

No i d
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Calculations:
From graph
Angle of minimum deviation dm = ………
Result: The angle of minimum deviation, dm = ………
 SEMI-CONDUCTOR DIODE
Aim: To Draw the I-V characteristic curve of a p-n junction in forward bias and reverse bias.
Apparatus: A p-n junction diode, milliammeter, microammeter, voltmeter, rheostat and battery.
Principle: when p-side of the semi-conductor diode is connected to the positive terminal of the
battery, then p-n junction is said to be forward biased. The junction offers low resistance and initially
a negligibly small current flows through circuit till the applied voltage crosses a certain value the
diode current increases exponentially.
when p-side of the semi-conductor diode is connected to the negative terminal of the battery, then p-n
junction is said to be reverse biased. As the applied voltage is increased in the reverse biased
condition, starting from zero, the current increases, but soon become constant. It is called reverse
saturation current.
Procedure:
(a). For forward bias:
1. The connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Using rheostat, the voltage is adjusted for a value V. the voltage V and corresponding Current
I are noted.
3. The voltage is increased in small steps. Value of V and I are noted in each case and reading
are tabulated.
4. A graph is plotted for the current I versus voltage V.
5. Knee is located in the graph.
(b). For reverse bias:
1. The connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Using rheostat, the voltage is adjusted for a value V. the voltage V and corresponding Current
I are noted.
3. The voltage is increased in small steps. Value of V and I are noted in each case and reading
are tabulated.
4. A graph is plotted for the current I versus voltage V.
5. Reverse saturation current is found.
Circuit Diagram:

Forward Bias Reverse Bias

Ba K Ba K

Rh Rh

+ +
mA µA
- D - D

V
+ - +
V
-
Where:
Ba – Battery, V – Voltmeter, µA – Micro ammeter, mA – Milli ammeter Rh – Rheostat, D –
Diode
K – Plug key.
 Nature of Graph:
Reverse Bias
Forward Bias
Vbr V in volts O

I in µA
I in mA

O OB – Reverse
V in volts P (Vk)
saturation current
Observations:

Forward Bias Characteristics:

Voltage(V) Current
Sl.No
in volts I in mA
1
2
3
.
.
.

Reverse Bias Characteristics:

Voltage(V) Current
Sl.No
in volts I in µA
1
2
3
.
.
.

Calculations:
From graph:
Cut in voltage = OP = …..V
Precautions:
1. The connections should be clean and tight.
2. Reverse bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied continuously.
Result :
I V characteristics of an p-n junction diode are drawn
From cut in voltage is OP= ….. V