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Teaching Democracy: What Schools Need to Do

Article in Phi Delta Kappan · September 2003

DOI: 10.1177/003172170308500109

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EEE Democracy and Civic Engagement

Teaching Democracy:
What Schools Need to Do
Mr. Kahne and Mr. Westheimer studied 10 educational programs whose
objective — to develop democratic citizens — is largely ignored by school
reform policy. Schools can fulfill this mission, they discovered, through specific
strategies that promote civic commitments, capacities, and connections.

BY JOSEPH KAHNE AND JOEL WESTHEIMER

HICH OF THE following headlines never appeared in a daily newspaper?

W a. Capital City Students Show No Gain in Reading, Math — Governor Threatens Takeover

b. Middletown Schools to Be Taken Over by State for Failure to Develop Democratic Citizens

If you answered b, you not only answered correctly, your response also reflected an im-
portant challenge facing our democracy today. While we say that we value a democratic so-
ciety, the very institutions expected to prepare democratic citizens — our schools — have moved far from this central
mission. There is now frequent talk of “state
takeovers” of schools that fail to raise test
scores in math or reading, but it is unimagin-
able that any school would face such an ac-
tion because it failed to prepare its graduates
for democratic citizenship.
The headlines we read are about test
scores, basic skills, and the role schools play
in preparing students for jobs in the Informa-
tion Age. The vast bulk of school resources are

JOSEPH KAHNE is the Kathryn P. Hannam Profes-

sor of American Studies, a professor of education,
and co-director of the Institute for Civic Leadership,
Mills College, Oakland, Calif. (jkahne@mills.edu).
JOEL WESTHEIMER is an associate professor of the
social foundations of education and directs Demo-
cratic Dialogue: Inquiry into Democracy, Educa-
tion, and Society at the University of Ottawa, Otta-
wa, Ont. (joelw@uottawa.ca). They wish to thank
the Surdna Foundation for funding the study report-
ed in this article.

34 PHI DELTA KAPPAN Illustrations by John Berry

going to literacy, mathematics, science, and vocational ed- and to society. The words of a high school teacher from
ucation. In 2003, for example, federal expenditures by the one program echo those of many others we interviewed:
Department of Education on civic education totaled less “My goal is to empower students to rectify problems, to
than half of one percent of the overall department budg- come up with solutions, and to join with other people so
et.1 that they can become truly active citizens.”
And when it comes to assessment, civic goals get very By studying these programs and their impact, we have
little attention. The No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act man- been able to learn a great deal about how such goals can
dates yearly testing in math, reading, and, beginning in be attained. The programs we studied approached the de-
2005, science. Social studies and civic education, the areas velopment of democratic citizens in different ways and
of the curriculum most tied to the democratic mission of worked with varied populations, but common curricular
schools, share no such requirements. Similarly, the Nation- components emerged from our analysis. Unfortunately, nei-
al Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), which is ther these goals nor these curricular components are get-
often referred to as the “Nation’s Report Card,” measures ting much attention in most current school reform efforts.
performance in math and reading annually — but admin- We believe that, if schools are to fulfill their historic ideal
isters a civics assessment only about once every 10 years. of laying the foundation for a democratic society, these
Clearly, math, reading, and science are important, but, goals and curricular components must be given much more
from the standpoint of supporting a democratic society, attention.
academic subject matter, when disconnected from its so-
cial relevance, is insufficient. The same can be said of col-
WHY TEACH DEMOCRACY?
leges and universities. Their commitments to democratic
priorities are more rhetorical than substantive. Targeting what people don’t know about how our gov-
We are concerned here with what is not being discussed ernment works has become a favorite pastime not only of
in the newspapers. We are concerned that the great school Jay Leno but also of educators and politicians: a study by
debates of our time give short shrift to a fundamental prin- the National Constitution Center found that only 38% of
ciple that, for more than two centuries, informed efforts to respondents could name all three branches of government,
advance the notion of public schooling. This article ad- while a separate poll conducted two years earlier found
dresses an important gap in our education agenda: prepar- that 59% of all Americans could name the Three Stooges.3
ing students to be effective democratic citizens. Yet even if Leno discovered an impressive show of factu-
For the past three years, we studied 10 educational pro- al knowledge among the nation’s young people, democ-
grams, funded by the Surdna Foundation, that were un- racy would still face significant hurdles.
usual in that they put the challenge of educating for dem- The numbers that chronicle declining civic engagement
ocratic citizenship at the center of their efforts.2 We stud- are becoming increasingly familiar. Twenty-five percent
ied 10th-graders evaluating a juvenile detention center, fewer citizens go to the polls today than in 1960, and the
ninth-graders studying the feasibility of curbside recycling, largest declines are among young people. Political partici-
and 11th-graders reporting to the public on the availabil- pation, such as working for a political party, is at a 40-year
ity of affordable housing in their community. We exam- low. Broadly speaking, as Robert Putnam demonstrates,
ined programs that exposed university students to com- “Americans are playing virtually every aspect of the civic
munity development projects in Silicon Valley, brought the- game less frequently than we did two decades ago.”4
ology majors to a reservation to study the history of Na- It’s not that citizens are incapable of keeping up with
tive American experience, and led students interested in current affairs or of acting on their views. When the Coca-
social movements on an intensive journey through his- Cola Company announced it was changing the recipe of
torical sites of the civil rights movement. We visited an its signature soft drink, its Atlanta headquarters received
adult education program with a 70-year history of work- 40,000 letters of protest and fielded 5,000 phone calls per
ing for social and economic change through education day for months.5 More than 24 million young Americans
and democratic action. All in all, we interviewed dozens cast votes to elect an “American Idol.”6 The problem in-
of instructors and students, administered more than 500 stead is that citizens (and particularly young citizens) are
surveys, observed pedagogical practices, and examined often disengaged from politics.
portfolios of student work. Young people need to be taught to make democracy
These programs share an emphasis on helping students work, to engage civically, socially, and politically. At the
to identify and act on issues of importance to themselves same time that lobbyists are spending hundreds of mil-

SEPTEMBER 2003 35
lions of dollars, many ordinary citizens are passive and passionate citizens by engaging students in volunteer ac-
apathetic when it comes to major issues that affect their tivities. As illustrated by the Points of Light Foundation, these
lives. If policies regarding the environment, taxes, military programs hope to “help solve serious social problems” by
spending, and health care — to name just a few — are to “engag[ing] more people more effectively in volunteer serv-
reflect public sentiments rather than the interests of well- ice.”8 These programs privilege individual acts of compas-
financed lobbyists, they require the attention of ordinary sion and kindness over collective efforts to improve poli-
citizens. Improving society requires making democracy cies and institutions.
work. And making democracy work requires that schools The emphasis placed on service and character is also
take this goal seriously: to educate and nurture engaged reflected in college-based service learning programs. In a
and informed democratic citizens. recent analysis by HUD (Department of Housing and Ur-
ban Development) of 599 college programs, researchers
found that 50% involved direct service, including tutoring,
WHAT IS A DEMOCRATIC CITIZEN?
serving food, clothes collections, and blood drives. An-
While most may agree that civic participation is in de- other 42% provided technical assistance, such as com-
cline, when we get specific about what democracy re- puter training and leadership classes. A mere 1% involved
quires and about what kinds of school curricula will best political advocacy, such as building tenant councils, draft-
promote it, much of the consensus falls away. For some, ing legislation, and so on.9
a commitment to democracy is a promise to protect liber- More than good deeds. While programs that empha-
al notions of freedom, while for others democracy is primari- size service and character may be valuable for supporting
ly about equality. For some, civil society is the key, while the development of good community members, they are
for others, free markets are the great hope for a democratic inadequate for the challenges of educating a democratic
society. For some, good citizens in a democracy volunteer, citizenry.
while for others, they take active parts in political processes First, emphasizing individual character and behavior
by voting, protesting, and working on political campaigns. obscures the need for collective and often public-sector
These multiple visions of citizenship are not always in initiatives. Volunteers can help the elderly cope with daily
conflict. A citizen who volunteers can also be a good neigh- difficulties, but it took Social Security to reduce the propor-
bor and work to change unjust laws, for example. But when tion of senior citizens living in poverty from one in two (the
it comes to decisions about curriculum, these goals do not highest rate of poverty for any demographic group) to few-
necessarily go together; activities that address the goals of er than one in eight.10
one vision of citizenship do not necessarily address goals Second, an emphasis on individual character distracts
related to another vision. So before we report on ways in attention from economic and political obstacles to remedy-
which the successful programs we studied developed dem- ing social ills. For example, programs that rely on char-
ocratic citizens, we need to clarify what we mean by a acter training to bolster democracy do not encourage par-
democratic citizen. ticipants to explore whether people are poor because of
A strikingly large number of school-based programs personal “character flaws” or because there are far fewer
embrace a vision of citizenship devoid of politics. This is jobs that pay living wages than there are people to fill
particularly true of the community service and character them.11 To the extent that these character development pro-
education initiatives that have garnered so much recent at- grams detract from other important democratic priorities,
tention. These programs aim to promote service and good they hinder rather than make possible democratic partic-
character, but not democracy. They share an orientation ipation and change. For example, emphasizing loyalty, pa-
toward developing individual character traits (honesty, in- triotism, or obedience (common components of charac-
tegrity, self-discipline, hard work), volunteerism, and char- ter education as well) can lead to antidemocratic forms of
ity and away from teaching about social movements, so- civic education if it constrains the kind of critical reflec-
cial transformation, and systemic change. The Character tion, dialogue, and action that are essential in a demo-
Counts! Coalition, for example, advocates teaching stu- cratic society. Indeed, government leaders in a totalitari-
dents to “treat others with respect . . . deal peacefully with an regime would be as delighted as leaders in a democ-
anger . . . be considerate of the feelings of others . . . fol- racy if their young citizens learned the lessons put forward
low the Golden Rule . . . use good manners,” and so on. by many of the proponents of these citizenship programs:
It wants students not to “threaten, hit, or hurt anyone [or don’t do drugs, show up at school every day, show up at
use] bad language.”7 Other programs hope to develop com- work on time, say the pledge of allegiance, give blood,

