Abhyasa Deepika Biology-1

BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE
Class 10
BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE
Class 10
ABHYASA DEEPIKA
State Council of Educational Research and Training, Government of Telangana

Telangana, Hyderabad.
BIOLOGY
CLASS - 10
ABHYASA DEEPIKA
STATE COUNCIL OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH & TRAINING

(i)
FOREWORD
With an objective to cater the needs of students appearing for SSC Public
Examinations, a comprehensive learning material for class 10th students has been
developed. This Enrichment Material (Abhyasa Deepika) facilitates effective transaction
of key concepts in non-language subjects, which helps the students easily understand all
the key concepts through self learning.
The study material is prepared in a concise and simplified manner and it provides
an easy means through self study and strengthens the knowledge of the concepts gained.
The biology syllabus of 10th class has 10 units. The key concepts in each unit are
dealt with using pictures, experiments, tables, real life applicationsetc., under their specific
headings. A variety of practice questions are given to facilitate self assessment.
The State Council of Educational Research and Training, Telangana extends its special
thanks to Smt. P.Sabitha Indra Reddy, Hon’ble Minister for Education;
Smt. Vakati Karuna, Secretary to Government, Education Department, Telangana;
Smt. A.Sridevasena, Director of School Education for their valuable guidance and support
in developing the enrichment material to students.
Further, SCERT expresses profound thanks to Faculty of SCERT, subject experts

team, Computers Operators and other Technical team for their commendable work in
designing and developing the material.
The teachers should go through the material thoroughly and guide the students
accordingly. Students should follow the guidelines of teachers for good results.
January, 2023 M. Radha Reddy
Hyderabad. Director, SCERT,

Telangana
(ii)
INDEX
Chapter Page
Name of the Chapter
No. No.
1 Nutrition 1
21 Respiration 11
31 Transportation 20
41 Excretion 28
51 Control and Coordination 35
61 Reproduction 44
71 Coordination in Life Process 55
81 Heredity and Evolution 63
91 Our Environment 71
10 1 Natural Resources 80
(iii)
INSTRUCTIONS TO TEACHERS
• Focus on all the chapters.
• Provide ample practice on the questions given in Abhyasa Deepika.
• Provide ample practice on Multiple Choice Questions.
• Focus on Experiments, Analysis of Tables, Daily Life Applications.
• Provide practice on the diagrams and lables of the diagram given in Abhyasa
Deepika.
• Correlate with Text Book in case of doubts.
• Efforts should be made to make use of the learning material to the maximum
extent for better result.
INSTRUCTIONS TO STUDENTS
• Understand the concepts lesson-wise to answer various types of questions

in the public examinations.
• Correlate with text books in case of any doubts in the reading material and
approach your teachers.
• Good practice of the learning material helps you to achieve best results.
(iv)
CHAPTER
1 Nutrition
The process of obtaining food by the living organisms for growth and to perform
metabolic activities is known as nutrition. The method of acquiring food varies from
organism to organism. In single celled organisms, like amoeba the food may be taken in by
pseudopodia. In Paramoecium food is taken in at a specific spot called cytostome.
Modes of Nutrition: Autotrophic nutrition, Heterotrophic nutrition (Saprophytic nutrition
and Parasitic nutrition).
Autotrophic Nutrition
Some living organisms make their own food using simple substances which they get
from their environment. This type of nutrition is called autotropic nutrition. The organisms
that exhibit this type of nutrition are called autotrophs. Ex: Green Plants.
Heterotrophic Nutrition
Some organisms depend upon other organisms for food. This type of nutrition is
called Heterotropic nutrition. The organisms that exhibit this type of nutrition are called
heterotrophs. Ex: animals, fungi, some bacteria. It is of two types.
i. Saprophytic Nutrition:
Some organisms breakdown the dead and decaying organic matter out-side the body
and then absorb it. This type of nutrition is called saprophytic nutrition. The organisams
that exhibit this type of nutrition are called Saprophytes. Ex: bread mould, yeast, mushrooms
ii. Parasitic Nutrition:
Some living organisams depand on host (plants or animals) for obtaining food without
killing them. This type of nutrition is called parasitic nutrition. The organisams exhibit this
type of nutrition is called parasites. Ex. Cuscuta
Photosynthesis
Factors essential for photosynthesis: Carbon dioxide, water, chlorophyll and sunlight
End products of photosynthesis: Carbohydrates, oxygen and water
Plants absorb carbon dioxide from atmosphere, water from soil and synthesize
Carbohydrates in the presence of sunlight with the help of chlorophyll. This process is
called Photosynthesis.
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Balanced Chemical equation of Photosynthesis:
light
6CO2 + 12H2O X C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 6O2
Chlorophyll
(Carbondioxide) (water) (Glucose) (water) (oxygen)
Presence of starch in leaves:

Aim: To test the presence of starch in leaves.
beaker
water
leaf iodine solution
methylated spirit
boiling tube
petridish
iron mesh
tripod stand
bunsen burner
Boiling the leaf Iodine test

in methylated spirit
Apparatus: beaker, test tube, bunsen burner, tripod stand, water, methylated spirit, iodine
solution.
Procedure: Collect a leaf from a plant well exposed to sunlight. Take methylated spirit in
a test tube and put the leaf in it. Boil this tube in a water bath. Leaf looses chlorophyll and
becomes pale. Take the leaf carefully from test tube by using a brush spread the leaf in
petridish and add few drops of iodine solution on it.
Observation: The leaf turns into bluish-black colour.
Result Confirmation: During photosynthesis leaves synthesize carbohydrates which are
stored in the form of starch.
CO2 is necessary for photosynthesis:
Aim: To prove that CO2 is necessary for split cork
photosynthesis (Mohl's half leaf
experiment) potted plant
wide mouthed
Apparatus: Wide mouthed transparent bottle
bottle, Potassium hydroxide solution, KOH
splitted cork, potted plant, Iodine solution
and Vaseline. Mohl’s half leaf experiment
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Procedure: Arrange the apparatus as shown in the figure. Insert one of the leaf of
destarched plant through a split cork into bottle containing potassium hydroxide solution.
Apply Vaseline around the cork. Leave the plant in sunlight. After a few hours, detach
and test this leaf with Iodine.
Observation: The leaf part which was exposed to the atmospheric air and light turns
Bluish-black but the leaf part inside the bottle doesnot turn Bluish-black.
Result confirmation: This proves that carbon dioxide is necessary for photosynthesis.
Potassium hydroxide absorbs carbon dioxide in the bottle.
Precautions: Keep away the leaf from KOH. Don't allow air in to bottle.
Oxygen is evolved during photosynthesis in the presence of light:

Aim: To prove that Oxygen is evolved in Photosynthesis.
oxygen
Apparatus: Hydrilla plant, glass funnel, beaker , water,
bubbles
test tube, match stick or incense stick.
Procedure: Arrange the apparatus as shown in the
test tube
figure. Place a plant like Hydrilla in glass funnel and
keep in a beaker containing water. Invert a test tube beaker
filled with water over the stem of the funnel. Ensure water
that the level of the water in the beaker is above the funnel
level of stem of the inverted funnel. Keep the apparatus Hydrilla plant
in the sunlight at least for 2- 4 hours.

Observation: After some time it is observed that gas Hydrilla experiment
bubbles will be released from the Hydrilla plant. These bubbles are collected at the end
of the test tube pushing the water into the beaker. After sufficient gas is collected in the
test tube, it is taken out of the beaker carefully by closing it with thumb
Result confirmation: Test the gas by inserting a glowing match stick or incense stick
which would burst into flames. This proves that Oxygen is evolved in Photosynthesis.
Precautions: Collect the test tube and take out of the beaker carefully by closing it with
thumb.
Sunlight is necessory for photosynthesis

Aim: To prove that sunlight is necessary for photosynthesis.
Appartus: Potted plant, beaker, test tube, bunsen burner, tripod stand, water,
methylated spirit, iodine solution, black paper.
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Black paper experiment
Procedure : Take a potted plant and keep in dark place for two to three days. Leaves
get destrached. Select one leaf and cover a portion of it with black paper.
Place this potted plant in sunlight. After few hours pluck the leaf and take
out the black paper from it. Now do the iodine test to the leaf.
Observation: The portion of the leaf exposed to sunligh turns bluish black colour, the
portion covered with black paper remains pale in colour.
Result confirmation: It proves that sunlight is necesssary for photosynthesis.
Structure of the Chloroplast:

Chloroplasts are an important cell membrane stroma thylakoid
organelles which carry photosynthesis stroma
found exclusively in plant cells.

