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1. Spenserian stanza: a poetic form invented by Spenser in his Faerie Queene, a 9-line stanza
rhymed abab bcbcc, in which the first eight lines are in iambic pentameter while the ninth in
iambic hexameter.

2. Allusion: is a figure of speech that refers to a person, a place, an event, or a literary work that
a writer expects the reader to recognize and respond to, it may be drawn from history,
religion, or other literature works. It is a device that allows writer to compress a great deal of
meaning into a very few words.

3. Rhyme royal: is a rhyming stanza form that was introduced to English poetry by Geoffrey
Chaucer. It has had a continuing influence on English verse in more recent centuries. The
rhyme royal stanza consists of seven lines, usually in iambic pentameter. The rhyme scheme
is ABABBCC.

4. Heroic couplet: A heroic couplet is a traditional form for English poetry, commonly used
in epic and narrative poetry, and consisting of a rhyming pair of lines in iambic pentameter.
Use of the heroic couplet was pioneered by Geoffrey Chaucer in the Canterbury Tales,

5. Medieval romance: a type of prose and verse narrative that was popular in the noble courts
of High Medieval and Early Modern Europe. They were fantastic stories about
marvel-filled adventures, emphasizing love and courtly manners, often of a chivalric
knight-errant portrayed as having heroic qualities, who goes on a quest.

6. The romance cycles/divisions/groups: the Romances are divided into such groups or cycles
as the “matters of Britain”, “matters of France”, and “matters of Rome”.

7. Ballad: A ballad is a form of verse, often a narrative set to music. Ballads are normally
composed in two kinds of stanzas; the first consists of couplets of lines each with four
stressed syllables. The second is a stanza of alternating lines of four stresses and three
stresses, the second and fourth lines rhyming.

8. Epic: a lengthy narrative poem, majestic both in theme and style. Epics deal with legendary
or historical events of national or universal significance. Most epics deal with the exploits of
a single individual, thereby giving unity to the composition. Great epics include The Iliad and
The Odyssey by Homer.

9. Renaissance: Renaissance is a term used to describe a period in European history marking

the transition from the Middle Ages to modernity and covering the 15th and 16th centuries,
influencing a large number of fields including literature, visual arts, science, etc. It is
characterized by the adoption of a humanist philosophy and the recovery of the classical
Antiquity. For the writers of the Renaissance, Greco-Roman inspiration was shown both in
the themes of their writing and in the literary forms they used.

10. Verse drama: Verse drama is any drama written significantly in verse to be performed by an
actor before an audience. Although verse drama does not need to be primarily in verse to be
 considered verse drama, significant portions of the play should be in verse to qualify. The
prominent authors who wrote in this form include Shakespeare and Eliot.

11. Miracle plays: simple plays based on Bible stories, such as the creation of the world, Noah
and the flood, and the birth of Christ.

12. the morality play: a kind of medieval and early Renaissance drama that present the conflict
between the good and evil through allegorical characters. The characters tend to be
personified abstraction of vice and virtues. One of the most popular morality play was Ben
Johnson’s Everyman.

13. Interlude: a short performance, such as secular farces and witty dialogues, which slipped
into a play to enliven the audience after a solemn scene.

14. the classical drama: Classical drama refers to the theatrical traditions of ancient Greece and
Rome, which together form the foundations of dramatic performance in Western countries.

15. Masques: a short allegorical dramatic entertainment of the 16th and 17th centuries
performed by masked actors.

16. Euphuism: a term originated from John Lily’s romance Euphus, representing a style featured
by the use of balanced sentences and words alliterating, rhyming or identical.

17. Tragedy: A tragedy is a story that presents courageous individuals who confront powerful
fores within or outside themselves with a dignity that reveals the breadth and depth of the
human spirit in the face of failure, defeat, and even death. Tragedies recount an individual's
downfall; they usually begin high and end low. Shakespeare is known for his tragedies,
including Macbeth, King Lear, Othello, and Hamlet.

18. Comedy: is a genre of literary work that consists of discourses or works intended to
be humorous or amusing by inducing laughter, especially in theatre, film, stand-up
comedy, television, radio, books, or any other entertainment medium. Shakespeare: A
Midsummer Night’s Dream; The Merchant of Venice; Twelfth Night; and As You Like It.

19. Sonnet: A lyric poem consisting of a single stanza of fourteen iambic pentameter lines linked
by an intricate rhyme scheme. There are two major patterns of rhyme in sonnets written in
the English language:

1 The Italian or Petrarchan sonnet falls into two main parts: an octave (eight lines)
rhyming abba abba followed by a sestet (six lines) rhyming cde cde or some variant, such as
cdccdc.

2 Shakespearean sonnet. This sonnet falls into three quatrains and a concluding couplet:
abab cdcd efef gg. There was one notable variant, the Spenserian sonnet, in which Edmund
Spenser linked each quatrain to the next by a continuing rhyme: abab cdcd efef gg.

20. Metaphysical poetry: The term “Metaphysical poetry” is used to describe a certain type of
17th-century poetry. Metaphysical poets are generally in rebellion against the highly
conventional imagery of the Elizabethan lyric. The Metaphysical poetry is characterized by
abrupt openings, dislocations, conceits, exaggerations, colloquial style, various paradoxes,
 and unique way of reasoning and comparison. John Donne, George Herbert, Andrew Marvell.

21. Cavalier poets: a group of supporters of Charles I in the Bourgeois Revolution consists of
John Sucking, Thomas Carew and Robert Herrick. These poets were not a formal group, but
all were influenced by Ben Jonson and like him paid little attention to the sonnet; their lyrics
are distinguished by short lines, precise but idiomatic diction, and an urbane and graceful wit.

22. Restoration Comedy: English comedies written and performed in the Restoration period in
the 17th-century. Restoration comedy is notorious for its sexual explicitness, and these
playwrights collectively portray a world of adultery, jealousy, deceit, meanness and cunning,
in which love is a sexual game and marriage a business.

23. Conceit: in literary terms, a conceit is an extended metaphor with a complex logic that
governs a poetic passage or entire poem.

24. Allegory: Allegory is a work of art in which a deeper meaning underlies the superficial or
literal meaning, and the implied or extended meanings involve moral or spiritual concepts
more significant than the actual narrative itself. John Bunyan's The Pilgrim's Progress and
Dante's The Divine Comedy are typical allegories.

25. Classicism: classicism is an aesthetic attitude dependent on principles based in the culture,
art and literature of ancient Greece and Rome, with the emphasis on form, simplicity,
proportion, clarity of structure, perfection, restrained emotion, as well as explicit appeal to
the intellect.

26. Neo-classicism

1) The neo-classicists modeled themselves on Greek and Latin authors, and tried to control
literary creation by some fixed laws and rules drawn from Greek and Latin works. These
neo-classicists include Addison, Steele and Pope of 18th century. Principles the classicism
advocates can be summarized as follows: fixed rules for each genre; emphasizing on
reasoning; didactic purpose; and urbane manners.

27. The Enlightenment Movement

1) Enlightenment movement was a progressive intellectual movement which flourished in

France and swept through Western Europe in the 18th century.

2) Its purpose was to enlighten the whole world with the light of modern philosophical and
artistic ideas.

3) It celebrated reason or rationality, equality and science. It advocated universal education.

Literature at the time became a very popular means of public education.

28. Sentimentalism: Sentimentalism is a practice of being sentimental, and emphasizing and

focusing on an optimistic view of essential goodness of human nature and emotional feelings,
in preference to reason. European literary sentimentalism arose during the Age of
Enlightenment, and representative writers include Sterne and Goldsmith.

29. Picaresque novel: The novel of travels and adventures. It is a popular sub-genre of prose
fiction which is usually satirical and depicts, in realistic and often humorous detail, the
 adventures of a roguish hero of low social class who lives by his wits in a corrupt society.

30. Sentimental comedy/Weeping comedy: Sentimental comedy is an 18th-century dramatic

genre which sprang up as a reaction to the immoral tone of English Restoration plays. These
plays aimed to produce tears rather than laughter and reflected contemporary philosophical
conceptions of humans as inherently good but capable of being led astray by bad example.
By appealing to his noble sentiments, a man could be reformed and set back on the path of
virtue.

31. Pre-Romanticism: In the latter half of the 18th century, a new literary movement arose in
Europe, called the Romantic Revival. It was marked by a strong protest against the bondage
of classicism and by the claims of passion and emotion, and by a renewed interest in
medieval literature. In England, this movement showed itself in the trend of Pre-Romanticism
in poetry, which was ushered in by Percy, Macpherson and Chatterton, and represented by
Blake and Burns.

32. escapist romanticists: The elder generation of romanticists, the romantic writers who
reflected the thinking of classes ruined by the bourgeoisie, and by way of protesting against
capitalist development turned to the feudal past, including Wordsworth, Coleridge, and
Southey.

33. lake poets: Wordsworth, Coleridge, and Southey, who had lived in the Lake District in the
northwest of England and share a community of literary and social outlook in their work.