36 PHI DELTA KAPPAN

help others during a flood, recycle, pick up litter, clean up are desirable traits for people living in a community. But
a park, treat elders with respect, and so on. Chinese leader they are not about democratic citizenship.
Hu Jintao and George W. Bush might both argue that these Third, volunteerism is often put forward as a way of

EDUCATORS’ ROUNDTABLE on Democracy and Civic Engagement

Seven thoughtful educators from a wide range of backgrounds and perspectives offer short
responses to the question “What should teachers and schools do to educate good citizens?”

The Good Citizen and the Common School

BY ROGER SODER
O SPEAK of the good citizen without locating ments. They will consider the probabilities of long-term

T that goodness within some kind of political

regime is to land us in a muddle. A recent state
education mandate defines the education of good
citizens in terms of “honesty, courage, respect, and re-
sponsibility.” But these sentiments are as appropriate to
consequences, faint and far off as those might be, and
weigh these against the supposed short-term advan-
tages.
Where are the rudiments of good citizenship to be
learned? To some extent these are learned in the home,
a military state such as ancient Sparta as they are to a in street-corner societies, in churches, and from televi-
democracy. sion and the Internet. But in a democracy, with demands
To speak of the good citizen in a democracy asks for for good citizenship placed on all alike, only the com-
much more. We need to speak of liberty — how to pro- mon schools can provide to all the education that all
mote it, how to balance it with order, and how to de- need.
fend it. We need to understand, with de Tocqueville, that If these claims make sense, then educators every-
“those who prize liberty only instrumentally for the ex- where will have to take on serious and prolonged work.
ternals it brings — ease, comfort, riches — are not des- Curricula moving far beyond the usual structure of Amer-
tined to keep it long.” And we need to understand that ican government will have to be developed. Room in the
we must be educated in liberty. Such education, James school day must be found to address the new curricu-
Madison averred, “is the best security against crafty & la. The schools themselves must be structured in ways
dangerous encroachments on the public liberty.” With- that reinforce the exercise of liberty, the understanding
out that security, he warned, popular government “is but of the tension between liberty and order, and participa-
a Prologue to a Farce, or Tragedy, or, perhaps, both.” tion in civil discourse.
Good citizens in a democracy need to have patience, Such work has implications for assessment. How, be-
tolerance for ambiguity, and an aversion to either/or “so- yond analyzing bubble-sheet data, are we to know how
lutions.” They must understand the tension between in- well we are doing in preparing people to be good citi-
dividual and group and how to satisfy individual needs zens in a democracy?
while helping meet the needs of the larger community. Finally, there are implications for how teachers are
They must keep the idealistic desire to improve within to be educated. All teachers must know the components of
the bounds of reason and prudence, avoiding intem- good citizenship if they are to teach and model such citi-
perate actions that are destructive of the very democra- zenship. But such knowledge is difficult to obtain. Even
cy that provides succor for improvement in the first the best formal teacher preparation programs cannot de-
place. vote enough time to the consideration of these matters.
Moreover, good citizens must deal with those who We must turn to those in the liberal arts to provide the
would delude them. If in Colonial times the concern was basic foundations of understanding of what it means to
over the “old deluder, Satan,” we in our times need to teach the young to be good citizens.
worry about our own deluders, those demagogues who
would have it that we can do anything to anyone any- ROGER SODER is research professor of education, Universi-
ty of Washington, and vice president of the Institute for Edu-
where, without mandate and without consequence. Good cational Inquiry, Seattle. His most recent book is The Language
citizens in a democracy will be wary of such blandish- of Leadership (Jossey-Bass, 2001).

SEPTEMBER 2003 37
avoiding politics and policy. As Harry Boyte notes, “Vol- in original).12 Research bears out these concerns. A study
unteers usually disavow concern with larger policy ques- commissioned by the National Association of Secretaries
tions, seeing service as an alternative to politics” (emphasis of State, for example, found that less than 32% of eligible

EDUCATORS’ ROUNDTABLE on Democracy and Civic Engagement

Creating the ‘Space’ for Civic Dialogue

BY TIMOTHY J. STANLEY

EMOCRACY CANNOT survive unless people are today by the racist exploitation and exclusion of

D come together in dialogue to develop shared

projects despite their differences and without
unduly imposing their conceptions of the good
life on others. Without dialogue, shared projects can be-
come unilateral impositions. After all, the past is littered
those whose ancestors came from Africa, Asia, or the
Americas.
The same is generally true for mandated school cur-
ricula. Textbooks today may be more multicultural than in
the past; they may discuss African slavery or note the con-
with efforts that started with the noblest of intentions — tributions of Chinese railroad workers. But they are still craft-
only to end in tyranny. ed on frameworks that focus on the experiences of people
The problem is that not everyone enters democratic who came from Europe, and they celebrate Europeans and
spaces under the same conditions. In Canada and the their accomplishments. Even their chronologies flow from
United States, public memory (the widespread historical east to west, following the frontier of European resettle-
representations of movies, TV shows, newspapers, popular ment. And there are few curricular spaces left for study-
fiction, public monuments, and school textbooks) makes ing the histories of anyone else. Today in Ontario, for
it appear as if certain people belong in certain spaces example, the official curriculum does not require stu-
while others do not. These same representations seem dents to learn anything of Asian, African, or Latin Ameri-
to explain the intentions of those who appear to belong, can history.
while making it seem as if the intentions of those who Most people consume public memory uncritically, as-
seem not to belong are at best unpredictable. Address- suming that its representations are simply the Truth about
ing this inequality is one of the main challenges facing the past. They are unaware that its narratives are at best
democratic education. incomplete, are always told from particular points of
As a “white” man, I can walk through most neigh- view, and are often open to considerable dispute. Yet
borhoods in most Canadian or U.S. cities without hav- those who do not fit into these narratives, whose pres-
ing my right to do so questioned. Public memory helps ence and motivations are not accounted for by them, are
me do this by continually representing such spaces as in constant danger of being silenced or excluded, their
having been made by and for those like me. Countless right to be in democratic spaces called into question.
movies and TV shows celebrate the occupation of the Meanwhile, the actual histories that people live, their com-
land by people of European origins, like me. Our na- plex interconnections with others, are obscured and even-
tional pasts are recounted from the same perspectives. tually forgotten.
Meanwhile, the mass media effectively exclude the ex- The result is that few Canadians or Americans know
periences, perspectives, and contributions of others. Even enough about the people around them to enter into dia-
though indigenous peoples occupied the land for thou- logue with them. In this context, educating for democ-
sands of years before the arrival of Europeans, few peo- racy not only makes visible the different conditions under
ple of European origins today even remember the names which people enter democratic spaces, it also needs to
indigenous people use to refer to themselves. Public make genuine dialogue possible by fostering spaces in
monuments tend not to record indigenous peoples’ he- which people’s lived histories can be safely told.
roes or commemorate their sacrifices. Public memory on-
TIMOTHY J. STANLEY is an associate professor of education
ly sporadically records the ways in which cultural, insti- and chair of Graduate Studies, Faculty of Education, Univer-
tutional, and physical spaces have been made what they sity of Ottawa.