} granum
Chloroplast is a three membraneous
structure. Outer two layers form envelops
grana thylakoid
and the third layer forms stacked sac like
structures called grana. Thylakoids are T-S of chloroplast
present in Grana. Chlorophyll pigments are present in thylakoid. Chlorophyll is site for
trapping of solar energy. The intermediary fluid filled portion is called stroma it is
responsible for enzymatic reactions, leading to the synthesis of glucose. Chlorophyll
contains one atom of magnesium.
Mechanism of Photosynthesis:
Photosynthesis is an oxidation-reduction reaction. A series of chemical reactions
occur in two stages in the chloroplast in a very quick succession initiated by sun light.
1. Light phase
2. Dark phase
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I. Light phase (Light dependent reaction Photochemical Phase):
In this phase light plays a key role. During this phase light energy is converted into
chemical energy and it takes place in grana of the chloroplast. It occurs only in the
presence of sunlight. The chlorophyll on exposure to light energy becomes activated by
absorbing photons.
Hills reaction:
The chlorophyll on exposure to light energy becomes activated by absorbing photons
splits the water molecules into hydrogen (H+), hydroxyl (OH-) ions. This reaction is known
as Photolysis of water. This was discovered by Robert Hill; hence it is called as Hill's
reaction. The highly reactive OH- ions undergo quick change as H2O and O2 are produced
in a series of steps. ATP and NADPH as an end products in light reaction.
Dark phase (Light independent reaction /Biosynthetic phase):

Biosynthetic phase does not require the direct sunlight. This process takes place in
stroma of chloroplast. ATP and NADPH are utilised to produce glucose in this process.
Glucose is the end product of the Dark reaction. This synthesis occurs in a number of steps
using certain special intermediate compounds and enzymes. Finally glucose may be
converted into storage product starch.
Digestion in Human beings:

We eat different types of food which will pass through the alimentary canal will be
digested and absorbed into blood. Undigested materials will be excreted. In this digestive
track food is broken up physically by the action of the teeth, and chemically, by the action
of enzymes. Then the food is converted into a substance suitable for absorption and
assimilation into the body. This process is called digestion.
Parts of alimentary canal:
The alimentary canal has different parts like mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small
intestine, large intestine, rectum and anus.
Mouth:
Food is cut and crushed by our teeth in the mouth and mixed with saliva to make it wet
and slippery called bolus.
Oesophagus:
Oesophagus shows peristaltic movement while food (bolus) moves through it. In this
part no changes occurs in the food.
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Stomach:
In stomach food gets churned with gastric juice and HCL. Now the food is in
semisolid state and is called chyme. Here in the stomach the ring like muscles called
pyloric sphincter relaxes to open the passage into the small intestine. Now the food
material passes from the stomach into small intestine.
Small intestine:
The small intestine is the longest part of the alimentary canal. It is the site for further
digestion. It receives the secretions of liver and pancreas. Internally intestinal wall has
number of finger like projections called microvilli. They increase the surface area for
absorption. The passage of digested food through the walls of intestine into circulatory
system is called absorption. Undigested food passes into the large intestine.
Large intestine:
The undigested food materials move through the large intestine. Excess water present
in the undigested food is absorbed as a result faeces is formed, and it is expelled out through
anus.
Digestive glands - Enzymes:
Enzymes Glands Digestive juice Acts on
Ptyalin (salivary amylase) Salivary glands Saliva Carbohydrates
Pepsin Stomach Peptones Gastric glands Gastric juice Proteins
Bile (No enzymes) Liver Pancreatic juice Fats
Amylase Pancreas Pancreatic juice Carbohydrates
Trypsin Panereas Pancreatic juice Proteins
Lipase Pancreas Pancreatic juice Fats
Peptidases Intestinal glands Intestinal juice Peptides
Sucrase Intestinal glands Intestinal juice Sucrose
Digestive glands play an important role in the digestion process. Glands such as
Salivary, gastric, liver, pancreas and intestinal glands are present in humans. They secret
enzymes and digest carbohydrates, proteins and fats present in food later they are absorbed
into blood. In the stomach HCl changes the food into acidic and kills bacteria in it.
Balanced food:
A diet which contains proper amount of carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins and
minerals is called as balanced food.
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Malnutrition:
Eating of food that does not have one or more than one nutrients in required amount
is known as malnutrition. Poor health, will full starvation, lack of awareness of nutritional
habits, socio-economic factors are the reasons for malnutrition in our country.
Malnutrition - types:
Malnutrition is of three types such as 1. Protein Malnutrition 2. Calorie Malnutrition
3. Protein-calorie Malnutrition.
Diseases due to malnutrition:
Kwashiorkor disease:
Kwashiorkor disease is caused due to protein deficiency in diet.
Body parts become swollen due to accumulation of water in the
intercellular spaces, very poor muscle development, swollen legs,
fluffy face, difficult to eat, dry skin, diarrhoea are the symptoms of the
disease. Kwashiorkor
Marasmus disease:
Marasmus is caused due to deficiency of both proteins and
calories. Generally this disease occurs when there is an immediate
second pregnancy or repeated child births. Lean and weak, less
developed muscles, dry skin, diarrhoea, etc., are the symptoms of this
disease Marasmus
Obesity:
Obesity is due to over eating and excess of calories intake. It is
a big health hazard. Obese children when grow, they will be target of
many diseases like diabetes, cardiovascular, renal, gall bladder
problems. Junk foods and unhealthy food habits lead to obesity. Obesity
Vitamins- Types:
Vitamins are micronutrients required in small quantities. Vitamins are classified into two
groups based on their solubility. They are
1. Water soluble vitamins (B-complex vitamins and Vitamin C )
2. Fat soluble vitamins (Vitamins A, D, E, and K).
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Vitamins and their Deficiency Diseases:
Chemical Deficiency
Vitamin Symptoms
Name diseases
Vitamin-B1 Thiamin Beri beri Vomitings, fits, loss of appetite.
Vitamin-B2 Riboflavin Glossitis Mouth cracks at corners, red and

sore tongue.
Water Soluble Vitamins
Vitamin-B3 Niacin Pellagra Dermatitis, diarrhoea.
Vitamin-B6 Pyridoxine Anaemia Nausea, vomiting, fits.
Vitamin-B12 Cyanocobalamin Pernicious anaemia Lean and weak, less appetite.
Folic acid Folic acid Anaemia Diarrhoea, loss of leucocytes.
Pantothenic acid Pantothenic acid Burning feet Walking problems, sprain.
Biotin Biotin Nerves disorders Fatigue, mental depression.
Vitamin-C Ascorbic acid Scurvy Delay in healing of wounds,

fractures in bones.
Vitamin-A Retinol Eye, skin diseases Night blindness, xerophthalmia.

Fat Soluble Vitamins
Vitamin-D Calciferol Rickets Knock-knees, swollen wrists,

(sunshine vitamin) weak bones.
Vitamin-E Tocoferol Fertility related Sterility in males, abortions in

disorders females.
Vitamin-K Phylloquinone problems related to Delay in blood clotting

