UNIT 1

THE ETHICAL DIMENSIONS OF HUMAN EXISTENCE

ETHICS, GENERALLY SPEAKING IS ABOUT MATTERS SUCH AS GOOD THING THAT WE SHOULD
PURSUE AND THE BAD THING THAT WE SHOULD AVOID; THE RIGHT WAYS IN WHICH WE COULD
OR SHOULD ACT AND THE WRONG WAYS OF ACTING.

THE IMPORTANCE OF RULES TO SOCIAL BEINGS

1. RULES TO PROTECT SOCIAL BEINGS BY REGULATING BEHAVIOR.

2. RULES HELP TO GUARANTEE EACH PERSON CERTAIN RIGHTS.
3. RULES PRODUCE A SENSE OF JUSTICE AMONG SOCIAL BEINGS.
4. RULES ARE ESSENTIAL FOR A HEALTHY ECONOMIC SYSTEM.

Aesthetics from the Greek word “aisthesis” which means “sense” or “feeling” and refers to the judgments
of personal approval or disapproval that we make about what we see, hear, smell, or taste.

Etiquette concerned with right or wrong actions, but those which might be considered not quite grave
enough to belong to a discussion on ethics

Technical from the Greek word “techne” and refers to a proper way—(or right way) of doing things.

Ethics – is the branch of philosophy that studies morality or the rightness or wrongness of human
conduct.

Morality- speaks of code or system of behavior in regards to standard of right and wrong behavior.
Descriptive study of ethics reports how people, particularly groups, make their moral valuations without
making any judgment either for or against these valuations.

Normative study of ethics, as is often done in philosophy or moral theology, engages the question: What
could or should be considered as the right way of acting? In other words, a normative discussion
prescribes what we ought to maintain as our standards or bases for moral valuation.

A situation that calls for moral valuation can be called a moral issue.

When one is placed in a situation and confronted by the choice of what act to perform, s/he is called to
make a moral decision

When a person is an observer making an assessment on the actions or behavior of someone, s/he is
making a moral judgment.

When one is torn between choosing one of two goods or choosing between the lesser of two evils, this is
referred to as a moral dilemma.
 Characteristics of Moral Standards

Moral standards involved serious wrongs or significant benefits.

Moral standards ought to be preferred to other values.
Moral standards are not established by authority figures
Moral standards have the trait of universality.
Moral standards are based on impartial considerations.
Moral standards are associated with special emotions and vocabulary.

DILEMMA It refers to a situation in which a tough choice has to be made between two or more
options, especially more or less equally undesirable ones.

3 levels of Moral Dilemma

Personal Dilemma these personal dilemmas are those experienced and resorbed the personal level.
Since many ethical decisions are personally made, many, if not most of moral dilemmas fall under, or boil
down to this level.

Organizational Dilemma basically, ethical cases encountered and resolved by social organizations are
organizational moral dilemmas. This category includes moral dilemmas in business medical field, and
public sector.

Only human beings can act morally or immorally.

Another reason for giving stronger preference to the interests of human beings is that only human beings
can act morally. This is considered to be important because beings that can act morally are required to
sacrifice their interests for the sake of others.

Only Human Beings are Part of the Moral Community

Finally, some claim that membership in the moral community is necessary for full and equal moral status.
The moAral community is not defined in terms of the intrinsic properties that beings have, but is defined
rather in terms of the important social relations that exist between beings.

What reasons do we give to decide or to judge that a certain way of acting is either right or
wrong?
Examples.
*If you hurt other people, and you didn't have an overwhelming good justification for doing so, then it's fair
to say that you acted wrongly.
*And if you not only help people as required, but go out of your way to give them surpassingly good help,
even if they are not your boss or supervisor, again, you acted rightly.

A person's fear of punishment or desire for reward can provide him a reason for acting in a certain
way.
"I did not cheat on the exam because I was afraid that I might get caught."
"I looked after my father in the hospital because I wanted to get a higher allowance."
SOURCES OF AUTHORITY

LAW It is supposed that law is one’s guide to ethical behavior. In the Philippines, Filipinos are constrained
to obey the laws of the land as stated in the country’s criminal and civil codes. The law cannot tell us what
to pursue, only what to avoid.