38 PHI DELTA KAPPAN

voters between the ages of 18 and 24 voted in the 1996 citizens, but these traits are not inherently about democ-
Presidential election but that a whopping 94% of those racy. If democracy is to be effective at improving society,
between the ages of 15 and 24 believed that “the most im- people need to exert power over issues that affect their
portant thing I can do as a citizen is to help others.”13 In a lives. Although citizens can and should volunteer to help
very real sense, then, young people seem to be “learning” out when help is needed, these activities will not ensure
that democratic citizenship does not require government, that government policies and practices are effective or that
politics, or even collective endeavors. The vision promot- they reflect public preferences. A democratic citizen’s ef-
ed is one of citizenship without politics or collective ac- fectiveness is buttressed by the skills needed for civic en-
tion — a commitment to individual service, but not to gagement (e.g., how to work in a group, speak in public,
democracy. forge coalitions among varied interests, and protest or pe-
The democratic citizen. Certainly, honesty, responsibil- tition for change). Opportunities to connect academic knowl-
ity for one’s actions, and a willingness to help out volun- edge to analysis of social issues are also essential for in-
tarily are valuable character traits for good neighbors and formed decision making. In addition, knowledge of dem-

EDUCATORS’ ROUNDTABLE on Democracy and Civic Engagement

Leading Students Toward Citizenship

BY TERRI CAMAJANI AND INGRID SEYER-OCHI

E BELIEVE that a good citizen actively or- powerd and active citizens. However, we know that it

W ganizes with other people to address caus-

es of injustice and suffering. A good citizen un-
derstands the complexities of social, political,
and economic issues and sees how they are interrelated
and mutually reinforcing. A good citizen questions accept-
is not possible for teachers and students to learn, under-
stand, focus, organize, and then right wrongs. When so-
ciety tells teachers that it is our responsibility to pursue
these lofty goals with our students, we are all missing
the larger picture. Are there real opportunities for students
ed definitions of problems. Good citizens are activists to change what’s wrong in the world? Can they do it if
who are empowered to focus on things that they care teachers join them? It is not likely.
about in their own lives and who can either identify or Society must stop pinning its hopes and aspirations
build the potential avenues needed to truly change them. for social change primarily on schools. Schools alone
Just as English education is not about grammar — ex- have never been and will never be able to cure the
cept as a vehicle for clarity in writing and thought — broader ills of the social, political, and economic sys-
democracy education is not solely about how a bill be- tem. Society must acknowledge that real opportunities do
comes a law; it is also about how students can understand not exist for all. Then we must decide collectively that
that process and then put it into action to change the world all of us will work to build those opportunities. Until we
around them. In the same way that far too many English see increased interest, accompanying public dialogue,
classes focus on diagrams of sentences, too many govern- massive reorientation of values and priorities, and a re-
ment classes focus solely on diagrams showing the clas- sultant groundswell of public action, we will not be par-
sic separation of powers, the branches of government, and ticularly hopeful that changes in the distribution of op-
how a bill becomes a law. Of course, it is important to un- portunities at all levels will occur.
derstand how the mechanisms of our democracy work. What, then, should teachers and students do to help ed-
When the analysis stops there, we become deeply con- ucate good citizens? The answer may be simply to en-
cerned. Students will only be truly empowered by their courage and challenge society to start functioning as a
understandings of democracy when they can move be- true democracy. Schools — and our youths — will follow.
yond the diagrams and apply their knowledge in the re- TERRI CAMAJANI is a social studies teacher at George Wash-
al world of political action and social change. ington High School, San Francisco. INGRID SEYER-OCHI is
an assistant professor in the Graduate School of Education, Uni-
It is tempting to believe that teachers, working to- versity of California, Berkeley, and a former high school
gether with common purpose, can turn students into em- teacher.

SEPTEMBER 2003 39
ocratic processes, of particular issues, and of how to attain ment organizations interact with the public and with pri-
and analyze information is crucial. Democratic citizens are, vate businesses in formulating policies that affect the com-
for example, able to examine the structural causes of so- munity.
cial problems and seek solutions, work that might be in- 2. The Overground Railroad. Students and faculty mem-
formed by their knowledge of social movements and vari- bers from six colleges came together over the summer to
ous strategies for change. Finally, democratic values of tol- learn in intensive and experiential ways about the civil rights
erance, respect for individual and group identities, and con- movement and its implications for citizenship today.15 For
cern for the greater good are all fundamentally important. three weeks students in the Overground Railroad Project
Since conceptions of that greater good will differ, citizens traveled throughout the South, visiting historic sites of the
must be able to communicate with and learn from those civil rights and abolitionist movements and meeting with
who hold different perspectives and, at the same time, those who played a role in the history of these movements
know how to effectively promote their own goals in con- and with others engaged in similar efforts today. They saw
tentious political arenas.14 films about civil rights, read related academic literature,
Is this too tall an order? We don’t think so. Is it possi- and discussed and analyzed their experiences. The students
ble for education programs to develop citizens prepared talked with Rev. Fred Shuttlesworth, a civil rights leader,
to strengthen our democracy? Absolutely. Programs with about events in Birmingham in the 1960s and his role in
goals such as these are not as common as community serv- the movement. They spoke with a sanitation worker in
ice and character education programs, but where they ex- Memphis who participated in the strike in 1968 and with
ist they have demonstrated impressive results. Judge Sugarman, a lawyer who had worked on the sani-
tation workers’ case. They traveled to Selma to meet with
a woman who had been part of the march across the Ed-
BEYOND SERVICE AND CHARACTER:
mund Pettus Bridge and with a former leader of the Stu-
PROGRAMS THAT TEACH DEMOCRACY
dent Nonviolent Coordinating Committee. When they re-
To illustrate models for teaching democracy that move turned to their respective campuses in the fall, they initi-
beyond service associated with citizenship, we showcase ated projects that were informed by the ideas and strate-
three of the programs we studied. The first is part of a high gies they studied.
school government course, the second is a college-level 3. The Highlander Democracy Schools Initiative. A third
program, and the third is an adult education program. Each project we studied worked with adults who were already
program employs curricular strategies that make especial- active in their communities. Drawing on the Highlander
ly vivid the role schools, colleges, and universities can play Center’s long history of community education and change,16
in teaching democracy. the Democracy Schools Initiative was created to help rural
1. The Frederick County Youth Service League. The Fred- communities in Appalachia devise grassroots strategies about
erick County Youth Service League is part of a high school how to “revitalize democracy in all areas of people’s lives:
government course that places students in internships in family, community, government, and economy.” Presented
local county offices, where they undertake substantive, se- over a series of four weekend retreats, the curriculum mixed
mester-long projects. It was organized with support from training for political analysis and action with opportuni-
the Close-Up Foundation. One group we observed inves- ties to meet others doing similar work. For example, one
tigated the feasibility of curbside recycling in the county weekend included sharing the work going on in each par-
by conducting phone interviews, examining maps of the ticipant’s community, strategic planning for effecting change,
city’s population density, and analyzing projected housing brainstorming on resources and skills required, and learn-
growth and environmental impacts. Another group iden- ing from guest presenters and panelists about community
tified jobs that prisoners incarcerated for less than 90 days change strategies.
could perform and analyzed the cost and efficacy of simi-
lar programs in other localities. Other students identified
WHAT WE LEARNED ABOUT HOW
strategies to increase immunization rates for children, and
TO TEACH DEMOCRACY IN SCHOOLS
still others examined the availability of adequate afford-
able housing in their county. In all of these projects, the stu- Using before-and-after surveys and systematic analysis
dents took on responsibilities that required interpersonal, of observations, interviews, and portfolios of student work,
work-related, and analytic skills. These experiences also we were able to track changes in students’ commitment
provided an up-close look at the ways in which govern- (Continued on page 57)

40 PHI DELTA KAPPAN

 Teaching Democracy nity institutions. As a result of their experiences, however,
their perspectives changed markedly. Indeed, during the
(Continued from page 40)
interviews following their participation in the program, we
to and capacity for democratic participation. In a survey asked students to identify a community problem. More than
designed to measure commitment to civic involvement, 50% surprised us by stating “lack of involvement in the
we documented statistically significant increases in stu- community.” As one student told us, “I think if more peo-
dents’ ability and desire to understand and act on press- ple were aware of what has happened in the government,
ing social needs, in their willingness to devote time to ad- we wouldn’t have as many problems, because they would
dressing these needs, and in their confidence in being able understand that people do have an impact.”
to act on their beliefs as a result of their participation in How did the programs accomplish these goals? What
these programs.17 curricular features seem most promising? In what follows,
Student interviews reinforced the survey findings. For we discuss answers to these questions that emerged from
example, James, a lifelong resident of Montgomery Coun- our research.18
ty, West Virginia, reported that his participation in High-
lander’s Democracy School “influenced how I view my
WHY WE WANT ‘C’ STUDENTS: CIVIC
responsibility as a citizen and as a person in the commu-
COMMITMENT, CAPACITY, AND CONNECTION
nity.” And Stephanie, a college student, explained that, after
her intensive Overground Railroad experience, she could Pedagogical and curricular strategies for supporting the
not go back to turning a blind eye to civil rights and moral development of democratic citizens are numerous and range
obligations. “I know I can’t save the whole world,” she from leadership courses, to courses in U.S. history, to such
told us, “but when I see something go wrong, I need to experiences as participation in a Model United Nations.19
say something. I just can’t keep my mouth shut, because As we looked for common features of the successful programs
this experience has changed me.” we studied, however, three broad priorities emerged: pro-
Perhaps most interesting were the programs in which moting democratic commitments, capacities, and connec-
the students started without any particular commitment to tions to others with similar goals. Below, we describe these
community involvement. Indeed, many in the Frederick priorities and some of the ways they were pursued. (See
County Youth Service League told us that they had previ- Figure 1 for a schematic presentation of the relation of these
ously had little interest in community affairs and had been features to civic education.)
quite skeptical of local government and related commu- Commitment. “It’s boring.” “We don’t care about it.”