Blood clotting
Resources of Vitamins:
♦ B-Complex Vitamins: Cereals, Vegetables, Milk, Meat, Egs, Kidney, Lever.
(Vitamin-B-12 is Synthesised by bacteria present in the intetine)
♦ Vitamins-C: Fruits likes Citrus, Oranges, Guava, Leafy Vegetable, Sprouts
♦ Vitamins-A: Carrot, Pumpkin, Papaya, Mango
♦ Vitamins-D: Shark liver oil, Cod liver oil, Sun rays stimulates the formation of
Vitamin D from the sub-cutaneous fat.
♦ Vitamins-E: Fruits, Vegetables, Sprouts, Sun flower oil.
♦ Vitamins-K: Green leafy vegetables, Milk, Meat, Egg.
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Practice Questions
k Very Short Answer Questions:
1. What is autotrophic nutrition. Give two examples.
2. Name the enzyme secreted in the mouth and mention which food component it acts on.
3. Write the functions of Small intestine and Large intestine.
4. Write the factors of Photosynthesis with the help of chemical equation.
5. Mention the sites of Light dependent phase and Light independent phase in the
chloroplast?
6. Write the End products of Photosynthesis.
7. What would happen, if Photosynthesis does not takes place in plants?
8. What food do you suggest to your friend, who is suffering with Obesity?
k Short Answer Questions:
1. Write the differences between the autotrophs and heterotrophs with examples.
2. Explain the role of digestive enzymes in the digestion of food.
3. Write the reasons for malnutrition and explain about any 2 types of malnutritional
diseases.
4. Observe the following table and answer the question given below.
Calciferol (D) Rickets butter, cod liver oil, shark liver oil, sun rays
(Sunshine vitamin)
Retinol (A) Eye, Skin Leafy vegetables, carrot, Tomato, pumpkin,

diseases papaya, mango, meat, fish, egg, liver, milk,
cod liver oil, shark liver oil
Ascorbic acid (C) Scurvy Green leafy vegetables, citrus fruits, sprouts.
Tocoferol (E) Fertility related Fruits, vegetables, sprouts, sunflower oil.
disorders
i) Write the names of any two vitamin from the above table?
ii) Which food should we take to prevent eye related diseases?
iii) Which diseases can we prevent by taking Fruits, vegetables, sprouts and sun-
flower oil?
k Essay Type Questions:
1. Explain the structure of a chloroplast with the help of a diagram.
2. Write the procedure and precautions of the experiment to prove CO2 is necessary for
photosynthesis.
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3. Explain about the experiment done in your school to prove that Oxygen is evolved
in Photosynthesis. Mention the precautions you have taken while conducting this
experiment.
4. Draw a labelled diagram fo Human digestive system and explain.
k Multiple Choice questions:
1. The digestive juice without enzymes ( )
A) Pancreatic juice B) Bile juice C) Gastric juice D) Intestinal juice
2. The vitamin that helps for Blood coagulation ( )
A) Retinol B) Calciferol C) Phylloquinone D) Tocoferol
3. Choose the correct statement related to an experiment which proves that CO2 is
necessary for photosynthesis. ( )
A) Potassium hydroxide releases carbon dioxide
B) Potassium hydroxide absorbs water
C) Potassium hydroxide absorbs light
D) Potassium hydroxide absorbs carbon dioxide
4. The release of O2 from water molecule in the presence of sunlight by activated
chlorophyll was denoted by ( )
A) Hill's reaction B) Electrolysis C) Photolysis D) A and C
5. Choose the incorrect pair ( )
A) Calciferol - Rickets B) Pyridoxine - Anaemia
C) Thiamin - Beri beri D) Niacin - Glossitis
6. Choose the odd one regarding enzymes ( )
A) Gastric juice B) Bile C) Pancreatic juice D) Intestinal juice
7. Arrange the parts of human digestive system in the sequential order ( )
i) Buccal cavity ii) Duodenum iii) Large intestine iv) Stomach
v) Small intestine vi) Pharynx vii) Oesophagus
A) i, ii, iii, iv, v, vi, vii B) vii, vi, v, iv, iii, ii, i
C) i, vi, vii, iv, ii, v, iii D) i, vii, vi, iv, ii, v, iii
8. Identify the disease the boy shown in the picture is suffering from ( )
A) Kwashiorkor B) Marasmus
C) Obesity D) Pellagra
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CHAPTER
2 Respiration
Food provides energy for all the biological activities only after breaking down through
the process known as respiration. The term 'respiration' is derived from Latin word 'respire'
meaning 'to breathe', refers to the whole chain of processes from the inhalation of air to
the use of oxygen in the cells. By the oxidation of food not only energy but also
carbondioxide, water vapour and heat are released. These components are sent out of
our body through exhaled air.
Steps in human respiration :
Gaseous Gaseous
Breathing Gas transport Cellular
exchange at exchange at
by blood Respiration
lungs level tissue level
Air movement into Exchange of gases Diffusion of Exchanging of Using oxygen in
and out of lungs between alveoli oxygen from blood oxygen from blood cell processes to
and blood capillaries of alveoli into the cells and produce carbon
to body cells and carbon dioxide from dioxide and water,
return of carbon cells into the blood releasing energy to
dioxide through diffusion be used for life
processes
Pathway of air in human respiratory tract:
Nostrils:
Usually air enters the body through the nostrils.
Nasal cavity :
Moist surface of the nasal cavity and hair present in it stops the dust particles in the
air we breathe in. Nasal cavity controls the temperature of air.
Pharynx :
Pharynx is the common passage of digestive and respiratory system. Epiglottis, a
flap like muscular valve controls the movemnet of food and air towards their respective
passages.
Larynx :
Larynx has vocal cords. When air passes out of the lungs over the vocal cords It
cause them to vibrate. This produces sounds on the basis of our speech, song etc.
Trachea :
Trachea/Windpipe channelling air to lungs.
Bronchi
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Pathway of air in respiratory tract of human Trachea or the windpipe divides into two bronchi one
leading to each lung.
Nostrils
Bronchioles :
Nasal cavity Each bronchi is further divided into smaller and smaller
branches called bronchioles. Bronchioles enters small
Carbon diooxide pathway

Pharynx chambers called alveoli.
Oxygen pathway
Alveoli :
Larynx
Alveoli are the structural and functional units of
lungs. They are covered with blood capillaries. Oxygen
Trachea
present in alveoli diffuses into blood, carbon dioxide
Bronchus present in blood diffuses into alveoli.
Blood :
Bronchioles Blood supplies oxygen to every cell in the body and
collects CO2 from them.
Alveolus Mechanism of respiration in human beings:
The organs mainly involved in respiration are lungs.
Blood The lungs themselves can neither draw in air nor push it
out. Instead, the chest wall muscles, and another flexible flattened muscle called diaphragm
helps the lungs in moving air into and out of them. The diaphragm may be imagined as
the floor of chest cavity. When diaphragm gets relaxed it is in dome shaped.
Inhalation: When the diaphram flattens and the volume of the chest cavity is
increased, its internal pressure decreases and the air from the outside rushes into the
lungs. This is inspiration (inhalation).
Exhalation: The chest wall is lowered and moves inward, and the diaphragm assumes
its dome shape. These changes increase the pressure on the lungs then they squeeze
the air out to the external atmosphere.
Gaseous exchange between alveoli and blood capillaries:
Alveoli present in the lungs are surrounded by blood capillaries that are only one
cell thick. Air, which is entered into lungs has oxygen, this oxygen from alveoli
diffuses into blood capillaries then the carbon dioxide in the blood diffuses into
alveoli. When we breathe out this carbon dioxide is sent out of our body.
The composition of inhaled and exhaled air is different. See the table given below.
Gas % in inhaled air % in exhaled air
Oxygen 21 16
Carbondioxide 0.03 4.4
Nitrogen 78 78
Exhaled air has more percentage of CO2 and less percentage of O2 than the inhaled air.
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Gaseous exchange between blood capillaries and cells:
The cells are continuously using oxygen; hence, the concentration of oxygen is
quite low in them. As the concentration of oxygen is low in them oxyhaemoglobin in
blood releases oxygen that enters the cells. Oxygen oxidises the food, carbon dioxide
released in cells, that carbon dioxide diffuses from cells to blood capillaries.
Haemoglobin present in blood has iron (Fe). When oxygen enters blood haemoglobin
immediately binds the oxygen and forms oxyhaemoglobin. This oxyhaemoglobin divides
and releases oxygen in to the cells when blood reaches cells. Carbon dioxide transported in
the form of bicarbonates.
Cellular Respiration:
The term cellular respiration refers to the pathway by which cells release energy by
breaking the chemical bonds of glucose molecules. Cellular respiration in prokaryotic
cells occurs within the cytoplasm. In eukaryotic cells
outer membrane
cytoplasm and mitochondria are the sites of cellular inner membrane
respiration. The produced energy is stored in mitochondria
cristae
in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate). That is why matrix
mitochondria are called "power houses of the cell". ATP is
called energy currency of the cell. Each ATP molecule gives
7200 Calories of energy. Mitochondria
Differences between aerobic and anaerobic respiration
Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration
Occurs in presence of oxygen Occurs in absence of oxygen
Carbon dioxide, water and energy are Alcohol/Lactic Acid and carbon dioxide are
released released
Large amount of energy is released One tenth of energy released when
compared to aerobic respiration
(very less energy)
Occurs in cytoplasm and mitochondria Occurs in cytoplasm of the cell
of the cell.
Almost all multicellular plants and Bacteria, fungi and muscles of human
animals perform this respiration perform this respiration
After undergoing strenuous exercise, we feel pain in muscles. Why?