34. active romanticists: The younger generation of the romanticists who expressed the
aspirations of the classes created by capitalism and held up an ideal, though a vague one, of a
future society free from oppression. e.g., Byron, Shelley and Keats.

35. Byronic heroes: an idealized but flawed character in the life and writings of Lord Byron, a
hero who is melancholy and rebellious, enticingly romantic, longing for freedom and having
a strong sense of honor.

36. ottava rima: A form of verse stanza consisting of eight lines rhyming abababcc, usually
employed for narrative verse but sometimes used in lyric poems. In its original Italian form
pioneered by Boccaccio in the 14th century and introduced into English by Thomas Wyatt in
the 16th century, and later used by Byron in Don Juan as well as by Keats, Shelley, and Yeats.
The English version uses iambic pentameters.

37. Terza rima: a poetic form of three-line stanza in which the first and third lines rhyme, and
the middle line does not; then the end sound of that middle line is employed as the rhyme for
the first and third lines in the next stanza. Shelley’s Ode to the West Wind is a famous
representative of terza rima.

38. Tercet: A tercet is composed of three lines of poetry, forming a stanza or a complete poem.

39. Ode: It is an elaborately formal lyric poem, often in the form of a lengthy to praise or glorify
an individual, commemorate an event or describe nature intellectually, such as Keats' Ode to
a Nightingale.

40. Gothic novel: is a type of romantic fiction that predominated the late eighteenth century,
 being one phase of the Romantic Movement. Its principal elements are violence, horror, and
the supernatural, which strongly appeal to the reader's emotion, and typically describe the
dark, irrational side of human nature.

41. English Critical realism:

1 English critical realism of the 19th century flourished in the forties and in the early fifties.
The critical realists described, with much vividness and artistic skill, the chief traits of the
English society and criticized the capitalist system from a democratic viewpoint.

2 These critical realists showed profound sympathy for the common people. In their best works,
the greed and hypocrisy of the upper classes and were contrasted with the honesty and
good-heartedness of the obscure simple people of the lower classes. Representative realistic
writers include Charles Dickens and William Makepeace Thackeray.

42. Naturalism ： Naturalism is a literary movement beginning in the late nineteenth century,
similar to literary realism in its rejection of Romanticism, but distinct in its embrace of
determinism, detachment, scientific objectivism, and social commentary. Naturalism believes
that social conditions, heredity, and environment had inescapable force in shaping human
character. Naturalistic works often include sordid subject matter that exposes the dark
harshness of life.

43. Neo-romanticism: Neo-romanticism lasts from very late 19th century to early 20th century.
Dissatisfied with the drab and ugly social reality and yet trying to avoid the positive solution
of the acute social contradictions, some writers tend to draw their inspiration from artists of
the age of high romanticism, and in this they react in general to the “ugly” modern world.
Characteristics themes include longing for perfect love, utopian landscapes, and romantic
death. Stevenson is a representative of Neo-romanticism.

44. Pre-Raphaelite: The Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood was a group of English painters, poets, and
art critics who sought a return to the abundant detail, intense colours and complex
compositions of 15th-century Italian art. They rejected what they regarded as the mechanistic
approach first adopted by Mannerist artists who succeeded Raphael and Michelangelo. It
exerted great influence on the 20th-century literature including symbolism and aestheticism.

45. Aestheticism:

1) An aesthetic movement of the late 19th century whose basic theory is “art for art’s sake”.
Aestheticism places art above life, and holds that life should imitate art, not art imitate life.
This is one of the reactions against the materialism and commercialism of the Victorian
industrial era, as well as a reaction against the Victorian convention of art for morality's sake,
or art for money's sake.

46. Art for art's sake: a French slogan from the early 19th century—is a phrase that expresses
the philosophy that the intrinsic value of art, and the only 'true' art, is divorced from any
didactic, moral, political, or utilitarian function. Such works are sometimes described as
autotelic.

47. Dramatic monologue: Dramatic monologue was is a piece of spoken verse that favoured by
 many poets in the Victorian period, in which a single person in the poem, who is patently not
the poet, utters the speech that makes up the whole of the poem and especially the
characteristics of the speaker. Examples of a dramatic monologue exist in My Last Duchess
by Robert Browning.

48. Imagism: Imagism was a movement in early-20th-century Anglo-American poetry that

favored precision of imagery, free rhyme scheme, and simple language. It gave modernism its
first start, and is considered to be the first organized modernist literary movement in the
English language. The Imagists rejected the sentiment and discursiveness typical
of Romantic and Victorian poetry. Imagists called for directness of presentation, economy of
language, and a willingness to experiment with non-traditional verse forms, including free
verse. Famous imagist poets include Ezra Pound and William Carlos Williams.

49. Stream of consciousness: a technique used by modernist writers to expose the flux of
conscious and subconscious thoughts and impressions moving in the minds of their
characters. In the 20th century, under the influence of Freud’s theory of psychological analysis,
a number of writers adopted this method to depict the characters’ mental and emotional
reactions instead the traditional emphasis on external events. The representative writers
include James Joyce and Virginia Woolf.

50. The Abbey Theatre: the Abbey Theatre is the national Irish theatre that was founded by the
Irish poet William Bulter Yeats, and Lady Augusta Gregory. The theatre performed works by
Irish dramatists.

51. Irish Renaissance: was a variety of movements and trends in the 19th and 20th centuries that
saw a revival of interest in the Irish language and literature in Ireland. A number of Irish
writers including William Butler Yeats, Lady Gregory stimulated a new appreciation of
traditional Irish literature and Irish poetry in the late 19th and early 20th century.

52. Oedipus complex: is a Freudian term originating from a Greek tragedy, in which King
Oedipus unknowingly killed his father and married his mother. Oedipus Complex is a group
of largely unconscious ideas and feelings which centres around the desire to possess the
parent of the opposite sex and eliminate the parent of the same sex. D. H. Lawrence
described this complex in his novel Son and Lovers, in which the son has passion toward his
mother and desire to possess her.

53. English modernism in poetry: Modernist poetry in England is generally considered to have
emerged in the early years of the 20th century with the appearance of the Imagists. In
common with many other modernists, poets like Yeats wrote in reaction to the perceived
excesses of Victorian poetry, with its emphasis on traditional formalism and ornate diction.
Much of early modernist poetry took the form of short, compact lyrics. As it developed,
however, longer poems came to the fore. These represent the main contribution of the
modernist movement to the 20th-century English poetic canon.

54. Psychological realism: It is the realistic writing that probes deeply into the complexities of
characters’ motives, psychological processes, and characters' mental narratives instead of
simply telling a story. Psychological realism focuses on why something happens and not just
the scenario that plays out. Examples of authors who use psychological realism are Henry
 James, Arthur Millers, and Fyodor Dostoevsky.

55. psychological fiction: Modernism was a movement of experiments in the new technique in
writing, and modernist fiction put emphasis on the description of the characters'
psychological activities, and so has sometimes been called modern psychological fiction. One
of the pioneers is Lawrence, who is well-known for his novels written under the influence of
Freud's theory of psychological analysis.

56. Freudianism: Freudianism derives from Sigmund Freud, an Austrian neurologist who
founded the psychoanalytic school of psychology. Freudianism emphasizes the importance of
unconscious forces in determining the beliefs and actions of human beings. The theory also
has great influence on literature in the 20th century. A lot of modern writers such as Woolf,
Joyce and Lawrence are deeply influenced by Freudianism.

57. Epiphany: deep insights that might be gained through incidents and circumstances which
seem outwardly insignificant.

58. Interior monologue: the written representation of a character’s inner thoughts, impressions,
and memories as if directly “overheard” without the apparent intervention of a summarizing
and selecting narrator. The term is often loosely used as a synonym for stream of
consciousness.

59. Auden Group: a convenient label for a group of British and Irish writers active in the 1930s
who were approximately the same age, who had been educated at Oxford and Cambridge,
who had known each other at different times, and had more or less left-wing views. In
addition to its leader W.H.Auden, the membership includes Stephen Spender, Christopher
Isherwood, etc.

60. unreliable narration: An unreliable narrator is a narrator whose credibility is compromised.

Sometimes the narrator's unreliability is made immediately evident. For instance, a story may
open with the narrator making a plainly false or delusional claim or admitting to being
severely mentally ill, or the story itself may have a frame in which the narrator appears as a
character, with clues to the character's unreliability.

61. Epistolary novel: An epistolary novel is a novel written as a series of documents. The usual
form is letters, although diary entries, newspaper clippings and other documents are
sometimes used. The epistolary form can add greater realism to a story, because it mimics the
workings of real life.

62. Graveyard school of poetry: Graveyard-school of poetry: (1) It refers to a group of

eighteenth-century English poets who emphasized subjectivity, mystery, and melancholy. (2)
Death, mortality (immortality), and gloom were frequent subjects or elements of their
meditative poems, which were often actually set in graveyards. Thomas Gray's Elegy Written
in a Country Churchyard is the most famous example.