FIGURE 1.
Three Broad Priorities of Successful Programs
Commitment Capacity Connection

Why should I be committed to How can I engage issues? Who is going to engage issues
actively engaging issues in my with me?
community and beyond?

For example: show students that For example: engage students in real- For example: provide a supportive
society needs improving and provide world projects; teach civic skills and community of peers and connections
positive experiences seeking provide knowledge through workshops to role models.
solutions. and simulations so students can be
effective civic actors.

I am committed to civic engagement. I have the skills, knowledge, and I know and admire people who have
networks I need to act effectively for made a difference in the past and
change in my community and beyond. feel connected to those who want to
make a difference now, and I want
to work with them.

SEPTEMBER 2003 57
These are the kinds of responses we heard when we asked make connections between critique, analysis, and action.22
a focus group of high school seniors in a traditional gov- Students begin to see the value not only in studying these
ernment class what they felt about government and poli- problems but also in doing something to try to address
tics.20 Perhaps it should not be surprising, then, that the frac- them. As the progressive educator Harold Rugg observed:
tion of citizens who reported caring about current politi-
cal affairs had declined from about 25% between 1960 and To guarantee maximum understanding, the very foun-
dation of education must be the study of the actual
1976 to only 5% by 2000.21 This context helps explain why
problems and controversial issues of our people. . . .
all the successful programs we examined emphasized de-
The avoidance of controversy is a travesty of both
veloping students’ commitments to actively engaging so- knowledge and democracy. To keep issues out of the
cial issues and working for change. In pursuing this goal, school, therefore, is to keep thought out of it; it is to
they often employed two strategies: they helped students keep life out of it.23
identify social problems in need of attention, and they pro-
vided motivating experiences in working for change. Why would we expect students to commit to involve-
1. Show students that society needs improving by exam- ment if there are no problems in need of attention? In all
ining social problems and controversial issues. It is common of the programs we studied, teachers embraced contro-
for educators to talk about preparing students to be in- versial social and political issues — indeed, they sought
formed citizens, capable of active participation in our dem- them out — with the same commitment and gusto that
ocratic system. It is much less common for them to help other educators have shown in avoiding them. Whether
students understand why they should bother. This omis- we were looking at a college-level program or a K-12 cur-
sion is costly. Again and again in our student interviews, riculum, we consistently saw significant effort to expose
we heard that exposure to and discussion of instances of students to compelling social problems and to overcome
injustice motivated students to act. As a student in the what John Dewey warned is the “divorce between . . .
Overground Railroad Project told us, “Once you see the knowledge and social action.”24
issues, you feel compelled to do something and not just 2. Provide positive experiences in civic participation.
be part of the system.” Another student reported, “We have It’s hard to be committed to something you’ve never ex-
this information, and we all feel like we have to go and perienced. This simple truism has significant implications
do something. I feel a big responsibility placed on me.” for educators, but many who espouse commitments to de-
The lesson may seem obvious, but it is not reflected in veloping active citizens for a democracy neglect this basic
many programs that seek to teach democratic civic en- reality. Schools provide opportunities “to know” but few
gagement: a clear and compelling sense that things need opportunities “to do” — an unfortunate oversight when it
changing motivates and informs commitments to partici- comes to fostering civic commitment.
pate. We found that positive experiences in civic participa-
Knowing what needs changing, however, is not always tion strengthened students’ commitments. The Youth Serv-
straightforward. Many educators are understandably hesi- ice League students, for example, consistently emphasized
tant to expose students to such troubling problems as pov- the impact of their experiences both on the community
erty, race or gender discrimination, and environmental deg- and on themselves. As one student explained about a curb-
radation. There is a tendency to avoid burdening students side recycling project, “I thought it was just going to be
with these weighty problems — and to avoid controversial another project. You know, we do some research, it gets
issues that might bring concerned parents and others to written down, and we leave and it gets put on the shelf
the principal’s door. Unfortunately, such hesitancy is likely somewhere. But this is going to be a real thing. It’s really
to deter students from active engagement with community going to happen.” Another student from the same project
issues by concealing from them the gravity of the problems told us, “I didn’t realize this was going to be as big as what
and their compelling nature. it is. I mean, we’ve been in the newspaper four times.”
Although care is certainly warranted when discussing Perhaps most important from the standpoint of com-
controversial issues, our study revealed that keeping so- mitment to civic involvement, students linked their posi-
cial issues out of the classroom is not wise. The sense that tive experiences to their desire for continued participa-
something is wrong is compelling, especially to adolescents tion. For example, one student noted, “I didn’t realize we
who are already developing their own critiques of the world. could have as much influence as we did. One person can
Addressing social and political issues in classroom contexts really make a change in the community.” When we asked
recognizes their importance and at the same time helps him whether this experience changed the way he thought

58 PHI DELTA KAPPAN

 EDUCATORS’ ROUNDTABLE on Democracy and Civic Engagement

Civics Education in America

BY ROD PAIGE

IVICS AND American history education are vi- ing to address this crisis. The U.S. Department of Edu-

C tal to the health of our republic. In the words of

Thomas Jefferson, “Educate and inform the
whole mass of the people. . . . They are the on-
ly sure reliance for the preservation of our liberty.”
Last January, we celebrated the one-year anniversary
cation’s Teaching American History program will pro-
vide nearly $100 million in fiscal-year 2003 to promote
the teaching of American history as a separate academ-
ic subject in elementary and secondary schools. This pro-
gram makes competitive awards to local school districts that
of the No Child Left Behind Act, which ushered in a new establish partnerships with postsecondary institutions, non-
era of accountability for educating all of our nation’s stu- profit history or humanities organizations, libraries, or mu-
dents. While the focus of this historic legislation is on seums. These partnerships support professional develop-
the basic elements of reading, writing, math, and sci- ment for teachers of American history.
ence, the connection to learning civics should be clear. The second major activity supported by the depart-
Without those core learning abilities, American children ment is the Civic Education Program, which provides a
cannot adequately learn about the great history of our $16.9-million grant to the nonprofit Center for Civic Ed-
nation. Indeed, the problems that No Child Left Behind ucation. The Center operates the We the People Program,
is seeking to correct are probably to blame for the lack which consists of two projects: The Citizen and the Con-
of history and civics performance to a significant de- stitution and Project Citizen.
gree. Last September, President Bush announced that the
The most recent data we have on the current status National Archives and Records Administration, in col-
of civics knowledge in the United States is discourag- laboration with National History Day, the Corporation
ing, to say the least. Some might even say that we have for National and Community Service, and the USA Free-
reached a crisis in this country with regard to civics ed- dom Corps, will give students and teachers across the
ucation. I would agree. Consider the following: country access to national treasures of American history
• The results of the 1998 National Assessment of Ed- through the Our Documents initiative. At that same Rose
ucational Progress (NAEP) civics examination showed Garden ceremony, President Bush called for a We the
that one-third of fourth-graders could not explain the People White House Forum on American History, Civics,
meaning of “I pledge allegiance to the flag” on a multi- and Service, which was held last May at the Smithsoni-
ple-choice test. A majority of fourth-graders could not an Museum of American History.
answer why “citizens elect people to make laws for At this exceptional time in our nation’s history, we
them” in a democracy. can and will do everything possible to ensure civic lit -
• The NAEP 2001 U.S. History Report Card also shows eracy for all of our schoolchildren. For I am reminded
a similar lack of proficiency. Again fourth-, eighth-, and again of the words of our third President, “If a nation ex-
12th-graders were tested, and the results showed that pects to be ignorant and free, in a state of civilization,
89% of high school seniors, 84% of eighth-graders, and it expects what never was and never will be.”
82% of fourth-graders scored below “proficient” levels.
Let me tell you what the Bush Administration is do- ROD PAIGE is U.S. Secretary of Education.

about being a citizen, he replied that his project showed affairs in the future.
him that all citizens “have a responsibility to voice their While most programs in our study prompted similar
opinion by either writing letters or talking to people who gains in students’ commitment to civic engagement through
control the county, state, or federal government.” Other experiences in the community, this outcome was not guar-
students expressed similar satisfaction from what they ac- anteed. Indeed, in one of the other programs we studied,
complished as well as the intent to remain engaged in civic the students encountered obstacles that led to statistical-