When Oxygen debt occurs in muscles they undergo anaerobic respiration then
muscles convert glucose into lactic acid. Accumulation of lactic acid in muscles leads
to pain. When our blood is replenished with oxygen, that oxygen oxidizes lactic acid into
water and carbon dioxide.
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Anaerobic respiration in yeast:
Aim: To show that carbon dioxide and heat are produced in anaerobic respiration
Apparatus: Glucose solution, Yeast, liquid paraffin, Janus green B/Diazine green,
thermometer, thermos flask, beaker, lime
thermometer
water, U-shaped glass tube, Corks etc.
Procedure: Take glucose solution in
beaker. Heat the glucose solution to remove
the oxygen present in it. Cool the sugar
solution without stirring it. To test the
presence of oxygen present in glucose liquid paraffin
lime water
solution add a few drops of diazine green.
The blue dye turns pink when oxygen yeast in glucose
solution
is in short supply around it. Now mix yeast
powder in glucose solution and pour this Testing for production of heat and CO2
glucose solution in the thermos flask add under anaerobic respiration
paraffin liquid over the glucose solution to cut the contact of air. Close the mouth of the
thermos flask with two holed rubber cork. Arrange the thermometer and U-shaped glass
tube for any gas produced by the yeast to escape through the thermos flask. Keep other
end of this glass tube in lime water . Close the mouth of the test tube with cork. Do not
disturb this entire setup. The reading on the thermometer should be recorded.
Observation: After few hours it is observed that lime water in the test tube turned into
milky white. Temperature is increased in the thermometer and alcohol smell given off
from the thermos flask.
Result: These observations indicate that yeast cells respire anaerobically converting
glucose into carbon dioxide, alcohol and heat energy.
Differences Between respiration and combustion:
Respiration Combustion
Glucose is oxidised to carbon dioxide water Glucose first Chars and later burns
energy and heat in cells is called respiration. produces carbon dioxide, water and energy
released as heat.
It is a controlled process It is uncontrolled process
It occurs in the presence of water in cells. It does not occur in presence of water
It occurs at our body temperature We have to supply heat energy to start
the process.
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Evolution in gases exchanging system:
Animals posses different types of respiratory organs mostly depending on the habitat
in which they live, their body size and the availability of water.
Organisms Organ/Organelle Respiration / Respiratory System
Amoeba, Hydra, Plannaria, Body Surface Diffusion

Round worms, Earthworms
Insects (cockroach, Trachea Tracheal respiratory system

grasshopper etc)
Fishes Gills Branchial respiratory system
Frog Skin, Lungs Cutaneous and pulmonary respiratory

system
Reptiles, birds, and Mammals Lungs Pulmonary respiratory system
Respiration in plants:
Plants also respire like animals. In plants gaseous exchange takes place through
stomata and lenticels. Mangrove plants have special structures for gaseous exchange
called aerial/Respiratory roots. Mangroves grow in marshy places. They have hallow
stem.
To show that carbon dioxide is released during
aerobic respiration in plants:
Aim: To prove that carbon dioxide is released during
respiration in plants. sprouted seeds
Apparatus: Glass jar or plastic bottle, Germinated seeds,

beaker, lime water etc.
beaker with
Procedure: Before conducting an experiment soak lime water
Evolved CO2 in respiration
groundnuts or green gram in water for a day. The next
day shift these soaked seeds into a wet cloth and tie cloth with a string to make it as a
pouch. Keep this cloth pouch at the corner of the class for two days. Seeds germinate
within 2 days. Fill half of the glass jar with germinated seeds. Take lime water in a small
beaker. Keep the beaker in the glass jar in between the germinated seeds. Close the
mouth of the glass jar with a lid. Do not disturb this bottle for a day.
Observation: After a day it was observed that lime water in the beaker changed to milky
white.
Result: It indicates that germinated seeds produced carbon dioxide which turns lime
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water into milky white
To Prove that heat is liberated during respira-
tion in plants:
thermometer
Aim: To prove that heat is released during respiration
in plants.
Apparatus: Thermos flask, thermometer, rubber cork,
Germinated seeds etc.
Procedure: Before conducting an experiment soak Thermosflask
groundnuts or green gram in water for a day. The next
day shift these soaked seeds into a wet cloth and tie
cloth with a string to make it as a pouch. Keep this cloth germinating seeds
pouch at the corner of the class for two days. Seeds
germinate within 2 days. Fill half of the thermos flask Heat evolved during respiration
with germinated seeds. Close the mouth of the thermos
flask with a one holed rubber cork. Insert the bulb of the thermometer in the middle of the
germinated seeds through hole of the rubber cork. Do not disturb this thermos flask for
a day. Observe the temperature of the thermometer for every two hours up to 24 hours.
Observation: After two hours it is observed that temperature in the thermometer is
increased.
Result: It indicates that germinated seeds performed respiration, as a result heat is released.
Differences Between photosynthesis and respiration:
Photosynthesis Respiration
Green plants in presence of sunlight use Oxidation of glucose to carbon dioxide
carbondioxide and water to produce glucose water, energy and heat is called respiration
and O2 is called photosynthesis
Occurs only in plants and photosynthetic Occurs in all living organisms
bacteria
Light energy converted to chemical energy Chemical energy converted to potential
energy
It occurs in Chloroplasts It occurs in mitochondria
Takes place in the presence of Sunlight Takes place throughout the day
Light energy is fixed Energy is released
Carbon dioxide is utilised Carbon dioxide is released
Oxygen is liberated Oxygen is utilised
It is a anabolic process It is a catabolic process
6CO2G12H2O → C6H12O6G6H2OG6CO2 C6H12O6G6O2 → 6CO26G6H2O+Energy
16
Practice Questions
1. What is anaerobic respiration? In which organanisms does it happen?
2. What would happen if diaphragm does not work properly?
3. What would happen if vocal cords do not vibrate in the larynx?
4. Write the materials required to do the experiment that heat is liberated during respiration
in plants?
5. Write any two sentences, appreciating the role of haemoglobin in respiration.
6. Why does Strenous exercise activity cause muscle pain?
7. Why mitochandria called as power houses of the cell?
1. Observe the table and answer the following questions.
Gas % in inhaled air % in exhaled air

Oxygen 21 16
Carbondioxide 0.03 4.4
Nitrogen 78 78
a. Which gas composition is same in both inhalation and exhalation?

b. In which phase carbon dioxide gas percentage is high?
c. Why does percentage of oxygen decreases in exhaled air?
2. Draw the neat, labelled diagram of alveoli which shows gaseous exchange in it.
3. Write four differences between Respiration and combustion.
Lactic acid + Energy

Absence or low
Eg: Lactobocilus
amount of oxygen
(anaerobic respiraton
and fermentation) Ethanol + CO2+ Energy
Glucose ÆPyruvate Eg: Yeast
(3 carbon compound)
+ Energy
(Glycolysis)
Presence of Oxygen CO2 + H2O + Energy
(aerobic respiration) Eg: Plants and animals
17
4. Observe the given flowchart and answer the following questions
a. What is the common process in both the respirations?
b. Which living organisms perform respiration without oxygen?
c. What type of respiration performed by muscles while doing strenuous exercise?
1. Describe the procedure followed by you to observe the anaerobic respiration in
yeast and write the materials used.
2. Write the differences between photosynthesis and respiration
3. Draw the diagram of organelle in which cellular respiration occurs and explain
cellular respiration.
4. Describe the pathway of air in human respiration with the help of flowchart.
5. Write the procedure and observations of the experiment to show that carbondioxide
is released during respiration in plants.
1. Identify the incorrect setence related to gaseous exchange in respiration of humans?
( )
A) Air enters into alveoli from lungs. Lungs are surrounded by blood capillaries
B) Oxygen diffuses from alveoli into blood
C) Carbon dioxide diffuses from Blood to alveoli
D) Oxygen diffuses from blood to alveoli
2. Identified part in the picture is... ( )
A) Bronchioles B) Trachea
? C) Pharynx D) Bronchi
3. Identify the correct sentence about exhalation. ( )