63. Metafiction: Metafiction is a style of prose narrative in which attention is directed to the
process of fictive composition. The most obvious example of a metafictive work is a novel
about a novelist writing a novel, with the protagonist sharing the name of the creator and
each book having the same title.
64. historiographical metafiction: works of fiction which combine the literary devices of
metafiction with historical fiction. They are distinguished by frequent allusions to other
artistic, historical and literary texts (i.e. intertextuality) in order to show the extent to which
works of both literature and historiography are dependent on the history of discourse.

65. Intertextuality: the shaping of a text's meaning by another text. It is the interconnection
between similar or related works of literature that reflect and influence an audience's
interpretation of the text.

66. neo-victorian novel: Neo-Victorianism is an aesthetic movement that features an overt

nostalgia for the Victorian period. The related writers include A.S.Byatt and John Fowles.

67. Baroque: The Baroque is a style of architecture, music, dance, painting, sculpture, and other
arts that flourished in Europe from the early 17th century until the 1740s. The Baroque style
used contrast, movement, exuberant detail, deep colour, grandeur, and surprise to achieve a
sense of awe.

68. The Movement (Literature): The Movement was a term used to describe a group of English
writers whose objective was to prove the importance of English poetry over the new
modernist poetry. The members of the Movement were opposed to modernism. Their poems
were nostalgic for the earlier Britain and filled with pastoral images of the decaying way of
life as Britain moved farther from the rural and more towards the urban. One of the
representatives of the Movement is Philip Larkin.

69. Deep Image School: to describe stylized, resonant poetry that operated according to
the Symbolist theory of correspondences, which posited a connection between the physical
and spiritual realms. Representative poets include Robert Bly.

70. Symbolism: Symbolism was a late 19th-century art movement of French, Russian and
Belgian origin in poetry and other arts, seeking to represent absolute truths symbolically
through metaphorical images and language mainly as a reaction against naturalism and
realism, and, a reaction in favour of spirituality, the imagination, and dreams. The
representative symbolist poets including Ezra Pound, William Butler Yeats, and Arthur
Rimbaud.

71. Existentialism: is a form of philosophical inquiry that explores the problem of

human existence and centres on the experience of thinking, feeling, and acting. Existentialist
thinkers frequently explore issues related to the meaning, purpose, and value of human
existence.

72. Naturalism ： Naturalism is a literary movement beginning in the late nineteenth century,
similar to literary realism in its rejection of Romanticism, but distinct in its embrace of
determinism, detachment, scientific objectivism, and social commentary. The movement
largely traces to the theories of French author Émile Zola.

73. Free verse: Free verse is an open form of poetry. It does not use consistent meter
patterns, rhyme, or any musical pattern. It thus tends to follow the rhythm of natural speech.
Walt Whitman’s Leaves of Grass is, perhaps, the most notable example.
74. Blank verse: Blank verse is a type of poetry, distinguished by having a regular meter, but no
rhyme. The major achievements in English blank verse were made by William Shakespeare,
who wrote much of the content of his plays in unrhymed iambic pentameter, and Milton,
whose Paradise Lost was written in blank verse.

75. Alliteration: also known as “head rhyme” or “initial rhyme”, the repetition of the same
sounds — usually initial consonants of words or of stressed syllables — in any sequence of
neighboring words.

76. Assonance: Assonance is a resemblance in the sounds of words/syllables either between their
vowels (e.g., meat, bean) or between their consonants (e.g., keep, cape). However, assonance
between consonants is generally called consonance in American usage.

77. Consonance: syllables ending with the same consonants.

78. Reverse rhyme: describes syllables sharing the vowel and initial consonants, rather than the
vowel and the final consonants as is the case in rhyme.

79. Pararhyme: where two syllables have the same initial and final consonants, but different
vowels.

80. Repetition: the repetition of syllables.

81. Internal rhyme: In poetry, internal rhyme, or middle rhyme, is rhyme that occurs within a
single line of verse, or between internal phrases across multiple lines. By contrast, rhyme
between line endings is known as end rhyme.

82. Puritanism: Puritanism, a religious reform movement in the late 16th and 17th centuries that
sought to “purify” the Church of England. Its main doctrines include sober & hardworking,
predestination & election, and the notion of original sin, etc. American Puritanism was one of
the most enduring shaping influences in American thought and American literature.

83. Autobiography: a self-written account of one's life. While biographers generally rely on a
wide variety of documents and viewpoints, autobiography may be based entirely on the
writer's memory.

84. Farce: Farce is a comedy that seeks to entertain the audience through situations that are
highly exaggerated, extravagant, ridiculous, absurd, and improbable.

85. Burlesque: A burlesque is a literary, dramatic or musical work intended to cause laughter by
caricaturing the manner or spirit of serious works, or by ludicrous treatment of their subjects.

86. American Renaissance: The American Renaissance was a period of American arts
movement during the transitional period between 19th and 20th century. characterized by
renewed national self-confidence and a feeling that the United States was the heir to Greek
democracy, Roman law, and Renaissance humanism.

87. Oversoul: a term emphasized by transcendentalists. It was an all-prevailing power for

goodness, omnipresent and omnipotent, from which all things came and of which all were a
part. It existed in nature and man alike and constituted the chief element of the universe.
88. Transcendentalism: Transcendentalism is a New England movement, which emphasized the
role and importance of the individual conscience, and the value of intuition in matters of
moral guidance and inspiration. The group of people was also social reformers, including
Emerson, Thoreau, and Bronson Alcott.

89. The fireside poets: also known as the schoolroom or household poets – were a group of
19th-century American poets associated with New England. They were the first group of
American poets to rival British poets in popularity in either country. They frequently used
American legends and scenes of American home life and contemporary politics. Famous
members include Longfellow, Lowell, Holmes, and Whittier.

90. Didacticism: is a philosophy that emphasizes instructional and informative qualities in

literature, art, and design. In art, design, architecture, and landscape, didacticism is an
emerging conceptual approach that is driven by the urgent need to explain.

91. Slant rhyme: Half rhyme or imperfect rhyme, sometimes called near-rhyme, lazy rhyme, or
slant rhyme, is a type of rhyme formed by words with similar but not identical sounds. In
most instances, either the vowel segments are different while the consonants are identical, or
vice versa.

92. Perfect rhyme:

Also called full rhyme, exact rhyme, or true rhyme—is a form of rhyme between two words
or phrases, satisfying the following conditions:

1) The stressed vowel sound in both words must be identical, as well as any subsequent
sounds. For example, "sky" and "high" are an example of two words that have a perfect
rhyme.

2) The onset of the stressed syllable in the words must differ. For example, "bean" and
"green" is a perfect rhyme, while "leave" and "believe" is not.

Word pairs that satisfy the first condition but not the second (such as the aforementioned
"leave" and "believe") are technically identities (also known as identical rhymes or
identicals). Homophones, being words of different meaning but identical pronunciation, are
an example of identical rhyme.

93. Local colorism: a literary trend that devoted to capturing the unique customs, manners,
speech, folklore, and other qualities of a particular regional community, usually in humorous
short stories. The most famous of the local colorist is Mark Twain.

94. Point of view : Point of view is utilized as a literary device to indicate the angle
or perspective from which a story is told. Essentially, point of view refers to the “eyes” of
the narrative voice that determine the position or angle of vision from which the story is
being relayed.

95. Understatement: Understatement is a form of speech or disclosure which contains an

expression of lesser strength than what would be expected, the use of which sometimes give
an impression of reserve and at time a tinge of ironical humor. It is the opposite of an
embellishment.
96. Bildungsroman: Bildungsroman is a special kind of novel that focuses on the psychological
and moral growth of its main character, from his or her youth to adulthood.

97. Multiple narrator: It is one of the literary techniques William Faulkner used, which shows
within the same story how the characters reacted differently to the same person or the same
situation. The multiple points of view technique makes the reader recognize the difficulty of
arriving at a true judgment.

98. The Southern Renaissance was the reinvigoration of American Southern literature that
began in the 1920s and 1930s with the appearance of writers such as William Faulkner,
Katherine Anne Porter, Tennessee Williams,

99. Code hero: the group of characters who remain ideals of courage, endurance, and honor in
the world that is sometimes chaotic, often stressful, and always painful.

100. Imagism: a movement stressing precision and economy of language. Imagism combined the
creation of an “image” — what he defined as “an intellectual and emotional complex in an
instant of time”—with rigorous requirements for writing.

101. Vorticism: a short-lived avant-garde British art movement that was nurtured by Wyndham
Lewis, derived from futurism and cubism, and reached its climax in an exhibition in London
in 1915, dwindling in influence after World War I.

102. Vaudeville: a type of entertainment consisting of short acts such as comedy, singing, and
dancing. Vaudeville was especially popular in the early part of the twentieth century.

103. Confessional school: a style of poetry that emerged in the United States during the 20th
century. It has been described as personal poetry focusing on extreme moments of individual
experience, including previously taboo matter such as mental illness, sexuality, and suicide,
often set in relation to broader social themes.

104. New criticism: an approach to the critical study of literature that concentrates on textual
explication and rejects historical and biographical study as irrelevant to an understanding of
the total formal organization of a work.

105. Post modernism:

Postmodernism represents a new mode of perception and a way of writing.