SEPTEMBER 2003 59
ly significant decreases, rather than increases, in commit- impression that nobody really wanted to do anything about
ments to future civic involvement. These decreases were it.”
reflected in both our survey data and our interviews with For this group of students, the sense of frustration was
students. This student’s response about her experiences widespread. In response to interview and in-class reflec-
was typical: “We were trying to get anyone to listen to us, tion questions, the students answered, “If you go out into
but we kept running into all this red tape that said, ‘No, the community and try to do good, someone will pull you
you can’t do that’ or ‘Oh, you want to do that, well you’ll down.” Others said, “Basically, they were wasting our time
have to go to that office over there.’ I just kind of got the and theirs too,” and “It’s hard to get anyone to listen to

EDUCATORS’ ROUNDTABLE on Democracy and Civic Engagement

their more immediate world, some students’ mistrust of

Hope for a Better Future adults appeared to be reinforced by adults who callously
ignore blatant school-based harassment. Several stu-
BY KIM WESTHEIMER dents saw their GSAs as welcome oases that provided sup-
port but did not alter the surrounding hostile school cli-
ESPITE THE presence of 100 high school stu- mate.

D dents, the large room was nearly silent. One

young person had gained the students’ attention
and addressed the group. “I don’t see much hope,”
he said. “I see people on the news saying gay marriage
isn’t appropriate, but [the reality TV show] ‘Married by
In light of the realities expressed by GSA members,
what kind of education do they need to become good
citizens? These students seem to be saying that they need
to feel that adults care about their well-being regardless
of their identities. They need to see a history that reflects
America’ is. I used to think that being an adult would who they are. They need to see that not all people in pow-
make things better, but I don’t anymore.” This transgen- er (or in front of their classrooms) are straight or white.
der student was speaking to his peers at a conference for They need to see that there are straight and white people
Gay Straight Alliances (GSAs), school-based extracurricu- who are their allies.
lar clubs. He described being taunted, pushed, and de- In these conferences, students had a chance to speak
rided by classmates. He reflected on his strength to with- with politicians who might not fit their stereotypes, in-
stand these attacks, his vulnerability, his disappointment cluding Liz Malia, a white lesbian state representative;
in the school’s failure to protect him, and his lack of hope Jarrett Barrios, a gay Cuban American state senator; and
for a better future. U.S. Rep. James McGovern (D-Mass.), a straight white
Hope for a better future was a recurring theme in six man. In a dialogue with politicians, one student recog-
regional conferences for GSAs recently sponsored by nized that she had benefited from learning about slavery
the Massachusetts Departments of Education and Pub- and the civil rights movement and asked, “Is there a way
lic Health and the Massachusetts Governor’s Commis- schools can be mandated to teach about gay and lesbian
sion on Gay and Lesbian Youth. Over 500 students at- history?” Other young people expressed their desire to
tended the conferences, which were broadly organized support openly gay, lesbian, bisexual, or transgender
around the theme of civic engagement. (GLBT) teachers. Students of all sexual orientations had
Civic engagement seems like such a lofty theme when numerous questions about how Liz and Jarrett had re-
seen through the eyes of students who do not see them- sponded to homophobic politicians and constituents.
selves as having power in their schools or in the larger com- These questions were a reminder that students were look-
munity. Their lack of hope seems linked to strong mis- ing for strategies to improve their schools as well as proven
givings about the people who have power. At the con- methods to counteract antigay bigotry.
ferences, students were asked what comes to mind when In addition to speaking with politicians, the students
they hear the word “politics.” Most conjured up nega- spent considerable time getting to know one another
tive images: corruption, money, lies, and funky, straight, and learning from one another. They heard from student
white men. With some prodding, a few offered such re- groups that were proud of their accomplishments. They
sponses as “democracy” and “way to make change.” In had conversations about things that mattered in their

60 PHI DELTA KAPPAN

you.” Although experience may be a powerful teacher, collectively on discouraging experiences.25
when working in the often frustrating area of social change, Capacity. It is hard to see yourself as a carpenter if you
careful planning and attention are needed to avoid pro- don’t know how to design a cabinet or a bookshelf and
ducing a sense of discouragement or hopelessness. While lack the woodworking skills to translate a design into a
students will always encounter challenges and barriers, it product. Effective citizenship in a democracy is no differ-
appears crucial to structure opportunities so that students ent. Teaching students to see themselves as participants in
can maintain a sense of hope through the realization of civic affairs and enabling them to engage civic and polit-
short-term successes and ample opportunities to reflect ical issues effectively will require helping them develop
capacities and skills that make such an identity meaning-
ful. Yet recent studies show an alarming dearth of knowl-
edge and skill with regard to civic participation among
youths and young adults. For example, 35% of high school
seniors tested below the basic level on the NAEP civics
test, with another 39% at the basic level and only 4% at
the advanced level.26 If students are to see themselves as
capable of civic participation, then they will need to de-
velop the skills and knowledge that make that possible.
lives, exchanged phone numbers, and created an art The programs we studied understood this, though they pur-
project that captured the energy of the day. Some even sued these goals in different ways. Some had their students
volunteered to sing a few songs for the group — rang- plunge into real-world projects, while others taught skills
ing from a song by Christina Aguilar to a selection through workshops and simulations.
from the musical episode of “Buffy the Vampire Slay- 1. Engage students in real-world projects. Programs like
er.” the Frederick County Youth Service League taught strate -
Did students leave these conferences feeling prepared gies for community change through projects that required
to be more active citizens? Some said they would per- students to develop such skills as speaking in public, us-
suade their teachers to teach about GLBT issues, some ing visual aids, facilitating meetings, conducting research,
were going to pressure their administrators to respond canvassing a community, and designing surveys. Each group
more appropriately to antigay harassment, and others of students, working closely with the teacher and the field
planned to host social events to foster both learning site supervisor, culminated its project with a presentation
and fun involving GSAs and other student groups. to the County Board of Supervisors. Each group got tips
Those of us who organized the conferences were on how to make its brief presentations interesting, on how
reminded of the simple fact that, if students are going to use presentation software, and on how to ensure that
to be engaged in their schools and communities, they the primary message was communicated. As the students
need to feel hope. That hope is nurtured when students developed these skills, they increasingly viewed their own
learn about the contributions of people with whom they participation in civic affairs as more plausible and appro-
identify. Hope is nurtured when students have social priate. In this sense, each student’s identity as an engaged,
and educational spaces where diversity is welcomed democratic citizen followed his or her capacity to be one.
and celebrated. Hope is nurtured when students learn 2. Teach skills and provide knowledge through work-
from and appreciate one another. shops and simulations. Rather than engage students in ac-
At the end of one conference, a GSA advisor noted tual projects of civic importance, other programs success-
that a gay, African American 12th-grader had been ac- fully developed students’ civic knowledge and skills through
tive in these regional conferences for four years. “Each workshops, simulations, and classroom instruction. For ex-
time he leaves,” she said, “he stands about three inches ample, many of the programs connected preparation and
taller.” That’s where hope lies. motivation for civic and political engagement with tradi-
tional content (e.g., how a bill becomes a law) as well as
KIM WESTHEIMER is a consultant, former director of the Mas- with content knowledge linked to particular issues. As
sachusetts Department of Education’s Safe Schools Program William Galston points out in this issue (page 32-33), such
for Gay and Lesbian Students, and co-author of When the
Drama Club Is Not Enough: Lessons from the Safe Schools knowledge provides important support for effective par-
Program for Gay and Lesbian Students (Beacon Press, 2001). ticipation.
Skill development also received substantial attention.