A) Diaphragm flattens and moves downward by the contraction of muscles in it
B) When Chest walls move upward, and diaphragm moves downward, then chest
cavity size increases.
C) When chest walls inward and diaphragm gets dome shaped then chest cavity size
decreases
D) When diaphragm moves downward, and chest wall moves inward then the chest
cavity increases
18
4. Which of the following is useful for exchange of gaseous in plants? ( )
A) stomata B) chloroplasts C) rhibosomes D) mitochondria
5. The role of diazine green solution in anaerobic respiration in yeast is ( )
A) Activates anaerobic respiration in yeast
B) Helps in checking the presence of oxygen in glucose solution
C) Helps in identifying the release of carbondioxide
D) Accelerate the work of paraffin solution
6. Identify the Common passage for food and air. ( )
A) Epiglottis B) Glottis C) Pharynx D) Larynx
7. Identify the correct statement
Sentence 1: Oxygen dissociates from oxyhaemoglobin and diffuses from blood
into cells.
Sentence 2: Carbon dioxide present in cells diffuses into blood stream
A) Both the sentences are incorrect
B) sentence one is correct and sentence two is incorrect
C) sentence one is incorrect and sentence two is correct
D) Both the sentences are correct
8. Identify the aim of lab activity from the picture ( )
A) Heat is released during respiration
B) Heat is released during photosynthesis
sprouted seeds
C) Carbon dioxide is released during respiration
beaker with D) Oxygen is released during respiration
lime water
19
CHAPTER
3 Transportation
All the living organisms require nutrients, gases, liquids etc., for their growth and
maintenance. These materials must be sent to all body parts in organisms. For this a
specialized system is developed by organisms called 'the circulatory system'. In humans,
heart and blood vessels help in circulation.
Structure of the Heart
Heart is located in between the lungs and protected by rib cage. The size of your heart
is approximately the size of your fist. The heart is pear shaped structure triangle in outline,
wider at the anterior end and narrower at the posterior end. The heart is covered by two
layers of membrane. The membranes are called pericardial membranes. The space between
these two layers is filled with pericardial fluid, which protects the heart from shocks.
Internal Structure of Heart :
The Heart is divided into four chambers. The two upper chambers are called atria
(auricles), and the lower ones are called ventricles. The walls of the ventricles are relatively
thicker than atrial walls. The left atrium and ventricle are smaller when compared to that of
right - atrium and ventricle. The two atria and the two ventricles are separated from each
other by muscular partitions called septa. The openings between atria and ventricles are
guarded by valves.
arteries to head
artery to left arm
superior vena cava

aorta
pulmonary artery (left branch)
pulmonary artery (right branch)
left pulmonary veins
right pulmonary veins
left atrium
right atrium semi - lunar valve in the
pulmonary artery
right atrio ventricular valve left atrio ventricular valve

(Tricuspid Valve) (Bicuspid Valve)
left ventricle
inferior vena cava
right ventricle
Internal structure of heart
20
Heart - Blood Circulation
The vein which is at the anterior end of the right side of the heart is superior venacava,
which collects blood from anterior parts (head and neck) of the body. The vein which is
coming from posterior part of the heart is inferior venacava, collects blood from posterior
part (hand and legs etc) of the body. These open into the right atrium of the heart. The
pulmonary artery carrys blood from the right ventricle to lungs. Whereas blood from the
lungs enters the left atrium through the pulmonary veins. A large blood vessel called the
aorta exits from the left ventrical and carries blood to all parts of the body.
Heart - Valves
The heart and blood vessels that connect to the heart contains valves to regulate the
blood flow.
Tricuspid Valve: The valve present on the Right Auriculo - ventricular septum between
Right atrium and Right ventricle is referred to as "Tricuspid Valve". It allow de-oxygenated
blood flow from right atrium to right ventricle only.
Bicuspid Valve or Mitral Valve: The valve present on the left Auriculo Ventricular septum
between left atrium and left ventricle is referred as Bicuspid valve or Mitral valve. It allows
oxiginated blood from left atrium to left ventricle only.
Pulmonary Valves: A major blood vessel that originate from right ventricle is pulmonary
aorta. The valves present at the region of pulmonary aorta are called "Pulmonary valves". It
allows the de-oxygenated blood from right ventricle to lungs only.
Systemic Valves: A major blood vessel, originates from left ventricle is systemic aorta.
The valves present at the region of systemic aorta are called systemic valves. It allows the
oxiginated blood from left ventricle to body parts only.
Blood Vessels: The arteries, veins and blood capillaries are main blood vessels of human
circulatory system.
Arteries
Arteries carry blood from the heart to body parts. Since the blood flow is rapid and at
a high pressure, the arteries have thick clastic walls. There are no valves in arteries. Usually
oxygenated blood flows in the arteries. But deoxygenated blood flows in the pulmonary
artery.
Veins: Veins are the vessels which carry blood from all parts of the body back to the heart.
The veins have thin walls with valves present, which allow blood to flow towards the heart
only. Usually deoxygenated blood flows in the veins. But oxygenated blood flows in the
pulmonary veins.
21
The blood vessels found in the walls of the heart are coronary vessels which supply
blood to the muscles of heart.
Blood Capillaries: Blood capillaries are the microscopic vessels made of single layer
cells. They allow diffusion of various substances and establish continuity between arteries
and veins. Blood reaches the cells via capillaries.
tough fibrous coat
muscle layer lumen

elastic lumen lining cells
fibrous coat lining cells (endothelium)
(endothelium)
Differences between arteries and veins
Structure / Function of blood vessel Artaery Vein
1. Thickness of walls Thick Thin
2. Valves Absent Present
3. Capacity to retain shape when blood is absent Can retain Can’t retain
4. Direction of blood flow Heart to Body organs
organs to heart
5. Pressure in the vessel High Low
6. Type of blood transported Oxygenated De-oxygenated
(Except (Except
Pulmonary Pulmonary
Artery Vein
The cardiac cycle

One contraction and one relaxation of atria and ventricles
is called one cardiac cycle. Let us understand cardiac cycle with
the help of following steps.
1. We start with the imagination that all the four chambers
1. Imaginary relaxation
the heart are in relaxed state (diastole). of atria and ventricles.
2. Blood from venacava and pulmonary veins enters the right
and left atria respectively.
3. Now the atria contract, forcing the blood to enter into the
ventricles.
4. When the ventricles are filled with blood they start 2. Blood flows into atria.
contracting and atria start relaxing. The aperture between Fig-10(1-2)
the atria and ventricles is closed by valves. On ventricular contraction due to pressure
22
the blood moves into the aorta and pulmonary artery. When the valves are closed
forcibly, we can listen to the first sharp sound of the heart 'lub'.
5. When the ventricles start relaxing the pressure in the ventricles is reduced. The
blood which has entered the arteries tries to come back into the ventricles. The
valves which are present in the blood vessels are closed to prevent backward flow
of blood into the ventricles. Now we can listen to a dull sound of the heart 'dub'.
The atria are filled up with blood and are ready to pump the blood into the ventricles.
The sequential events in the heart which are cyclically repeated are called cardiac
cycle.
5. Relaxation of
4. Contraction of ventricles.
3. Contraction of atria and ventricles. The closing
A.V. Valves closed (Lub)
flow of blood into ventricles. of arterial valves (Dub).
blood flows into arteries.
Cardiac cycle
Single and double blood circulation

The blood flows in the blood vessels. To keep the blood moving the heart pumps it
continuously. There are two types blood circulation modes in animals. They are single
circulation and double circulation.
Single Circulation: If the blood flows through heart only once for completing one
circulation it is called single circulation. Ex: Fishes
Double Circulation : If the blood flows through the heart twice for completing one
circulation it is called double circulation. Ex: Amphibia, Reptiles, Birds and Mammals.
Blood pressure (B.P.): When heart contracts blood flows rapidly into the artery, causing
pressure on the walls of the arteries it is called blood pressure. This pressure helps the
flow of blood in blood vessels of our body. The blood pressure (B.P.) is measured with a
device called sphygmomanometer. A healthy young adult B.P. is 120/80mm of Hg (120 is
systolic pressure and 80 is diastolic pressure). People who have high B.P. during resting
period are said to have hypertension.
Coagulation of blood : When you get an injury yourself, the blood flows out of the wound
for only a short time. Then the cut is filled with a reddish solid material. This solid is called
a blood clot.
23
• When the blood flows out, the platelets release an enzyme called thrombokinase.
• Thrombokinase acts on pro-thrombin converting it into thrombin.
• Thrombin acts on another substance called fibrinogen, converting into insoluble fibrin.
• The blood cells entangle in the fibrin fibres forming the clot.
Thrombrokinase
Prothrombrin Thrombin
Thrombin
Fibrinogen Fibrin
Materials transport within the plant
The plants also transport the material within their body like animals. The water
absorbed by roots and supplied by xylem, food prepared by leaves are supplied to the
remaining parts of the plant by phloem.
Water Transport in Plant :
The Osmosis, Root pressure and transpiration etc., factors help the plants to absorb
water.
Osmosis
The Osmosis plays major role in the root hairs and passes inward from cell to cell
until it gets into the xylem vessels. The cytoplasm lining of the cell wall acts as the
semipermeable membrane. The root hairs grow out into the spaces between the soil particles
and that the hairs are surrounded by moisture. The soil water is an extremely dilute solution
of salts. Soil water concentration is more dilute than that of the cell sap in the root hair;
therefore water will pass into the vacuole of the root hair by Osmosis. The entry of water
dilutes the contents of the root hair vacuole so that it becomes more dilute than it's
neighbouring cell. So, water passes into the neighbouring cell which in turn becomes diluted,
finally water enters the xylem vessels.
epidermal cell
soil particles
soil water
xylem vessel
nucleus
air spaces
cells of cortex cell wall of root hair