In its thematic concerns, Postmodernism views the world as one that is not to be molded, but
as formless and unpredictable. Postmodernism does not endeavor to impose on life and
reality, but is willing to embrace it for what it is.

In its formal aspects, Postmodernism seeks for a freedom in literary expression. It prefers, for
example, colloquial and informal speech, not always grammatical and coherent in syntax.
The Postmodernist novel exhibits its own unique features such as metafiction, black
humor,and forms of avantgardism.

106. Black Humor: humor marked by the use of usually morbid, ironic, grotesquely comic
episodes. It is a non-serious way of treating or dealing with serious subjects. It is often used
to present any serious, horrible and painful incidents lightly.
107. Theatre of the Absurd: Theatre of the Absurd, dramatic works of certain European and
American dramatists of the 1950s and early 60s who believed that the human situation is
essentially absurd, devoid of purpose. The term is loosely applied to those dramatists and the
production of those works.

108. Black Mountain Poets: The Black Mountain Poets refer to a group of poets active on the
contemporary scene, as these people were either associated with Black Mountain college, or
with Black Mountain Review， they have become known as “The Black Mountain Poets”.

109. The Generation: The Beat Generation was a literary movement started by a group of
authors whose work explored and influenced American culture and politics in
the post-war era. The central elements of Beat culture are the rejection of standard values,
making a spiritual quest, the exploration of religions, the rejection of economic materialism,
explicit portrayals of the human condition, and sexual liberation and exploration. Allen
Ginsberg.

110. San Francisco Renaissance: The term San Francisco Renaissance is used as a global
designation for a range of poetic activity centered on San Francisco, which brought it to
prominence as a hub of the American poetry avant-garde in the 1950s.

111. New York School: The New York School was an informal group of American poets and
painters active in 1950s New York City critics argued that their work was a reaction to the
confessional movement in contemporary poetry. The poets often drew inspiration from
surrealism and the contemporary avant-garde art movement, in particular the action painting
of their friends in the New York City art circle. There are also commonalities between the
New York School and the earlier Beat Generation poets active in 1940s and 1950s New York
City.

112. The Jazz Age: describes the period of the 1920s and 1930s，the years between World War I
and World War II. With the rise of the great depression, the values of this age saw much
decline. Perhaps the most representative literary work of the age is American writer
Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby.

113. Impressionism: is a style of painting that gives the impression made by the subject on the
artist without much attention to details. Writers accepted the same conviction that the
personal attitudes and moods of the writer were legitimate elements in depicting character or
setting or action. Briefly, it is a style of literature characterized by the creation of general
impressions and moods rather that realistic mood.

114. Essay: the term refers to literary composition devoted to the presentation of the writer’s own
ideas on a topic and generally addressing a particular aspect of the subject. Often brief in
scope and informal in style.

115. Euphuistic style: it is the peculiar style of Euphues. Its principle characteristics are the
excessive use of antithesis, and emphasized by alliteration, allusions to historical and
mythological personages.

116. University Wits: refer to a group of scholars during the Elizabethan Age who graduated from
either oxford or Cambridge. They came to London with the ambition to become professional
 writers. Some of them later became famous poets and playwrights.

117. Foreshadowing: the use of hints or clues in a novel or drama to suggest what will happen
next. Writers use Foreshadowing to create interest and to build suspense.

118. Magie realism: It is a kind of modern fiction in which fabulous and fantastical events are
included in a narrative that otherwise maintains the “reliable” tone of objective realistic
report.

119. Motif: A recurring feature, such as a name, an image, or a phrase in a work of literature. A
motif generally contributes in some way to the theme of a short story, novel, poem, or play.

120. Civil right movement

121. Nonfiction: It refers to any prose narrative that tells about things as the actually happened or
that presents factual information about something. Forms: autobiography, biography, essay,
letters to the editor found in newspaper, diary, journal, travel literature.

122. Harlem Renaissance: Harlem Renaissance refers to a period of outstanding literary vigor
and creativity that occurred in the United states during the 1920s. It changed the images of
literature created by many black and white American writers. New black images were no
longer obedient and docile. Instead they showed a new confidence and racial pride.

123. Black Secular: is a form of simplified English, as well has metaphors that relate back to
slavery.

124. Black Humour: what occurs oftener is a sense of grief and pain coming through the laughter,
a feeling of frustration and being bottled up.

125. Magic Realism: Magic real is a 20th-century style of fiction and literary genre. As a literary
fiction style, magic realism paints a realistic view of the modern world while also adding
magical or supernatural elements, often dealing with the blurring of the lines between fantasy
and reality. Magical realism is often seen as an amalgamation of real and magical elements
that produces a more inclusive writing form than either literary realism or fantasy.

126. The Native American Renaissance: is a term originally coined by critic Kenneth Lincoln in
the 1983 book Native American Renaissance to categorise the significant increase in
production of literary works by Native Americans in the United States in the late 1960s and
onwards.

127. Captivity narratives: Captivity narratives are usually stories of people captured by enemies
whom they consider uncivilized, or whose beliefs and customs they oppose. The best-known
captivity narratives in North America are those concerning Europeans and Americans taken
as captives and held by the indigenous peoples of North America. These narratives have had
an enduring place in literature, history, ethnography, and the study of Native peoples.

128. Aphorisms: An aphorism is a short witty sentence which expresses a general truth or
comment.

129. Chicago school of poets: a poetic school arose before the First World War to challenge the
East Coast literary establishment. They shared the midwestern concern with ordinary people
 and often concerns obscure individuals; they developed techniques -- realism, dramatic
renderings -- that reached out to a larger readership. Poets in this school include Carl
Sandburg, Vachel Lindsay, and Edgar Lee Masters.

130. The roaring twenties: The Roaring Twenties (sometimes stylized as the Roarin' 20s) refers
to the decade of the 1920s in Western society and Western culture. It was a period of
economic prosperity with a distinctive cultural edge in the United States and Europe,
emphasizing the era's social, artistic and cultural dynamism. The Wall Street Crash of
1929 ended the era, as the Great Depression brought years of hardship worldwide.

131. Academy poets: a group of postwar poets including Elizabeth Bishop, Robert Lowell, etc.
They are so called partly because so many are connected with colleges and universities, and
also because they established themselves almost officially as the recognized poets of their
generation.

132. mock epic is a long poem that burlesques the classical epic by treating a trivial subject in the
lofty style. The poet often takes an elevated style of language， but incongruously applies
that language to mundane or ridiculous objects and situations. Alexander Pope‘s The Rape of
the Lock is perhaps the finest mock epic poem in English.

133. The Angry young men: In the mid-1950s and early 1960s, there appeared a group of young
novelists and playwrights with lower-middle-class or working-class background. They
demonstrated a particular disillusion over the depressing situation in Britain and launched a
bitter protest against the outmoded social and political values in their society.

134. 芝加哥诗人：坚持惠特曼的传统，反应劳动人民的思想感情。

135. 左翼文学： 斯坦贝克

语言学

https://glossary.sil.org/term

1. Phoneme: a phoneme is a unit of sound that distinguishes one word from another in a
particular language.

2. affix: In linguistics, an affix is a morpheme that is attached to a word stem to form a

new word or word form. Affixes may be derivational, like English -ness and pre-, or
inflectional, like English plural -s and past tense -ed.

3. inflection: In linguistic morphology, inflection (or inflexion) is a process of word

formation, in which a word is modified to express different grammatical categories such
as tense, case, voice, aspect, person, number, gender, mood, animacy, and definiteness.

a) grammatical category: specific properties of a word that can cause that word and/or a
related word to change in form for grammatical reasons (ensuring agreement between
words). For example, the word "boy" is a noun. Nouns have a grammatical category
called "number". The values of number are singular (one) and plural (two or more).

4. mood: In linguistics, grammatical mood is a grammatical feature of verbs, used for

signaling modality. That is, it is the use of verbal inflections that allow speakers to
express their attitude toward what they are saying (for example, a statement of fact, of
desire, of command, etc.). imperative, indicative, and subjunctive mood

5. modality: a system of alternative wordings in a language that construes different

degrees of necessity, obligation, and probability from either a subjective or an objective
perspective. E.g. for probability: `it may have happened', `it is likely to have happened',
etc.

6. speech act: speech act is a central concept in Speech Act Theory, according to which,
we are performing various kinds of acts when we are speaking. Actions performed
through utterances are generally called speech acts, such as requesting, questioning,
commanding, and informing.

7. verbal behavior: is a method of teaching language that focuses on the idea that a
meaning
of a word is found in their functions.

8. cooperative principle: cooperative principle describes how people achieve effective

conversational communication in common social situations—that is, how listeners and
speakers act cooperatively and mutually accept one another to be understood in a
particular way. quanity, quality, relation, and manner.

9. vernaculer: A vernacular is the native language or native dialect of a specific population,

as opposed to a language of wider communication that is a second language or foreign
language to the population, such as a national language, standard language, or lingua
franca.

10. minimal pair: minimal pairs are the two words which are identical in every way except
 for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string. For example, the
English words bear and pear constitute a minimal pair as they differ in meaning and in
their initial phonemes /b/ and /p/.