SEPTEMBER 2003 61
 EDUCATORS’ ROUNDTABLE on Democracy and Civic Engagement

From Knowledge, to Service,

To Citizenship
BY SHAHARA AHMAD-LLEWELLYN

HE PHRASE “E Pluribus Unum” — out of many, participate in decision-making activities. Stated simply,

T one — brilliantly distills what it means to be a

good citizen. I learned at an early age that this
Latin phrase, our nation’s original motto, referred
to the welding of 13 colonies into one nation. But over the
years, “E Pluribus Unum” has also served as a reminder
they must help their students become active citizens. Civic
education should take shape in active class participation,
in student government, in debate teams, and in service
clubs.
Teachers also need to integrate service learning and
to me that, even with our nation’s great diversity, there civics education by reaching beyond their classrooms
is still one aspect that we all share: the title “citizen,” a into the community. By combining community service
meaningful role that truly unites us as Americans. and academic lessons, service learning enables students
Yet all too often, young people fail to understand the to apply their classroom knowledge to real-life prob-
true meaning of citizenship. They grow up ambivalent, lems. In addition, service learning gives students a sense
thinking they are entitled to certain rights, thinking that of competency, enhances personal growth, and instills
it’s all “about them.” They fail to grasp that they are, as citizenship in a way that no other program can.
individuals, part of a greater whole, part of a community. The ultimate responsibility of all citizens comes when
And as citizens of that community, they need to fulfill one turns 18 years old. When I was young, voting was a
the great responsibilities that go along with the title. rite of passage. Today, an entire generation of young citi-
So how does one create competent and responsible citi- zens feels disconnected from government and has opt-
zens in the face of widespread apathy? How do educa- ed out of the political process. This is unacceptable.
tors spark the flames of the spirit of citizenship that are It is imperative to the future of our democracy that,
smoldering in America’s youths? beginning at a very young age, students work on culti-
It starts with instilling civic competence in a child’s vating lifelong citizenship and voting habits. It is up to
early years. Just as lessons are taught in reading, writ- educators, all educators, from kindergarten through col-
ing, and arithmetic, so too should we teach our children lege, to teach young people that every vote counts. The
the vital lessons of democracy, responsibility, and serv- decisions are too important to be left up to others. Stu-
ice — three concepts fundamental to understanding re- dents must know that exercising their right to vote is the
sponsible citizenry. These vital lessons should be a part way to change things in a democracy and is the great-
of every student’s curriculum. est responsibility of a good citizen.
Each and every day, starting in kindergarten, teach- Today, more than ever, citizenship should play a vital
ers should demonstrate, in words and in actions, the con- part in every student’s education. The values and princi-
cepts of citizenship. Whether it is voting on which book ples learned from such an education are essential to sus-
the teacher will read at story time, developing a student taining the future of our democracy. They unite us as Ameri-
Bill of Rights, or collecting cans of food for the poor, cans. And out of many, we become one.
simple lessons in civics will foster attitudes that are nec-
essary for children to participate as effective, responsi- SHAHARA AHMAD-LLEWELLYN is vice chair of the Philadel-
phia Coca-Cola Bottling Co., Inc., and vice chair of America’s
ble citizens. Promise — The Alliance for Youth, a national nonprofit organi-
As young people move on to middle and high school, zation dedicated to improving the lives of children and youths.
teachers should increase students’ understanding of poli- She is also vice chair of the National Constitution Center, the
first-ever museum devoted to honoring, studying, interpreting,
tics, government, and how our democracy works. Teach- and explaining the Constitution. The Center is located on Inde-
ers must encourage students to express their opinions and pendence Mall in Philadelphia and opened on 4 July 2003.

62 PHI DELTA KAPPAN

During a three-day workshop, the Highlander Democra- plicit curricular goal. The programs we studied, however,
cy Schools Initiative taught students strategies for effect- consciously developed communities of support and fos-
ing change in their home communities. Groups of work- tered connections with role models who could exempli-
shop participants chose imaginary scenarios. For example, fy a life filled with civic engagement.
imagine that you just found out that your school is elimi- 1. Communities of support. Each of the 10 programs we
nating its breakfast and free or reduced-price lunch pro- studied — both those based in schools and those situated
gram. Or imagine that you just found out that banks are elsewhere — took seriously the notion that teaching civic
not lending money to any- engagement requires the cre-
one who wants to buy a house
in your part of town. What Students need to know ation of a “social milieu” that
reinforces values and behav-
would you do?
The Highlander program that civic engagement is not iors consistent with active civ-
ic involvement. Students need
also taught skills directly and
then applied what students an individual, private endeavor. to be a part of social commu-
nities that have the strength
had learned to discussions of to survive the prevailing cul-
actual problems in their home communities. In interviews, tural emphasis on individualism and personal gain. A stu-
participants in the Highlander program and in other simi- dent from Highlander described the connection she felt
lar programs stressed the importance of learning practical working with others who believe in the same things she
skills, something that, as one student put it, “I can take did. “Without Highlander,” she observed, “I probably would
away and tomorrow hit the ground running with it.” In oth- have been back in a corporate job that wouldn’t let me
er words, the skills, knowledge, and strategies for change create change in my community in the ways that are so
that participants acquired enabled them to develop mean- important to me.” Another Highlander participant made
ingful civic identities by employing these new capacities clear the sense of identity he derives from being a part of
to actually make a difference. a community of civic actors: “I cannot separate Highlander
Connection. Ask someone active in his or her commu- from who I am, and I cannot tell you when it made an im-
nity to describe a powerful experience working for change, pact or how because it is so integrated with who I have be-
and you will probably get a story heavily infused with a come.”
sense of camaraderie, collaboration, and connection to Like sports teams and religious groups, communities of
others doing similar work. Students need to know that civic civic actors bring people together around a common sense
engagement is not an individual, private endeavor. Indeed, of purpose. Instead of winning a pennant, these communi-
if we say that the goal for civic educators is to “teach every ties focus on advancing democratic citizenship and achiev-
student good citizenship,” we risk implying that “good and ing specific social goals — securing more funding for HIV
effective” citizenship is derived exclusively from personal research, protecting the environment, and so on. Even for
attributes rather than enabled and shaped through inter- those already engaged in efforts to bring about change,
actions and connections among individuals within a com- the value of community membership can have clear prac-
munity.27 Moreover, psychologists, sociologists, and anthro- tical significance as well. “I know that folks with a lot of
pologists have long recognized that an individual’s values technical expertise are a telephone call away,” one par-
and commitments are not predetermined human charac- ticipant explained. “If I get into trouble, there is a whole
teristics but rather the products of family, community, and network that can come running, and I’ve made that call.
the social setting.28 Cultivating commitments to democrat- But even if I had never had to, that would still be the most
ic citizenship requires associating with others who recog- important thing to know: that I was not alone.”
nize and reinforce the importance of these priorities. 2. Connections to compelling role models. Many pro-
These connections are especially important in a culture grams emphasize exposure to compelling role models to
that does little to reinforce the value of civic participation. help students develop a vision for a life filled with civic
Consider that for most school-age children, the number of commitments. Some of the programs we studied teamed
trips to the mall is exponentially higher than those to the students with accomplished civic actors; some invited role
voting booth, to community meetings, and so on. Despite models to speak to the class; others had highly accom-
the importance of connections to others who deem civic plished civic actors facilitate the entire curriculum. Each
participation exciting and valuable, few educational pro- personality offered a connection to history and served as
grams make developing a supportive community an ex- an example of the possibility of creating and the responsi-

SEPTEMBER 2003 63
bility to work toward a better society. Just as it is natural to introduce aspiring students to archi-
As part of their Overground Railroad Project, for ex- tects or scientists or social workers, if our goal is for all stu-
ample, students heard a talk by Rev. Teresa Jones, who re- dents to become engaged democratic citizens, then we need
called personal experiences of intimidation and violence to expose them to role models of civic engagement. As an-
during the early 1960s, when she was helping to register other student explained, “I’m in this point in time where
black voters in hostile southern counties. Interviews with I’m trying to figure out what to do with my life, and it’s
and surveys of participants in the Overground Railroad in- good to see role models like that.”
dicated that students drew substantial strength from these While the value of such exposure may not be surpris-
kinds of encounters — strength that helped them imagine ing, it is interesting that several students emphasized that
choices that often conflicted dramatically with the norms exposure to “ordinary” rather than “famous” individuals of-
and priorities of their peers. One student recognized that, ten had the greatest impact. In contrast to the ubiquitous
when Rev. Jones helped to organize the voter registration school programs that hold up Martin Luther King, Jr., as a
drive, she was not much older than the students them- hero to be respected (but not necessarily emulated), these
selves. He observed that these “teenagers were willing to programs offered role models who appeared to be ordi-
put their life on the line so that I could sit here and hold nary people — not unlike the students. Encountering such
a conversation with you.” Or as a different student ex- people spurred students to imagine themselves as civic ac-
plained, “What’s been most important is meeting people tors formulating and pursuing their own civic goals. When
who really dedicated their lives. It’s not a sideline thing, Rev. Jones ended her presentation about what happened
on weekends or something. This is their life. That means a in the 1960s, she added, “That’s what we did when we were
lot to me, because I often get discouraged or think that af- in college. Now it’s your turn.” Her message was clear: her
ter college I’ll have to go into the real world and get a suit stories were not to be dismissed as entertaining irrelevan-
and what have you.” cies but rather valued as examples of what is possible when
Indeed, since one of the main tasks for students in high citizens commit to act together. Many programs we ob-
school and college is to figure out who they want to be- served used connection to the past to show students the
come and how they hope to engage in their communities, possibilities for the future. “Now it’s your turn” was an ap-
exposure to inspiring role models can be quite powerful. peal these students took seriously.