vacuole
cellsap
L.S of root showing relationship of root hair and soil water
24
Root Pressure clamp
The vast number of root hairs and root cells glass
water level
involved, a pressure in the xylem vessels develops strong rubber tubing
cut stem portion
which forces the water upwards. This total soil
pressure is known as root pressure.
water
Transpiration
The evaporation of water through leaves is called Root pressure
transpiration. Water evaporates through stomata of leaves and

lenticles of stem. When the leaves transpire, there is a pulling effect
on the continuous columns of water in the xylem vessels.
Experiment on Aphids to understand food transportation in plants
To obtain juice an aphid
proboscis Transpiration
pierces the plant tissues with its
long needle like organ 'proboscis'. An aphid is killed
aphid while in the act of feeding and the body is then
carefully cut away, leaving the hollow proboscis still
inserted into the phloem. It is found that because the
fluid slowly excudes from the cut end of the
phloem
xylem
proboscis in the form of drops; these drops are then
bark collected and analysed. The components (sugar and
pith
amino acids) of proboscis drops matched with
Aphid extracting food material
from plant phloem components.
Removing ring of bark to illustrates the conduction of sugar by the phloem
Removing a ring of bark from a shoot to expose
the wood. Remove all tissues from the centre some growth
roots
outwards, including the phloem. After a few days,
no growth
food had accumulated above the ring, but was not
present below it. If it is left for some more time, the
Removing ring of bark
stem increases in thickness immediately above the
right. But no growth occured below, beacuse absense of phloem.
25
Practice Questions
1. What would happen if valves of heart are not function properly?
2. Write about hypertension.
3. Which factors help the plants to absorb water?
1. Explain the process of blood coagulation
2. What are differences between single circulation and double circulation?
3. Describe the valves of the heart.
4. Write the study of biologists on aphids related to transport of materials in plants.
1. Draw a lablled diagram of heart and write about blood vessels which are connected
to heart.
2. Write about the experiments of root pressure and transpiration.
3. How do structures of arteries, veins and blood capillaries are help in circulation of
blood?
4. Explain the sequential events in the cardiac cycle.
1. Identity the right sequence ( )
A) Pulmonary vein → left ventricle → left atrium → lungs
B) Pulmonary vein → lungs → left atrium → left ventricle
C) Lungs → pulmonary vein → left atrium → left ventricle
D) Lungs → left atrium → left ventricle → pulmonary vein
2. Identify the correct sentences from the following ( )
i) Veins are the blood vessels that carry blodd from body parts to heart
ii) Arteries are not strong as veins
iii) Pulmonary artery carries blood from lungs to heart
iv) Inferior vena cava collects deoxygenated blood from upper parts of the body
like head and neck
A) i, ii B) iii, iv C) i, iii D) ii, iv
26
3. What is the reason for the sounds in heart beat ( )
A) Closing of valves
B) Blood pressure in arteries and veins
C) Blood flows rapidly through valves
D) Flow of blood in ventricles
4. Which of the following is considered for examining the Blood Pressure ( )
A) Vein pressure B) Artery pressure
C) Capillary pressure D) Lymph vessels pressure
5. Identify the wrong sentence ( )
A) Root pressure helps in transport of water in the small plants
B) Water transport occurs through xylem in plants
C) Plants absorb the water rapidly with the help of transpiration
D) Osmatic pressure helps the phloem to transport food material
6. Identify the right pair ( )
A) Root hair - present on shoot B) Xylem - Transport food material
C) Stomata - Transpiration D) Phloem - Transport water
7. Identify the device which is used to measure the B.P. ( )
A) Sphygnomono meter B) Baro meter
C) Thermometer D) Anemo meter
27
CHAPTER
4 Excretion
In living organisms different kinds of material are produced out of various metabolic
activities, In addition to the substances needed for metabolism, waste products are also
produced. Excretion is also one of the metabolic activities in living organisms. In the process
of excretion, waste products produced in the body of an organism are separated and removed.
Waste products generated in human body
The waste products generated in human body include carbon dioxide, water, nitrogenous
compounds like urea, ammonia, uric acid, bile pigments, excess salts etc.
Excretory System in Human being
Human excretory system mainly consists of a pair of kidneys, a pair of ureters, urinary
bladder and urethra.
Kidneys : In human beings kidneys are bean shaped, reddish brown structures in
the abdominal cavity attached to dorsal body wall, one on either side of
the back bone.
Ureters : Each Ureter arises from hilus of the kidney. These are a pair of whitish,
narrow, distensible and muscular tubes pair of measuring 30 cm in length.
Ureter opens into the urinary bladder.
Urinary bladder : It is a median, pear shaped and distensible sac. It stores approximately
300-800 ml. of urine temporarily.
Urethra : Urethra is a tube that takes urine from urinary bladder to outside. The
opening of urinary bladder into urethra is guarded by a ring of muscles
or sphincter. Urethra is 4cm long in females and in males it is 20 cm
long.
Internal Structure of the kidney:

Internal structure of kidney shows two distinct regions. Dark coloured outer zone is
called cortex and pale inner zone is called medulla. Each kidney consists of approximately
1.3 to 1.8 million microscopic and thin tubules called nephrons or uriniferous tubules.
28
Observe the below pictures.
convoluted
malpighian body tubule (PCT)
glomerulus efferent arteriole

cortex
medulla
afferent
arteriole
{ convoluted
tubule (DCT)
Bowman’s capsule
{
collecting duct
renal artery
renal vein hilum
capillary network
nephron ureter
loop of Henle
calyces open to pelvis