11. distinctive feature: the distinctive feature refers to a property which distinguishes one
phoneme from another. For example, “voicing” is a distinctive feature, since it plays an
important role in distinguishing obstruents in English.

12. verbal variable: refers to features with variations that are referentially identical but
carry social and stylistic meaning. This could include phonological, as well as
morphological and syntactic phenomena.

13. lingua franca: It is a language that is used for communication between different groups
of people, each speaking a different language. The lingua franca could be an
internationally used language of communication (e. g. English), it could be the native
language of one of the groups, or it could be a language which is not spoken natively by
any of the groups but has a simplified sentence structure and vocabulary and is often a
mixture of two or more languages.

14. part of speech (词性): a group of traditional classifications of words according to their
functions in context, including the noun, pronoun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition,
conjunction, and interjection, and sometimes the article.

15. speech community: A speech community is a group of people who share a set of
linguistic norms and expectations regarding the use of language. It is a concept mostly
associated with sociolinguistics and anthropological linguistics.

16. Anthropological linguistics: is the subfield of linguistics and anthropology, which

deals with the place of language in its wider social and cultural context, and its role in
making and maintaining cultural practices and societal structures

17. back formation: a process of word formation by removing actual or supposed affixex.
e.g. resurrection, resurrect.

18. Authentic Input: language input which is related to real life and usually neglects the
grammar. This kind of input is insisted by proponents of meaning-oriented language
instruction.

19. comprehensible input: it means the language that learners learn should be just far
enough beyond their current competence so that they can understand most of it but still
be challenged to make progress. Input should be neither too difficult nor too easy for the
learners as according to Krashen’s Input Hypothesis, learners acquire language as a
result of comprehending input addressed to them.

20. Input Hypothesis: Krashen’s Input Hypothesis, learners acquire language as a result of
comprehending input addressed to them.

21. Immediate constituent: any of the meaningful constituents directly forming a larger
linguistic construction (a phrase or a sentence).
22. IC analysis: immediate constituent analysis or IC analysis is a method of sentence
analysis, it divides up a sentence into major parts or immediate constituents, which are
in turn divided into the immediate constituents of their own. The process goes until the
ultimate constituents (words) are reached.

23. Syntagmatic relations: refers to a relation between one item and others in a sequence,
or between elements which are all present.

24. Paradigmatic relations: is a relation holding between elements replaceable with each
other at a particular place in a structure, or between one element present and the others
absent.

25. Endocentric construction: an endocentric construction is a grammatical construction

that fulfills the same linguistic function as one of its constituents. An endocentric
construction consists of an head and one or more optional, dependent words, whose
presence serve to narrow the meaning of the head.

26. Exocentric construction: it refers to phrases and compound words which are not the
same part of speech as their constituents. For example, in the sentence "I am in the
doghouse", the phrase "in the doghouse" is an exocentric phrase, since it functions as
an adjective

27. Logical subject: the subject of a sentence that expresses the actual agent of an
expressed or implied action.

28. Grammatical subject: a term in a sentence that occupies the position of the subject in
normal language order.

29. allomorphs: in linguistics, an allomorph is a variant phonetic form of a morpheme, or, a

unit of meaning that varies in sound and spelling without changing the meaning.

30. lexeme: the notion of the word in an abstract sense. (和 form 对应；example: walking
and walked are both forms of the lexeme "walk".)

31. function words: In linguistics, function words (also called functors)[1] are words that
have little lexical meaning or have ambiguous meaning and express grammatical
relationships among other words within a sentence, or specify the attitude or mood of
the speaker. Function words could be prepositions, pronouns, auxiliary verbs,
conjunctions, grammatical articles or particles, all of which belong to the group of
closed-class words.

32. idiolect: Idiolect is an individual's distinctive and unique use of language, including
speech. This unique usage encompasses vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation.

33. Cohesion: cohesion is the grammatical and lexical linking within a text or sentence that
holds a text together and gives it meaning. Typical cohesion markers include reference,
substitution, ellipsis, conjunction, and lexical collocation.

34. Coherence in linguistics is what makes a text semantically meaningful. Coherence is

achieved through syntactical features such as the use of a logical tense structure, as well
 as presuppositions and implications connected to general world knowledge.

35. langue and parole: langue encompasses the abstract, systematic rules and conventions
of a signifying system; it is independent of, and pre-exists, the individual user. In
contrast, parole ('speech') refers to the concrete instances of the use of langue.

36. seven types of meaning by G. Leech: conceptual meaning; associative meaning

(connotative, social, affective, reflected, colloctative); thematic meaning.

37. Agreement / Concord: agreement or concord happens when a word changes form
depending on the other words to which it relates. It is an instance of inflection, and
usually involves making the value of some grammatical category (such as gender or
person) "agree" between varied words or parts of the sentence.

38. Decreolization: decreolization is a postulated phenomenon whereby over time a creole

language reconverges with the lexifier from which it originally derived.

39. lexifier: a lexifier is the language that provides the basis for the majority of a pidgin or
creole language's vocabulary (lexicon).

40. rebus principle: in linguistics, the rebus principle is the use of existing symbols, such as
pictograms, purely for their sounds regardless of their meaning, to represent new words.

41. convergence: language convergence is a type of linguistic change in which languages

come to structurally resemble one another as a result of prolonged language contact and
mutual interference, regardless of whether those languages belong to the same language
family.

42. Phonotactics: is a branch of phonology that deals with restrictions in a language on the
permissible combinations of phonemes.

43. Synecdoche: is a class of metonymy, a figure of speech in which a term for a part of
something refers to the whole of something or vice versa. ( 提 喻 )e.g., suits for
businessman.

44. Metonymy is a figure of speech in which a thing or concept is referred to by the name
of something closely associated with that thing or concept. (转喻)e.g., the white house
can refer to the president of the U.S..

45. metaphor: a metaphor is a figure of speech that, for rhetorical effect, directly refers to
one thing by mentioning another.

46. Simile: is a figure of speech that directly compares two things. Similes differ from
metaphors by highlighting the similarities between two things using words such as
"like" or "as", while metaphors create an implicit comparison (i.e. saying something "is"
something else).

47. antithesis: antithesis is used in writing or speech either as a that contrasts with or
reverses some previously mentioned proposition, or when two opposites are introduced
together for contrasting effect. e.g., In peace you are for war, and in war you long for
peace.
 48. hyperbole: is the use of exaggeration as a rhetorical device or figure of speech.

49. intertextuality: text-linking literary device. Intertextuality is the shaping of a text's

meaning by another text. It is the interconnection between similar or related works of
literature that reflect and influence an audience's interpretation of the text. Intertextual
figures include: allusion, quotation, calque, plagiarism, translation, pastiche and parody.

1) Allusion is a figure of speech, in which an object or circumstance from unrelated context is

referred to covertly or indirectly.

2) calque: In linguistics, a calque or loan translation is a word or phrase borrowed from another
language by literal word-for-word or root-for-root translation. e.g., the word "calque" itself is
a loanword from French "calque", which means close copy or imitation.

3) Plagiarism: is the representation of another author's language, thoughts, ideas, or expressions

as one's own original work.

4) pastiche: a pastiche is a work of visual art, literature, theatre, or music that imitates the style
or character of the work of one or more other artists.

5) parody: parody, is a creative work designed to imitate, comment on, and/or make fun of its
subject by means of satiric or ironic imitation.

50. componential analysis: (feature analysis or contrast analysis) the analysis of words
through structured sets of semantic features.

51. homonymy: In linguistics, homonyms, broadly defined, are words which are
homographs (words that share the same spelling, regardless of pronunciation) or
homophones (words that share the same pronunciation, regardless of spelling), or both.
A more restrictive or technical definition sees homonyms as words that are
simultaneously homographs and homophones – that is to say they have identical spelling
and pronunciation, whilst maintaining different meanings.

52. homophony: a homophone is a word that is pronounced the same as another word but
differs in meaning. e.g., raise and rays.

53. homograph: is a word that shares the same written form as another word but has a
different meaning. e.g., bear: a kind of animal or an action to carry.

54. polysemy: the capacity for a word or phrase to have multiple meanings, usually related
by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field.

55. antonymy: two forms with opposite meanings. gradable antonyms; non-gradable
antonyms.

56. reversives: the meaning of a word means doing the reversive process of another. e.g.,
pack and unpack.

57. collocation: collocation is a series of words or terms that co-occur more often than
would be expected by chance.
58. connotation: the additional meanings of a linguistic form that show people's attitude
and emotion.

59. denotation: the part of the meaning of a word or phrase that relates to phenomena in the
real world or in a fictional, possible world.

60. stylistics: the study of variation of language. The variation always depends on the
situation where the language is used and the effect the speaker or writer want to excert.

61. Foregrounding: this term is meant for what is unusual, attractive, unconventional,
salient. In literature, foregrounding is often achieved through unconventional
expressions which attract the readers’ attention. The main manifestation of
foregrounding are deviation and parallelism.

62. etymology: the study of the origin of the words, and the history and changes in form and
meaning.