THE CHALLENGE OF TEACHING DEMOCRACY

If we believe that democratic processes — slow and im-
perfect as they are — are our best hope for securing a just
and dynamic future, then schools have a role to play. Un-
fortunately, while superintendents and school mission state-
ments mention such priorities, that mention is frequently
as far as it goes. Policy makers and district leaders are fo-
cused on academic priorities — particularly those meas-
ured by high-stakes exams.29 Is it important to learn math,
history, English, and science? Yes. Is this focus enough to
sustain a democratic society? No.
Having studied 10 programs that effectively promote
democratic goals, we find ourselves confronting a rela-
tively straightforward conclusion: bolstering our efforts to
teach the academic disciplines — whether pursued through
high-stakes exams or well-crafted curriculum frameworks
— will, on its own, be insufficient to further the goals of
teaching democracy. Indeed, Gandhi, when asked what
made him saddest in life, replied, “The hard heart of the
world’s most educated.” Academic study does not guaran-
tee our humanity, and it will not sustain our democracy.
If we care about educating democratic citizens, we must

64 PHI DELTA KAPPAN

enlarge and enrich both our educational priorities and our ple, schools could make a systematic effort to expose stu-
practices. dents to five compelling civic role models a year. Similar-
Fortunately, there are other options. The approaches we ly, it would not be hard to integrate into the curriculum
witnessed, while they varied to match their particular con- discussions of social problems, current events, and con-
texts, shared a focus on civic commitments, capacities, and troversial issues that students find compelling. Links could
connections and often pursued these goals in similar ways. be incorporated into curriculum frameworks in science,
The programs pursued the development of civic com- social studies, and English, for example. 30 Moving in this
mitments by exposing students to problems in society and direction would help expose the fallacy of a zero-sum or
by creating opportunities for students to have positive ex- an either/or relationship between academic and democrat-
periences while working toward solutions. Students’ civic ic purposes. Democratic and academic goals can be pur-
capacities were developed by providing specific opportu- sued simultaneously. There are also many existing course
nities for them to learn skills and acquire the knowledge curricula that are suitable for large-scale implementation
they needed in order to participate in democratic delibera- that use community projects, simulations, and related ap-
tion and action. And civic connections were pursued through proaches to integrate academic and democratic priorities.
the creation of supportive communities and exposure to Specifically, the Constitutional Rights Foundation’s City-
role models. In these ways, students developed a sense of Works curriculum and the Center for Civic Education’s We
the history of social change, of who they might become, the People curriculum have both demonstrated their effec-
and of how they might fit into contemporary efforts to im- tiveness in relation to civic goals.31 Furthermore, as Debo-
prove society. By developing commitments, capacities, and rah Meier makes clear in this issue, schools can themselves
connections, each of these programs helped teach democ- reflect democratic practice in the service of advancing
racy. democratic sensibilities among students and the entire
Many more schools could follow their lead. For exam- school community.

SEPTEMBER 2003 65
 There are, in addition, many extracurricular opportu- York: Carnegie Corporation of New York and the Center for Information
and Research on Civic Learning, 2003), p. 4; for a description of the
nities to advance civic commitments, capacities, and con- complexities of pursuing democratic goals amidst diversity, see Walter
nections. As Kenneth Holdsman has written, “In many Parker, Teaching Democracy: Unity and Diversity in Public Life (New
York: Teachers College Press, 2003).
schools and school districts, student leaders may influence
15. The Overground Railroad/Agora Project was a collaboration be-
or actually decide the theme and location of the senior tween six private colleges in Kentucky, Indiana, Minnesota, North Caro-
prom, but they are wholly left out of the deliberations about lina, and Ohio, with Berea (Ky.) College and the College of St. Cather-
ine coordinating. The colleges came together in an effort to create op-
the school’s budget, improvement and safety plans, and the portunities for students that promote democracy and public works. The
curricular and extracurricular offerings.”32 students receive college credit through their participation.
16. See Myles Horton, The Long Haul: An Autobiography (New York:
Democracy won’t run on autopilot. Fortunately, we al- Teachers College Press, 1997).
ready know how to do much that needs to be done. What 17. For detailed findings, see Westheimer and Kahne, “What Kind of Citi-
we currently lack is an adequate educational commitment zen.”
to democracy. What we need to make democracy work 18. For a related quantitative study that comes to similar conclusions,
see Joseph Kahne, Bernadette Chi, and Ellen Middaugh, “Democratic
are educators committed to developing students’ civic com- Education: The Untapped Potential of High School Government Cours-
mitments, capacities, and connections and educational pol- es,” unpublished paper, 2003. Please contact jkahne@mills.edu for copies.
19. For a review, see Gibson and Levine, op. cit. See also Shelley H. Bil-
icy makers who will support their efforts. lig, “Research on School-Based Service-Learning: The Evidence Builds,”
Phi Delta Kappan, May 2000, pp. 658-64; and Judith Torney-Purta, “The
1. U.S. Department of Education Budget, available at www.ed.gov/offices/ School’s Role in Developing Civic Engagement: A Study of Adolescents
OUS/Budget04/04app.pdf. in Twenty-Eight Countries,” Applied Developmental Science, vol. 6,
2. This article is one of a set of articles reporting on a study of programs 2002, pp. 203-12.
that aimed to promote democratic values and effective citizenry. For an 20. Kahne, Chi, and Middaugh, op. cit.
analysis of the politics that underlie different conceptions of citizenship, 21. Gibson and Levine, op. cit.
see Joel Westheimer and Joseph Kahne, “What Kind of Citizen? The Poli-
tics of Educating for Democracy,” 2003; send e-mail to joelw@uottawa.ca. 22. For an up-close example of this process in a high school social stud-
For our findings on the role of efficacy and the limits of deliberately struc- ies class that explicitly taught students how to discuss and debate con-
turing programs to be successful, see Joseph Kahne and Joel Westheimer, troversial social issues, see Diana Hess and Julie Posselt, “How High
“The Limits of Efficacy: Education for a Democratic Society,” in Beth Ru- School Students Experience and Learn from the Discussion of Contro-
bin and James Giarelli, eds., Social Studies for a New Millennium: Re- versial Public Issues,” Journal of Curriculum and Supervision, Summer
Envisioning Civic Education for a Changing World (Mahwah, N.J.: Erl- 2002, pp. 283-314.
baum, forthcoming). For a discussion of neutrality and indoctrination, 23. Harold Rugg, “That Men May Understand,” in Melinda Fine, ed.,
see Joel Westheimer and Joe Kahne, “Teaching Justice: Indoctrination, Habits of Mind: Struggling over Values in America’s Classrooms (San
Neutrality, and the Need for Alternatives,” paper presented at the annu- Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1995), p. 171.
al meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Chicago, 24. John Dewey, Moral Principles in Education (1909; reprint, Carbon-
2003. dale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1975), p. 41.
3. Robert L. Dudley and Alan R. Gitelson, “Political Literacy, Civic Edu- 25. See Kahne and Westheimer, op. cit.
cation, and Civic Engagement: A Return to Political Socialization?,” Ap- 26. Anthony D. Lutkus et al., The NAEP 1998 Civics Report Card for the
plied Developmental Science, vol. 6, 2000, pp. 175-82. Nation (Washington, D.C.: Office of Educational Research and Im-
4. Robert D. Putnam, Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of Ameri- provement, National Center for Education Statistics, U.S. Department of
can Community (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000), p. 41. Education, NCES 2000-457, 1999).
5. Oliver Thomas, The Real Coke, The Real Story (New York: Random 27. Indeed, despite the importance of social relations in democratic ac-
House, 1990), pp. 155, 157. tion, school textbooks and curricula most often turn the history of col-
6. Martha Paskoff, “Idol Worship: What American Politics Can Learn from lective efforts into myths about individual heroes. See, for example, Herb
American Idol,” American Prospect Online, 23 May 2003. Kohl’s comparison of the Rosa Parks story as told in children’s history
7. Character Counts! (Los Angeles: Character Counts Coalition, 1996). textbooks with the history recognized by historians and by Parks herself.
Herbert Kohl, Should We Burn Babar?: Essays on Children’s Literature
8. “Mission Statement,” Points of Light Foundation, May 2003, www. and the Power of Stories (New York: New Press, 1995).
pointsoflight.org.
28. See Shelly Berman, Children’s Social Consciousness and the Devel-
9. Cited in Tony Robinson, “Dare the School Build a New Social Order?,” opment of Social Responsibility (New York: State University of New York
Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, Fall 2000, p. 145. Press, 1997).
10. Kathryn H. Porter, Kathy Larin, and Wendell Primus, Social Securi- 29. See Susan Ohanian, One Size Fits Few: The Folly of Educational Stan-
ty and Poverty Among the Elderly: A National and State Perspective dards (Portsmouth, N.H.: Heinemann, 1999); and idem, “Goals 2000:
(Washington, D.C.: Center on Budget and Policy Priorities, 1999). What’s in a Name?,” Phi Delta Kappan, January 2000, pp. 345-55.
11. For a critique of character education programs along these lines, see 30. See, for example, Bill Ayers et al., eds., Teaching for Social Justice:
Alfie Kohn, “How Not to Teach Values: A Critical Look at Character Ed- A Democracy and Education Reader (New York: New Press, 1998); E.
ucation,” Phi Delta Kappan, February 1997, pp. 428-39. For an analy- Wayne Ross, “Remaking the Social Studies,” in idem, ed., The Social
sis of the job market and its disconnect from character-building programs Studies Curriculum: Purposes, Problems, and Possibilities (New Paltz,
of job training, see Gordon Lafer, The Job Training Charade (Ithaca, N.Y.: N.Y.: SUNY Press, 2001), pp. 313-27; and David W. Hursh and E. Wayne
Cornell University Press, 2002). Ross, eds., Democratic Social Education: Social Studies for Social Change
12. Harry C. Boyte, “Community Service and Civic Education,” Phi Delta (New York: Falmer, 2000).
Kappan, June 1991, p. 766. 31. See, for example, Robert S. Leming, “An Evaluation of the Instruc-
13. National Association of Secretaries of State, New Millennium Proj- tional Effects of We the People . . . The Citizen and the Constitution Pro-
ect — Phase I: A Nationwide Study of 15–24-Year-Old Youth (Alexan- gram Using ‘with Liberty and Justice for all,’” Social Studies Develop-
dria, Va.: Tarrance Group, 1999). ment Center, Indiana University, Bloomington, 1993; and Kahne, Chi,
14. For a well-conceived description of goals for civic education, see and Middaugh, op. cit.
Cynthia Gibson and Peter Levine, The Civic Mission of Schools (New 32. Kenneth Holdsman, unpublished paper, 24 February 2003. K