pelvis
Internal structure of kidney
Structure of a nephron
Structure of nephron:
Each nephron has two parts 1) Malphigian body 2) Renal tubules
Malphigian body: It consists of blind cup shaped broader end of nephron called Bowman's
capsule and bunch of fine blood capillaries called glomerulus. Afferent arteriole enters the
bowman's capsule forms a bunch of blood capillaries and leaves bowman's capsule as efferent
arteriole which has a lesser diameter than afferent arteriole.
Bowman's capsule is lined by a single layer of squamous epithelial cells called
podocytes cells. There are fine pores between podocyte cells to allow passage of materials
filtered out of glomerulus.
Renal tubule: Renal tubule consists of proximal convoluted tubule (PCT), loop of Henle,
Distal convoluted tubule (DCT). Distal Convoluted tubule opens into a collecting tube. All
the parts of the renal tubule are surrounded by a network of peritubular capillaries formed
from efferent arteriole.
Different Stages in formation of Urine
Formation of urine involves four stages. (i) Glomerular filtration (ii) Tubular Re-absorption
(iii) Tubular secretion (iv) Formation of concentrated urine
1. Glomerular filtration: Blood flows from renal artery to glomerulus through afferent
arteriole under hight pressure, as a result pressure filtration takes place. Due to this waste
molecules and some water along with useful substances are filtered and enter into the
Bowman's capsule. This filtration is called as glomerular filtration. The filtrate formed
in Bowman's capsule is called primary urine.
29
2. Tubular Re-absorption: Primary urine formed after glomerulus filtration is almost
equal to blood in chemical composition except the presence of blood cells. The peritubular
capillaries present around the Henle's loop reabsorb all the useful components and excess
water from primary urine.
3. Tubular secretion: After reabsorption of essintial substances and water urine travles
through the loop of Henle. From peritubular Capillaries, present around the loop of
Henle, waste material left unfiltered in the blood are secreted by the peritubular capillaries
into the loop of Henle.
4. Formation of concentrated Urine: Urine passes from loop of Henle to Distal
convoluted tubule where it gets further concentrated by the action of hormone called
Vasopressin. Deficiency of vasopressin causes excessive, repeated, dilute urination.
This condition is called diabetes insipidus.
Composition of Urine
Urine is a pale yellow colour fluid. Urine has amber color due to the presence
urochrome, which is formed by the denaturation of Haemoglobin.
Urine contains 96% of water, 2.5% of organic substances (urea, uric acid, creatine,
creatinine, B and C vitamins, hormones, oxalates), 1.5% of inorganic substances (sodium,
chloride, phosphate, sulphate, magnesium, calcium, iodine). It is acidic (pH 6.0) in the
begining but becomes alkaline onstanding due to decomposition of urea to form ammonia.
What happens if both kidneys fail completely?
Complete and irreversible kindney failure is called End Stage Renal Disease (ESRD).
If kidneys stop working completely, our body is filled with extra water and waste products,
this condition is called Uremia. At this stage hands on feet may swell, as a result you feel
tired and weak.
Dialysis or kidney transplantation is to be done for the people whose kidney's fail to
work.
Process of Dialysis:
In the process of dialysis, blood is filtered artificially in a machine called dialyzer.
This process of artificial filtration is called haemodialysis. In this process blood is taken
out from the main artery, mixed with an anticoagulant, such as heparin and then pumped
into the apparatus called dialyzer. In this apparatus blood flows through tubes which are
madeup of cellophane. These tubes are embedded in the dialyzing fluid. The membrane
separates the blood flowing inside the tube and dialyzing fluid. As nitrogenous wastes are
absent in dialyzing fluids, these substances from the blood move out freely, there by filtering
30
the blood of its wastes. The filtered blood is pumped back on to the body through a vein
after adding anti-coagulant. Each dialysis session lasts for 3 to 6 hours.
Kidney transplantation
The best long term solution for kidney failure is kidney transplantation. A functioning
kidney is used in transplantation from a donor preferably a close relative. Now a days
kidney from the donor or from brain dead patients are collected and transplanted. This is
called organ donation.
Accessory Excretory Organs in Human body
Kidneys are the chief excretory organs of our body. In addition to kidneys there are
certain organs which have their own specific functions but carry out excretion as a secondary
function. They are lungs, skin, liver and large intestine. Small amount of nitrogenous wastes
are also eliminated through saliva and tears.
Lungs: Lungs excrete carbondioxide and water vapour formed in the process of respiration.
Skin: : Sweat glands in skin eliminate excess water and salts from the body in the form of
sweat. Sebaceous glands in skin eliminate sebum.
Liver: The life span of RBC is 120 days, later RBC are destroyed in the liver. As a result of
haemoglobin destruction, bile pigments like biliverdin, bilirubin and urochrome are produced.
The urochrome is excreted through urine. Biliverding and bilirubinare excereted through
bile. Liver is invovled in urea formation.
Large intestine: Excess salts of calcium, magnesium and iron are seperated by epithelial
cells of colon and are eliminated along with the faeces.
Excretion in Plants
The biochemical substances produced in plants are of two types, they are 1. Primary
metabolites 2. Secondary metabolites. The materials required for the normal growth and
development of the plant are called Primary metabolites Eg. Carbohydrates, fats and proteins.
The materials which are not required for normal growth and development of plant but help
in self defence, pollination, seed dispersal, and help the plant to recover from an injury are
called secondary metabolites. They are Tannins, Resins, Gums, Latex, Alkaloids.
Tannins: Tannins are carbon compounds. These are used in tanning of leather and in
medicines e.g. Cassia, Acacia.
Resins: Resins occur mostly in gymnosperms and is specialised passages called resin
passages. These are used in varnishes- e.g. Pinus.
Gums: Some plants ooze out a sticky substance when branches are cut, these are called
31
gums. The gum swells by absorbing water and helps in the healing of damaged parts of a
plant. Gums are used as adhesives and binding agents in the preparation of the medicines,
food, etc. Eg: Neem, Acacia.
Latex: Latex is a sticky, milky white substance. Latex is stored in latex cells or latex vessels
of a plant. Eg: Rubber Plant.
Alkaloids: Alkaloids are nitrogenous by-products and poisonous substances produced by
some plants. These are stored in different parts of the plants.
Excretion in other organisms:
ALKALOID PLANT PART USES
Quinine Cinchona Bark Antimalarial drug
Nicotine Tobacco Leaves Insecticide, stimulant
Morphine, Cocaine Opium Fruit Pain killer

Reserpine Snake root Root Medicine for High BP, snake bite
Caffeine Coffee Seed Central nervous system
stimulant
Nimbin Neem Seeds, Barks, Leaves. Antiseptic
Scopolamine Datura Fruit, flower Sedative
Pyrethroids Chrysanthemum Flower Insecticides
Excretion - Secretion
Excretion Secretion
l Removal of waste materials l Movement of materials from one point to
other point
l passive process l Active process
l Tears, Urine, Carbon dioxide l Enzymes, Hormones, Saliva
Practice Questions
1. Differentiate between excretion and secretion?
2. Write about any two accessory excretory organs.
3. What would happen if both the kidneys fail to function normally?
4. What are the waste products generated in the human body?
1. Describe the process of dialysis?
2. Write about any four alkaloids that are useful in every day life?
3. Compare primary and secondary metabolites that are produced in plants.
4. Write the composition of urine.
32
5. Observe the table given below and answer the following questions.
Alkaloid Plant Part Uses
Quinine Bark Antimalarial drug
Caffeine Seeds Central nervous system stimulant
Nimbin Seeds, bark, leaves Antiseptic
Reserpine Root Medicine for High Blood pressure
i) Which parts of the plant yeilds nimbin alkaloid?

ii) Name the alkaloids obtained from Coffee plant.
iii) Which disease is cured by using Quinine?
iv) Name the part of the plant which yeilds the medicine used in curing high B.P.
1. Draw a neat labelled diagram of human excretory system and explain the structure of
the kidney.
2. Describe the structure of nephron with a neat labelled diagram.
3. Explain the procedure followed to observe the Internal structure of a kidney.
4. Write about Secondary metabolites of plants, their sources and their uses.
5. Explain the different stages of urine formation.
1. Identity the correct pair from the following ( )
A) Tanin - Pinus B) Resin - Cassia C) Gum - Neem D) Latex - Acacia
2. Which of the following is not an accessory excretory organ in humans ( )
A) Skin B) Large Intestine C) Lungs D) Small Intestine
3. Identify the Correct Sequence ( )
A) Glomerular filtration → Tubular Secretion → Tubular re-absorption →
Formation of concentrated urine
B) Glomerular filtration → Tubular secretion → Formation of concentrated urine
→ Tubular reabsorption.
C) Tubular Secretion → Tubular reabsorption → Glomerular filtration → Formation
of concentrated urine
D) Glomerular filtration → Tubular reabsorption → Tubular secretion → Formation
of concentrated urine.
4. Identify the components in the composition of urine.
A) 95% water, 2.5% organic substances, 1.5% inorganic substances
B) 96% water, 1.5% organic substances, 2.5% inorganic substances
C) 96 % water, 2.5% organic substances, 1.5% inorganic substances
D) 96% organic substances, 1.5% organic substances, 2.5% water
33
5. Which one of the following is not a part of renal tubule ( )
A) Bowman’s capsule B) Proximal convoluted tubule
C) Distal convoluted tubule D) Loop of Henle
6. Diabetes Insipidus means ( )
A) Concentrated urine, less urination
B) Dilute urine, excessive urination
C) Concentrated urine, excessive urination
D) Dilute urine, less urination
34
CHAPTER
5 Control and Coordination
In our body the nervous system and endocrine system work together to control and
coordinate all our activities such as physical actions, our thinking process and emotional
behaviour. In plants nervous system is absent. But phytohormones control the life processes.
Nervous system
The nervous system includes the brain, spinal cord, sense organs and nerves. The
sense organs receives the stimulus and this stimulus with the help of sensory nerves
reaches brain and spinal cord. This information will be sent to different organs by motor
nerves for action.
dendrites
Structure of Nerve cell
nissl’s granules
The nerve cell is the structural and functional unit nucleus
cell body
of nervous system. Each nerve cell consists of cell
body (cyoton) with a large nucleus. Dendrites arise from schwann cell
the cyton, they are much branched. The axon is the long axon
and cylindrical projection that arises from the cyton. It node of ranvier
is surrounded by layer of fatty materials known as myelin myelin sheath
synaptic knob
sheath. It is interrupted at regular intervals called as nodes
of ranvier. axon terminal
Synapse Nerve cell
The region where dendrites of one nerve cell connect to the dendrites or axons of
another nerve cell is called synapse. Synapse is the functional
region between two neurons when information from one neuron
is transmitted or relayed to another neuron.
Synapse
Types of Nerves
Based on the function, nerves are divided into three types
(1) Sensory nerves (2) Motor nerves (3) Associated nerves
Synapse
Sensory nerves: Sensory nerves are also called as afferent
nerves. They carry the impulse from receptors (sense organs) to the central nervous system
(Brain and Spinal cord)
35
Sensory neuron
Motor nerves: Motor nerves are also called as efferent nerves. They carry impulse from
central nervous system to different body parts.
motor neuron
Association Nerves: The nerves that link afferent and efferent nerves are called
association nerves.
Reflex arc
A single pathway that goes
upto the spinal cord from detectors
inter neuron
and returns to the effector muscle is a spinal cord
reflex arc. A Reflex arc are consist of
sensory nerve
receptor Sensory nerve, Association
motor nerve
nerve, motor nerve and effector organ.
effector muscle
Reflex arc can be shown as
Stimulus → Receptors of sense organs
→ Sensory nerve → Spinal cord →
Motor nerve → Muscles/effector detector
organ. Reflex arc
Divisions of Human Nervous System