63. referential theory: the theory which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to,
or stands for, is known as the referential theory.

64. congnitive semantics: congnitive semantics take the relationship of meaning and mind
as its centual concern.

65. logical semantics: Logical semantics is the study of meaning in formal and natural
languages using logic as an instrument.

66. proposition: a proposition is what is expressed by a declarative sentence when that

sentence is uttered to make a statement.

67. pragmatics: pragmatics is a subfield of linguistics that studies how context contributes to
meaning.

68. context: also called co-text, is the set of other words used in the same phrase or
sentence.

69. reference: an act used by a speaker or writer to use language to enable a listener or
reader to identity something.

70. deixis: in linguistics, deixis is the use of general words and phrases to refer to a specific
time, place, or person in context, and it cannot be interpreted unless the physical context
is known. e.g., the words tomorrow, there, and they.

71. endophora: refers to the phenomenon of expressions that derive their reference from
something within the surrounding text (endophors). Endophora can be broken into three
subcategories: cataphora, anaphora and self-reference.

72. exophora: In pragmatics, exophora is reference to something extralinguistic, i.e. not in

the same text, and contrasts with endophora.
 1 cataphora: is the use of an expression or word that co-refers with a later, more specific,
expression in the discourse. The preceding expression, whose meaning is determined or specified
by the later expression, may be called a cataphor. e.g., If you want them, there are cookies in the
kitchen.

2 anaphora: anaphora is the use of an expression that depends specifically upon an

antecedent expression and thus is contrasted with cataphora.

3 Self-reference occurs in natural or formal languages when a sentence, idea or formula

refers to itself. e.g., "this is a stentence"

73. homophora: a type of exophora, homophora relates to a generic phrase that obtains a
specific meaning through knowledge of its context; a specific example of homophora
can variably be a "homophor" or a "homophoric reference".

74. Generic antecedents: are representatives of classes, referred to in ordinary language by

another word (most often a pronoun), in a situation in which gender is typically
unknown or irrelevant.

75. presupposition: what a speaker assume is true or known by the hearer.

76. speech act: speech act is something expressed by an individual that not only presents
information, but performs an action as well. Speech acts serve their function once they
are said or communicated. According to Searle, various speech acts can be divided to
five types: representatives, directives, commissives, expressives, and declarations.

Speech act theory

77. locutionary act: the performance of the utterance.

78. illocutionary act: the act performed is known as illocutionary act. e.g., when somebody
ast that "is the any salt" in a restaurant, the illocutionary act is a request: "please give me
some salt".

79. perlocutionary act: the effect of an utterance to a listener.

80. performative utterances: sentences which not only describe a given reality, but also
change the social reality they are describing.

81. cooperative principle (CP): proposed by H.P.Grice, describes how listeners and
speakers act cooperatively and mutually accept one another to be understood in a
particular way to achieve effective conversational communication, as well how
conversational implicature is given rise to. Its maxims including quantity, quality,
relation, and manner.

82. Politeness principle (PP): proposed by Leech, describes why people do not say directly
what they mean. It can satisfactorily explain exceptions to and apparent deviations from
the CP.

83. Direct speech (DS): with the direct speech, what the character said is in its fullest form
 and with quotation marks.

84. Indirect speech (IS): the propositional content of what the speaker said is presented,
but it is not stated in the original words.

85. Narrator’s representation of speech acts (NRSA): we don’t know what the speaker
said, and all we know is that s/he used the speech act of doing something. It can be
regarded as a summary of a longer piece of discourse and give s more background
information than indirect speech. e.g. He thanked her many times.

86. Narrator’s representation of speech (NRS): it is a sentence which merely tells us that
speech occurred, and which does not even specify the speech act involved. e.g. We
talked for hours.

87. Free indirect speech (FIS): an amalgam of direct speech and indirect speech. Free
indirect speech can be described as a "technique of presenting a character's voice partly
mediated by the voice of the author". This effect is partially accomplished by eliding
direct speech attributions, such as "he said" or "she said".

88. Direct thought (DT): tends to be used for presenting conscious, deliberative thought.

89. Free indirect thought (FIT): it refers to a kind of thought presentation between DT and
IT. This effect is partially accomplished by eliding direct thought attributions, such as
“s/he thought.” This technique is frequent used by some modern psychological writers
such Faulkner and Woolf.

90. caretaker speech (motherese): Baby talk is a type of speech associated with an older
person speaking to a child. It is characterized by 1. simplified words or alternative forms,
which repeat simple sounds, for objects in the child's environment. 2. simple sentence
structure and 3. a lot of repetition.

91. overgeneralization: an inductive generalization based on insufficient evidence.

92. overextension: overextending the meaning of a word on the basis of similiarities of

shape, sound, and size, and to a lesser extent, of movement and texture.

93. Language acquisition: Language acquisition usually refers to first-language acquisition

or bilingual first language acquisition, which studies how infants' acquire the capacity to
perceive and comprehend language, as well as to produce and use words and sentences
to communicate.

94. The Behaviorist Approach: one of the two basic views about first language acquisition
that claims language is a learned behavior, learned by a process of habit-formation.
According to this approach, the language acquisition process of a child is “stimulus -
response - imitation - reinforcement,” and the internal linguistic knowledge is the direct
knowledge outcome of combing the linguistic events that the individual has observed.

95. The innateness hypothesis: one of the two basic views of first language acquisition
which claims that the ability to acquire a language is part of the biologically innate
equipment of the human being.
96. Cognition: the mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding
through thought, experience, and the senses.

97. Cognitive linguistics: Cognitive linguistics is an interdisciplinary branch of linguistics,

combining knowledge and research from cognitive science, cognitive psychology,
neuropsychology and linguistics, aiming at studying language as a mental phenomenon.

98. Psycholinguistics: Psycholinguistics is the study of the interrelation between linguistic

factors and psychological aspects. The discipline is mainly concerned with the
mechanisms by which language is acquired, used, comprehended, and produced in the
mind and brain.

99. Construal operations: the underlying psychological process and resources employed in
the interpretation of linguistic expressions. 识解操作

100. Government: In grammar and theoretical linguistics, government or rection refers to

the relationship between a word and its dependents.

101. Theoretical linguistics: like the related term general linguistics, refers to the branch of
linguistics which inquires into the nature of language and seeks to answer fundamental
questions as to what language is, or what the common ground of all languages is. The
goal of theoretical linguistics can also be the construction of a general theoretical
framework for the description of language.

102. Categorization: is the process of classifying our experiences into different categories
based on commonalities and differences. There are three levels in categories: the basic
level, the superordinate level, and the subordinate level.

103. Image schemas: a recurring, dynamic pattern of our perceptual interactions and motor
programs that gives coherence and structure to our experience.

104. Blending theory: blending is one cognitive operation by which the elements of two or
more mental spaces can be blended or integrated via projection or mapping into a new
space having a unique structure.

105. Minimal attachment principle: In psycholinguistics, the minimal attachment principle

is the theory that listeners and readers initially attempt to interpret sentences in terms of
the simplest syntactic structure consistent with the input that's known at the moment.

106. Garden-path: In psycholinguistics, a garden-path sentence is a sentence that is

temporarily ambiguous or confusing because it contains a word group which appears to
be compatible with more than one structural analysis. Also called a syntactic
garden-path sentence. https://www.thoughtco.com/garden-path-sentence-1690886

107. universal grammar: Universal grammar (UG): in modern linguistics, is the theory of
the genetic component of the language faculty, usually credited to Noam Chomsky.

108. Language acquisition device (LAD): The LAD concept, claimed by Noam Chomsky,
is a purported instinctive mental capacity which enables an infant to acquire and
produce language.
109. CPH (critical period hypothesis): The critical period hypothesis is the subject of a
long-standing debate in linguistics and language acquisition over the extent to which the
ability to acquire language is biologically linked to age.

110. stimulus-response theory: it is a learning theory which describes learning as a

formation of association between responses.

111. interlanguage: An interlanguage is an idiolect that has been developed by a learner of a

second language that is imperfect compared with the target language, but is not only
translation from the learner’s native language either. It is a dynamic language system
which is constantly moving from the departure level to the native-like level.

112. fossilization: if some learners develop a fairly fixed stage of L2 acquisition, containing
many features that do not match the target language, and they do not progress and
further, their language is said to have "fossilized".

113. Constructivism: the conception of language output as a way to promote language

acquisition. A constructivist view of language argues that language is socially
constructed, and learners learn language by cooperating, negotiating and performing all
kinds of tasks.

114. Syllabus: a specification of what will happen in the classroom, which usually contains
the aims and contents of teaching and sometimes contains suggestions of methodology.

115. Curriculum: it refers to the substance of a programme of studies of an educational

institution or system, e.g., the school curriculum; in a more restricted sense, it refers to
the course of study or content in a particular subject, e.g. mathematics curriculum. It is
concerned with making general statements about language learning, learning purpose,
and experience.

116. Structural syllabus: is oriented syllabus based on a selection of language items and
structures. The underlying assumption is that language is a system which consists of a
set of grammatical rules and learning language means learning these rules and then
applying them to practical use.