66 PHI DELTA KAPPAN

 A Guide to Organizations, Programs, and Resources
Agenda for Education in a Democr acy. Seeks to support young people’s gender people. These clubs usually have a social justice and education
participation in a social and political democracy through research and focus. www.safeschoolscoalition.org/RG-gaystraightalliances.html
programs that promote democratic citizenship. Includes Institute for Ed-
Highlander Research and Education Center. Highlander sponsors edu-
ucational Inquiry and the Center for Educational Renewal. http://depts.
cational programs and research into community problems, as well as a
washington.edu/cedren/AED.htm
residential Workshop Center for social change organizations and work-
American Political Science Association – Civic Education Organiza- ers active in the South and internationally. Over the course of its histo-
tions. Extensive online list of civic education organizations. www.apsanet. ry, Highlander has played important roles in many major political move-
org/cennet/organizations/index.cfm ments, including the Southern labor movements of the 1930s, the civil
rights movement of the 1940s-60s, and the Appalachian people’s move-
America’s Promise. National coalition of organizations committed to five
ments of the 1970s-80s. www.highlandercenter.org
“promises” for young people: caring adults, safe places, healthy start,
marketable skills, and opportunities to serve. Founded by Colin Powell. IEA Civic Education Study. Survey research report of nearly 90,000 14-
www.americaspromise.org year-old students in 28 countries on democracy, national identity, social
cohesion, and diversity. www.wam.umd.edu/~iea
Campus Compact. Organization representing 900 college and univer-
sity presidents committed to the civic purposes of higher education. www. Institute for Civic Leadership. A semesterlong program in civic leader-
compact.org ship for democratic change open to undergraduate women from col-
leges and universities across the country. The Institute also undertakes
Center for Civic Education. Specializes in civic/citizenship education, research into strategies for increasing civic engagement among students
law-related education, and international educational exchange pro- in K-12 and higher education. www.mills.edu/ICL
grams for developing democracies. www.civiced.org
Institute for Democr acy and Education at Ohio University. Provides
Center for Information and Research on Civic Learning and Engage- teachers, administrators, parents, and students committed to democrat-
ment (CIRCLE). Funds and disseminates research on the civic and po- ic education with a forum for sharing ideas, with a support network of
litical engagement of Americans between the ages of 15 and 25. www. people holding similar values, and with opportunities for professional
civicyouth.org development. www.ohiou.edu/ide
Citizenship Education and Research Network. Researchers, policy mak- Kids Can Make A Difference. School program and detailed curriculum
ers, and practitioners interested in citizenship education and research in to inspire young people to realize that it is within their power to help
Canada. www.canada.metropolis.net/research-policy/cern-pub/overview. eliminate hunger and poverty in their communities, their country, and
html their world. www.kidscanmakeadifference.org
CIVNET. Online resource and service that promotes civic education all National Alliance for Civic Education. Selected resources and guide-
over the world. www.civnet.org lines for civic education. www.cived.net
Close-Up Foundation. Works to promote responsible and informed par- The Political Engagement Project – Carnegie Foundation for the Ad -
ticipation in the democratic process through a variety of educational pro- vancement of Teaching. A collaborative study of 21 college- and university-
grams for middle and high school students, teachers, and adults. The based programs that strengthen students’ political understanding and engage-
website describes programs and provides a range of links to resources ment. The website includes curriculum resources. www.carnegiefoundation.
and organizations. www.closeup.org org/PEP
Constitutional Rights Foundation (CRF) and the Constitutional Rights Project 540. Gives students nationwide the opportunity to talk about is-
Foundation Chicago (CRFC). Both offer civic education curricula, activi- sues that matter to them and to turn these conversations into real school
ties for students, and professional development for teachers. www.crf- and community change. www.project540.org
usa.org and www.crfc.org Project Vote Smart. Project Vote Smart (PVS) is dedicated to providing
Corporation for National and Community Service. Provides opportuni- all Americans with accurate and unbiased information for electoral de-
ties for community service through three programs: Senior Corps, Ameri- cision making. www.vote-smart.org/index.htm
Corps, and Learn and Serve America. Part of USA Freedom Corps, a White Public Achievement. People of all ages work with others, meet chal-
House initiative to foster a culture of citizenship, service, and responsi- lenges, and solve problems, learning from one another the meaning of
bility. www.nationalservice.org citizenship and democracy. http://publicachievement.org
Democratic Dialogue at the University of Ottawa. International, collab- Rethinking Schools. Writing, resources, and advocacy for public education
orative inquiry into democracy, education, and society. For educators, po- reform in the pursuit of equity and social justice. www.rethinkingschools.org
litical scientists, sociologists, philosophers, teachers, policy makers, artists,
critics, and the broader public concerned with ideals, tensions, policies, Rouge Forum. Meetings and resources for educators, students, and par-
and practices of education for democracy. www.democraticdialogue.com ents interested in teaching and learning for a democratic society. www.
pipeline.com/~rgibson/rouge_forum
Educators for Social Responsibility. Helps educators create safe, caring,
Street Law Inc. Practical, participatory education about law, democra-
respectful, and productive learning environments that foster democrat-
cy and human rights. Street Law features the curriculum Street Law and
ic participation and change. www.esrnational.org
many other curricular resources for teachers and students. www.streetlaw.
e.thePeople. Digital town hall that “promotes intelligent and diverse dis- org
cussion and political action.” www.e-thepeople.org
Teaching Tolerance. Founded by the Southern Poverty Law Center, Teach-
Gay-Straight Alliances - Safe Schools Coalition. Gay-Straight Alliances ing Tolerance supports the efforts of K-12 teachers and other educators
or GSAs are high school clubs devoted to human rights and human dig- to promote respect for differences and appreciation of diversity. www.
nity, including the rights and dignity of gay, lesbian, bisexual and trans- tolerance.org — JW/JK

SEPTEMBER 2003 67
 File Name and Bibliographic Information

k0309kah.pdf

Joseph Kahne and Joel Westheimer, "Teaching Democracy: What

Schools Need to Do," Phi Delta Kappan, Vol. 85, No. 1, September
2003, pp. 34-40,57-66.

Also includes EDUCATORS’ ROUNDTABLE articles:

Roger Soder, "The Good Citizen and the Common School," Phi Delta
Kappan, Vol. 85, No. 1, September 2003, p. 37.

Timothy J. Stanley, "Creating the ‘Space’ for Civic Dialogue," Phi

Delta Kappan, Vol. 85, No. 1, September 2003, p. 38.

Terri Camajani and Ingrid Seyer-Ochi, "Leading Students Toward Citi-

zenship," Phi Delta Kappan, Vol. 85, No. 1, September 2003, p. 39.

Rod Paige, "Civics Education in America," Phi Delta Kappan, Vol. 85,
No. 1, September 2003, p. 59.

Kim Westheimer, "Hope for a Better Future," Phi Delta Kappan, Vol.
85, No. 1, September 2003, pp. 60-61.

Shahara Ahmad-Llewellyn, "From Knowledge, to Service, to Citizen-

ship," Phi Delta Kappan, Vol. 85, No. 1, September 2003, p. 62.

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