RELIGION The divinity called God, Allah, or Supreme Being commands and one is obliged to obey
his/her Creator (Divine Command Theory).

CULTURE Our exposure to different societies and their cultures makes us aware that there are ways of
thinking and valuing that are different from our own. Therefore, what is ethically acceptable or
unacceptable is relative to, or that is to say, dependent on one’s culture. This position is referred to as
cultural relativism.

Subjectivism The starting point of subjectivism is the recognition that the individual thinking person (the
subject) is at the heart of all moral valuations.

“No one can tell me what is right and wrong”

“No one knows my situation better than myself”
“I am entitled to my own opinion”
“It is good if I say that us good”

Psychological Egoism A theory that describes the underlying dynamic behind all human actions. As a
descriptive theory, it does not direct one to act in any particular way. Instead, it points out that there is
already an underlying basis for how one acts. The ego or self has its desires and interests, and all our
actions are geared toward satisfying these interests.

Strong points:
1.Simplicity

A theory that conveniently identifies a single basis that will somehow account for all actions.

2.Plausibility

It is plausible that the self-interest is behind a person’s actions.

Ethical Egoism This prescribes that we should make our own ends, our own interests, as the single
overriding concern.
Unit 2
UTILITARIANISM

Morality- is the human attempt to define what is right and wrong in thought and behavior, resulting in a
system or set of ideas about good vs. bad action, and the basis of any individual or community belief in
what constitutes good behavior or proper conduct.

Utility- is a principle where the right action is one that promotes happiness and peace. In contrast, the
wrong action is one that results in unhappiness and pain. Utilitarians are interested in making decisions
that will produce the greatest amount of happiness for the largest amount of people.

Integrity- is regarded as the honesty and truthfulness or earnestness of one's actions. Integrity can stand
in opposition to hypocrisy. It regards internal consistency as a virtue, and
suggests that people who hold apparently conflicting values
should account for the discrepancy or alter those values.

Self-discipline- means inculcating order in life and exercising

control over one's feelings, actions, impulses, emotions,
desires, and behavior, with an express aim of improving self
and society.Without discipline people would be whatever they
want to be, and would have least concern or regard for others

Trustworthy- relates to the moral quality of a person or entity

being perceived as reliable, truthful, and consistently
adhering to ethical principles. A trustworthy individual in
ethical terms is someone who can be relied upon to make
morally sound decisions and uphold integrity in their actions.

Responsiveness- generally refers to the ability to react or

respond quickly and effectively. In various contexts, it can
relate to the performance of a system, the timeliness of
communication, or how well someone or something addresses
a need or request promptly.

Justice- refers to the concept of fairness, righteousness,

and moral rightness in the treatment of individuals and
the application of laws. It involves ensuring that each
person receives their due rights and that decisions are
made impartially, taking into account principles of
equity and ethical standards.

Utilitarianism is a theory in ethics by which an actions

are judged to be right or wrong solely according to their
casual consequences.
Three principles:
1. Pleasure or Happiness Is the Only Thing That Truly
Has Intrinsic Value
2. Actions Are Right Insofar as They Promote Happiness,
Wrong Insofar as They Produce Unhappiness
3. Everyone's Happiness Counts Equally.

Utility, within the context of utilitarianism, refers to people performing actions for social utility. With social
utility, he means the well-being of many people. According to Mill, good actions result in pleasure, and
that there is no higher end than pleasure.

Utilitarian’s have freedom to "bend the rules" and justify a bad action for a good outcome. They may
choose a wide stance on morals that may cover more ground than stricter moral principles, and they also
have options to take stricter moral sides should they decide the scales are tipped in a sides favor.

Strength of Utilitarianism is for many people happiness is an important part of decision making as it
their main aim in life.

Weakness is that it committed a natural fallacy.

The greatest happiness principle is the ultimate standard of morality set up by classical utilitarianism.
That classical creed conceives of good as happiness and holds that right actions are those which
maximize the total happiness of the members of the community.

Utilitarianism brings about more happiness which is relevant in today's society. However, utilitarianism can
also be seen as not being relevant to the 21st century because by promoting happiness over other goods,
it reduces morality to being simple.