117. Situational syllabus: the aim of the situational syllabus is specifying the situations in
which the target language is used. The selection and organization or language items are
based on situations.

118. Communicative syllabus: aimed at the learner’s communicative competence. Based on

a notional-functional syllabus, it teaches the language needed to express and understand
different kinds of functions, and emphasizes the process of communication.

119. The task-based syllabus: consist of a list of specification of the tasks and activities that
the learners will engage in the class in the target language.

120. creative construction: the most general way to apply grammar.

121. transfer: language transfer (语言迁移，positive and negative): Language transfer is the
application of linguistic features from one language to another by a bilingual or
 multilingual speaker, including positive/negative transfer.

122. negotiated input: the learner can acquire in interaction through requests for clarification
and active attention being focused on what is said.

123. applied linguistics: broadly speaking, applied linguistics is an interdisciplinary field

which identifies, investigates, and offers solutions to language-related real-life problems.
Some of the academic fields related to applied linguistics are education, psychology,
communication research, anthropology, and sociology. Narrowly speaking, applied
linguistics refers to the study of second and foreign language teaching and learning.

124. Srandard English: in an English-speaking country, Standard English (SE) is the variety
of English that has undergone substantial regularisation and is associated with formal
schooling, language assessment, and official print publications, such as public service
announcements and newspapers of record, etc.

125. accent: an accent is a manner of pronunciation peculiar to a particular individual,

location, or nation. An accent may be identified with the locality in which its speakers
reside (a regional or geographical accent), the socioeconomic status of its speakers, their
ethnicity, their caste or social class (a social accent), or influence from their first
language (a foreign accent).

126. dialect: describes features of grammar and vocabulary, as well as the aspects of
pronunciation.

127. isogloss(同言线): an isogloss, also called a heterogloss, is the geographic boundary of a

certain linguistic feature, such as the pronunciation of a vowel, the meaning of a word,
or the use of some morphological or syntactic feature.

128. language boundary: language border or language boundary is the line separating two
language areas.

129. dialect continuum: or dialect chain is a spread of language varieties spoken across some
geographical area such that neighboring varieties differ only slightly, but the differences
accumulate over distance so that widely separated varieties may not be mutually
intelligible.

130. multilingualism: is the use of more than one language, either by an individual speaker or
by a group of speakers.

131. diglossia: is a situation in which two languages or language varieties are used by a
single language community, and each one is used for different purpose. Usually, the
more standard variety can be called the high variety of H-variety, which is used in
government, the media, education, religious services, etc. The other one is the low
variety, or the L-variety used in the family, with friends, etc.

132. Language planning (also known as language engineering) is a deliberate effort to

influence the function, structure or acquisition of languages or language varieties within
a speech community.
 133. register: specific lexical and grammatical choices as made by speakers depending on
the field, tenor, and mode of discourse.

1) field of discourse: the total event, in which the text is functioning, together with the
purposive activity of the speaker or writer; it thus includes the subject-matter as one element
in it.

2) mode of discourse: the function of the text in the event, including therefore both the channel
taken by the language – spoken or written, extempore or prepared – and its [genre], or
rhetorical mode, as narrative, didactic, persuasive, ‘phatic communion’ and so on.

3) tenor of discourse: describes the people that take part in an event as well as their
relationships and statuses.

134. juncture, in linguistics, is the manner of moving (transition) between two successive
syllables in speech.

135. idiom: an expression which functions as a single unit and whose meaning cannot be
worked out from its separate parts. e.g., he washed his hands of the matter.

136. allophone: Allophones are the different members of a phoneme, sounds which are
phonetically different but do not make a word different from another in meaning.

137. semantic features: represent the basic conceptual components of meaning for any lexical
item

138. semantic roles, also called thematic relations, are the various roles that a noun phrase
may play with respect to the action or state described by a governing verb, commonly
the sentence's main verb.

139. agent; theme; instrument: the entity that takes action is agent, and the entity which is
involved in the action is theme. If an agent use another entity to perform the action, that
other entity is called instrument.

140. experiencer, location, source, goal: when a noun phrase desinages a person who has a
feeling, state, or perception, it fills the role of experiencer.

141. phonetic recurrence: the systematic repetition of words and phrases at the beginning of
the line, in the middle or at the end.

142. Root: A root (or root word) is the core of a word that is irreducible into more
meaningful elements. In morphology, a root is a morphologically simple unit which can
be left bare or to which a prefix or a suffix can attach.

143. Stem: In linguistics, a stem is a part of a word responsible for its lexical meaning, i.e. a
word minus all its inflectional morphemes.

144. Linguistic variable: refers to language features with variations that are referentially
identical but carry social and stylistic meaning. This could include phonological, as well
as morphological and syntactic phenomena.
145. Diaphoneme: is an abstract phonological unit that identifies a correspondence between
related sounds of two or more varieties of a language or language cluster. For example,
some English varieties contrast the vowel of “late” with that of “wait” or “eight”.

146. Presupposition: a presupposition (or PSP) is an implicit assumption about the world or
background belief relating to an utterance whose truth is taken for granted in discourse.

147. Concatenation: concatenation is the operation of joining character strings end-to-end,

without any intervening space. For example, the concatenation of "snow" and "ball" is
"snowball".

148. Cognitive semantics: cognitive semantics holds that language is part of a more general
human cognitive ability, and can therefore only describe the world as people conceive of
it. It is implicit that different linguistic communities conceive of simple things and
processes in the world differently (different cultures), not necessarily some difference
between a person's conceptual world and the real world (wrong beliefs).

149. Linguistic community: a group of people who share not only the same rules of
speaking, but at least one linguistic variety as well.

150. Cross cultural communication or intercultural communication: an exchange of ideas,

information, etc, between persons from different cultural backgrounds. The cultural
conventions of the participants may widely different, and misinterpretation and
misunderstanding can easily arise, even leading to a total communication breakdown.

151. pidgin language: is a grammatically simplified means of communication that develops

between two or more groups that do not have a language in common: typically, its
vocabulary and grammar are limited and often drawn from several languages.

152. creole language: /ˈkriːəʊl/ when a Pidgin develops beyond its role as a trade language
and becomes the first language of a social community, it is described as a Creole.
(differs from Pidgin: the creole language has its native speaker and is not restricted at all
in use.)

153. post-creole continuum: is a dialect continuum of varieties of a creole language between

those most and least similar to the superstrate language (that is, a closely related
language whose speakers assert or asserted dominance of some sort).

154. Sapir-Whorf hypothesis: Sapir-Whorf suggests, that our language helps mould our
way of thinking and consequently, different languages may probably express their
unique ways of understanding the world. The hypothesis consists two parts: linguistic
determinism and linguistic relativity. The former refers to the notion that the language
can determine or influence (strong or weak version of the hypothesis) the non-linguistic
cognitive process, and the latter refers to that the similarity between language is relative,
the greater their structural differentiation is, the more diverse their conceptualization of
the world is.

155. Conversational maxim: a conversational maxim is any of four rules which were
proposed by Grice, stating that a speaker is assumed to make a contribution that follows
 the four maxims of quantity, quality, relevance, and manner.

156. Blog: the short form of weblog, an online journal comprised of links and postings in
reverse chronological order, meaning the most recent posting appears at the page.

157. Communicative competence: a theory about language teaching which in opposition to

the traditional philosophy of grammar training, suggesting language instructors have
begun to pay more attention to the question of how to train their students as active and
successful language users in a real language context.

158. Language taboos: taboo is a term that is avoided for religious, political, or sexual
reasons and is usually replaced by a euphemism, e.g. rest room or bathroom for toilet.

159. Euphemism: refers to the use of a word which is thought toe be less offensive or
unpleasant than another word.

160. Slang: very informal words and expressions that are more common in spoken language,
especially used by a particular group of people, for example, children, criminals,
soldiers, etc.

161. Schema-oriented language: different participants in the same situation will have
different schemas, related to their different viewpoints. Schema-oriented language refers
to the languages used when taking schema as its initial consideration. For example, the
success of a shop-keeper will depend in part on their being able to take into account the
schemas and points of view of the customers.

162. CAI: Computer-assisted instruction means the use of a computer in a teaching program.
This includes: a. A teaching program which is presented by a computer in a sequence.
The student responds on the computer, and the computer indicates whether the responses
are correct or incorrect. b. computer managed instruction, namely the use of computers
to monitor student progress, to direct students into appropriate lessons, material, etc.

163. CAL: CAL is short for Computer-assisted Learning. It emphasizes the use of a
computer in both teaching and learning in order to help the learners to achieve
educational objectives through their own reasoning and practice. It is a reflection of
newly advocated autonomous learning.

164. CALL: It is the abbreviation of computer-assisted language learning, which refers to the
use of a computer in the teaching or learning of a second or foreign language. In this
kind of CALL programs, the computer leads the student through a learning task
step-by-step, asking question to check comprehension. Depending on the student's
response, the computer gives the student further practice or progresses to new material.

165. Corpus: is a large collection of texts, spoken or written, typically stored as a database in
a computer.

166. Corpus linguistics: Corpus linguistics is the study of a language as that language is
expressed in its text corpus, its body of “real world” text. Corpus linguistics proposes
that a reliable analysis of a language is more feasible with a corpora collected in the
field — the natural context ("realia") of that language — with minimal experimental
 interference.

167. Concordance: a concordance is a listing of each occurrence of a word (or phrase) in a

corpus, along with the words surrounding it. The word being studied is described as the
“key word in context.”

168. MOOC: Massive Open Online Course is an online course aimed at unlimited
participation and open access via the web. In addition to traditional course material such
as filmed lectures, readings, and problem sets, many MOOCs provide interactive user
forums to support community interactions among students, professors, and teaching
assistants.

169. Emoticon: a sequence of ordinary characters you can find on your computer keyboard.
Emoticons are used in various forms of communication using computers. The most
popular emoticons are the smiling faces (smileys or smilies) that people use to say
“don’t take what I just say too seriously.”

170. Contrastive analysis: aims to compare languages (e.g., L1 and L2) in order to
determine potential errors for the ultimate purpose of isolating what needs to be learned
and what does not need to be learned in a second language learning situation.

171. Error analysis: a method used in foreign language learning by analyzing errors made
by the learner. The occurrence of errors doesn't only indicate that the learner has not
learned something yet, but also it gives the linguist the idea of whether the teaching
method applied was effective or it needs to be changed.

172. Overgeneralization: the learner applies a rule in a situation where the rule does not
apply.

173. Face validity: unlike the other three forms of validity, face validity is based on the
subjective judgement of an observer. If the test appears to be measuring what it intends
to measure, the test is considered to have face validity.

174. Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP): is a theory of linguistic analysis which refers
to an analysis of utterances (or texts) in terms of the information they contain. The
principle is that the role of each utterance is evaluated for its semantic contribution to
the whole.

175. Communicative Dynamism (CD): In linguistics, Communicative Dynamism (CD) is

one of the key notions of the theory of Functional Sentence Perspective. it is canonically
described as “a phenomenon constantly displayed by linguistic elements in the act of
communication. It is an inherent quality of communication and manifests itself in
constant development towards the attainment of a communicative goal; in other words,
towards the fulfilment of a communicative purpose.”

176. The London School: The London school of linguistics refers to the linguistic
scholarship in England. J.R.Firth turned linguistics proper into a recognized distinct
academic subject in Britain. Firth, under the influence of the anthropologist Malinowski,
influenced his student Halliday. They all emphasized the importance of context of
 situation and the system aspect of language. Thus, London School is also known as
systemic linguistics and functional linguistics.

177. Systemic grammar: system is a list of choices that are available in the grammar of a
language, and systemic grammar aims to explain the internal relations in language as a
system network, or meaning potential, and this network consists of subsystems from
which language users make choices.

178. Functional grammar: functional grammar aims to reveal that language is a means of
social interaction, based on the position that language system and the form that make it
up are inescapably determined by the use of functions which they serve.

179. Meta-functions: languages vary in how and what they do, and what humans do with
them in the contexts of human cultural practice, all languages are considered to be
shaped and organised in relation to three functions, or metafunctions. Michael Halliday,
the founder of systemic functional linguistics, calls these three functions
the ideational, interpersonal, and textual. The ideational function is further divided into
the experiential and logical.

(1) Ideational function: the ideational function is language concerned with conveying new
information, to communicate a content that is unknown to the hearer. It includes the
experiential function and the logical function.

(2) Interpersonal function: the interpersonal function refers to the grammatical choices that
enable speakers to enact their complex and diverse interpersonal relations. It can be realized
by mood and modality.

a. Mood indicates what role the speaker selects in the speech situation and what role s/he
assigns to the addressee. Mood is made up of two parts: the “Subject” and the “Finite”
element. The subject can be a noun, a noun phrase, or a clause. Finite elements are tense
morphemes, auxiliary verbs and modal verbs that express tense or modality, and they are part
of the verb phrase.

b. Modality specifies if the speaker is expressing his judgement of making a prediction.

(3) Textual function: the term encompasses all of the grammatical systems responsible for
managing the flow of discourse. These systems “create coherent text – text that coheres
within itself and with the context of situation.”

180. Appliable linguistics: Appliable linguistics is an approach to language that takes

everyday real-life language-related problems both theoretical and practical in diverse
social, professional and academic contexts as a starting point and then develops and
contributes to a theoretical model of language that can respond to and is appliable in the
context.

181. American Structuralism：American structuralism is a branch of Synchronic Linguistics

that emerged independently in the United States at the beginning of the 20th century. It is
based on the assumption that grammatical categories should be defined not in terms of
meaning but in distribution, and that the structure of each language should be categories
 as tense, mood, and parts of speech.

182. Generative grammar: the set of language rules that indicates the structure and
interpretation of sentences that native speakers of a language accept as belonging to
their language.

183. Transformational-Generative Grammar (TG-Grammar): is part of the theory

of generative grammar, especially of natural languages. It considers grammar to be a
system of rules that generate exactly those combinations of words that form grammatical
sentences in a given language and involves the use of defined operations
(called transformations) to produce new sentences from existing ones. The method is
commonly associated with American linguist Noam Chomsky.

184. Innateness Hypothesis: The innateness hypothesis is an expression that refer to a

linguistic theory of language acquisition, holding that at least some knowledge about
language exists in humans at birth. (relating to Language acquisition device and
universal grammar.)

185. Saussure: Ferdinand de Saussure was a Swiss linguist. His ideas laid a foundation for
many significant developments in both linguistics and semiotics in the 20th century. He
is widely considered one of the founders of 20th-century linguistics and “the father of
modern linguitics”.

1) The book Course in General Linguistics, which is the most important source of Saussure’s
ideas, marked the beginning of modern linguistics.

2) According to Saussure, language is a system of signs which uses sounds to express and
exchange ideas. Systemic functional linguistics is a theory considered to be based firmly on
the Saussurean principles of the sign.

3) Saussure made clear the object of study for linguistics as a science by providing answers to
questions concerning many aspects of language.

4) He also identified several groups of important concepts: signifier and signified, langue and
parole, synchronic and diachronic research, etc.

186. Prague School: is a language and literature society. The school has three points of
special importance: A. It stresses that the synchronic study of language is fully justified
as it can draw on complete and controllable material for investigation. B. It emphasizes
the systemic character of language, arguing that no element of any language can be
satisfactory analyzed or evaluated if viewed in isolation. In other words, elements are
held to be in functional contrast of opposition. C. It looks on language as a tool
performing a number of essential functions or tasks for the community using it.

星火错题：

187. Recreational function: the recreational function refers to the use of language for the
sheer joy of using it, such as a baby’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting.
 188. Conventionality: As a result of languages' arbitrariness and their reliance on cultural
conventions, different languages naturally have different conventions, which is part of
the reason that there are different languages in the first place.

189. linguistic potential: Halliday thinks that with language, there is a wide range of things a
speaker can do in the culture he is in. The set of possibility for “doing” is termed
linguistic potential from a functional language’s view.

190. Historical linguistics: also termed diachronic linguistics, is the scientific study
of language change over time.

191. phonetic medium: the range of sounds which is meaningful in human communication
constitutes the phonetic medium of language.

192. Metathesis: (assimilation, dissimilation, metathesis): the transposition of two sounds or

letters in a word

193. distinctive feature: the distinctive feature refers to a property which distinguishes one
phoneme from another. For example, “voicing” is a distinctive feature, since it plays an
important role in distinguishing obstruents in English.

194. Loanshift: a change in the meaning of a word under the influence of another language.

195. Connotation: connotation is the use of a word to suggest a different association than its
literal meaning, which is known as denotation.

196. Loanblend: a word some of whose constituents are native and others of foreign origin.

197. NP movement: none phrase movement, relative to two constructions, i.e. passive
sentence and raising construction.

198. Phrasal movement: occurs when the head of a phrase moves together with all its
dependents in such a manner that the entire phrase moves. Most of the examples above
involve phrasal movement.

199. Head movement: Head movement, in contrast, occurs when just the head of a phrase
moves, and the head leaves behind its dependents. e.g.Has someone ___ read the article?

200. Clause: A clause is a group of words that contains both a subject and a predicate (or a
verb). There are two types of clauses

1 Independent Clauses are complete sentences. They can stand alone and express a
complete thought.

2 Dependent Clauses contain a subject and a predicate, but they do not express a complete
thought.

201. coordination rules: X → X*Con X. X stands for “a category at any structural level”,
indicating that either an X or an XP can be coordinated. *indicates that one or more
categories can occur to the left of the Con (conjunction). this rule served to explain
coordinate structures.
202. Embedding: it refers to the means by which one clause is included in the sentence
(main clause) in syntactic subordination.

203. Move-α rule: it is a general movement rule which accounts for the syntactic behavior of
any constituent movement.

204. Theme and rheme: The Theme is what the message is concerned with: the point of
departure for what the speaker is going to say; and the rheme is everything else that
follows in the sentence which consists of what the speaker states about, or in regard to,
the starting point of the utterance.

205. transformational generative grammar