Following flow chart shows the division of human nervous system.
Nervous system
Central Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System
Brain Spinal Cord Cranial nerves Spinal nerves

Central Nervous System
Central Nervous System
The Central Nervous System consists of brain and spinal cord.
Structure of Brain: Brain is a soft organ present inside the cranium. It is protected by
three layers called meninges. The fluid present in between these layers are called
36
cerebrospinal fluid. This fluid protects the brain cerebrum
from the shocks.

Corpus
The outer portion of the brain contains Diencephalon
cell bodies of the nerve cell. This portion is pons
called grey matter. The inner portion of the cerebellum
pituitary gland
brain contains axons of the nerve cell. This spinal cord
medulla
portion of the brain is called white matter.
Brain
Parts of Brain - Functions:
1. Fore brain: It contains cerebrum and diencephalon
2. Mid brain: It contains optic lobes
3. Hind brain: It contains cerebellum and medulla oblongata
Functions of the various parts of the brain:
Brain Parts Structure Functions

Olfactory Club shaped Sense of smell
lobes
Cerebrum It contains two lobes called l seat of mental abilities, controls
cerebral hemisphere. The thinking, memory, reasoning
surface of the cerebrum has perceptions and speech.
folds. The elevations of the l Interprets sensations and responds to
Fore folds are called Gyri and cold, heat, pain and pressure.
brain depressions are called Sulci.
Diencephalon It is in rhomboidal shape. It Controls emotions such as anger, Reflex
is divided into thalamus and centre for muscular activities, centre for
hypothalamus water balance, blood pressure, body
temperature, sleep and hunger. The
hypothalamus controls the pituitary gland.
Mid Mid brain Small stalked portion It relays motor impulse from the cerebral
brain cortex to the spinal cord and relays sensory
impulses from spinal cord to thalamus.
Reflexes for sight and hearing
Hind Cerebellum It contains two large Maintains posture, equilibrium and muscle
brain cerebellar hemispheres. tone.
Medulla It is in triangular shape. Centre for cardiac, respiratory, vasomotor
oblongata activities, coordinates reflexes like
swallowing, coughing, sneezing and
vomiting.
37
Structure of Spinal cord and Functions:
Spinal cord extends from the back of the hind brain to the back of the stomach or
lumbar region through the neural canal of the vertebral column. It is almost cylindrical in
shape. In spinal cord the white matter is towards periphery while grey matter is towards the
centre. The myelinated axons leave the spinal cord from both the sides of the vertebral
column. The spinal cord is not only a road for passing instructions from the brain but it also
acts as controlling centre.
Peripheral Nervous system
The peripheral nervous system is formed by the 12 pairs of cranial nerves which
arise from the brain and 31 pairs of spinal nerve arises from the spinal cord. The peripheral
nervous system is a vast system of the dorsal and ventral root nerve cell heads and the
network of spinal and cranial nerves that are linked to the brain and the spinal cord on one
end and muscles on the other.
Autonomous nervous system
The peripheral nervous system involuntarily controls the several functions of regions
like our internal organs, blood vessels, smooth and cordiac muscles. So it is called
autonomous nervous system. It has voluntary control on muscles of some areas of skin and
the skeletal muscles also. Normally such involuntary activities take place by the coordinated
efforts of the medulla oblongata and autonomous nervous system.
Sympathetic Nervous System: It is formed by the chain of ganglia on either side of the
vertebral column and the associated nerves.
Para Sympathetic Nervous System: It is formed by the nerves arising from the ganglia of
the brain and the posterior part of the spinal cord.
The sympathetic and para sympathetic nervous system together constitute
autonomous nervous system. These are also considered as a part of peripheral nervous
system.
Endocrine System:
Endocrine system releases the chemical substances known as hormones. These
hormones are secreted directly into the blood.
Duct and Ductless glands:
Some glands release their secretions into the ducts are called duct glands whereas the
secretion of some glands does not flow in the ducts but directly releases into the blood.
These glands are called ductless glands. The system formed by the ductless glands is
endocrine system. Liver, secretes its secretions in the vessels so it is called duct gland.
Pancreas is the example for mixed gland. It acts as both duct and ductless glands. ‘Islets of
Langerhans’ present in the Pancreas, secretes insulin. Insulin regulates the glucose level in
the blood. The person suffering from diabetes will be given insulin injection.
38
The endocrine glands their secreted hormones and their effect on human body:
Name of Response of body to hormone

the gland Location Hormone secreted
Pituitary Floor of Growth Hormone (or) Growth of bones

gland brain Somatotrophin
(Master Stimulates the activity of thyroid gland
Thyroid stimulating
gland) hormone (TSH)
Adreno cortico Trophic Stimulates secretion from adrenal
hormone (ACTH)a cortex
Follicle Stimulating In female growth of graafian follicles,
hormone (FSH) estrogen secretion, milk production and
secretion
In males- spermatogenesis
Gonadotropin hormone
Activity fo Testis and ovary
In males - secration of testosterone
Luteinising Hormone (LH)
In females ovulation, development of
corpus luteum, secretion of
progestrone
In females development of mammary
Prolactine glands, promotes milk production.
Vasopressin Regulates the reabsorption of water
Thyroid Neck Thyroxine Effects on general growth rate and

gland metabolic activity
Ovary Below the Progesterone Development of uterus, implantation,

abdomen Estrogen development of mammary glands
Controls menstrual cycle, growth of
uterus and skeleton of the pelvis.
Testes Scrotal Testosterone Development of secondary sexual

sacs characters in males.
Adrenal Attached Adrenalin Increase in heart beat rate, rise in

gland blood Sugar, Dialation of coronary
to kidney artery and pupil of the eye.
Pancreas Near Insulin Decrease glocuse percentage in blood.

duodenum Glucagon Increase glocuse percentage in blood.
39
Feedback Mechanism:
Feedback mechanism is the self-controlling mechanism. The mechanism which
exists in our body to regulate the production and release of hormone is called feedback
mechanism. This feedback mechanism plays an important role in bringing back the
increased metabolic rate by the action of hormone to normal rate. For example, Insulin
releases more in blood when the gloucose level is more than the normal value. When the
gloucose level in the blood comes to normal value the secretion of insulin is reduced.
Control and coordination in plants
Plants can sense the presence of stimuli like light, heat, touch, pressure, chemicals
gravity etc. The hormones present in the plants are called phytohormones. Phytohormones
coordinates the activities of the plant usually by controlling one or other aspect of the
growth of the plant. So plant hormones are also called as growth substances. The plant
hormone Auxin was discovered by F.W. Went at the first time.
Phytohormones Uses
Auxins Cell elongation and differentiation of shoots and roots
Cytokinins Promote cell division, development of sprouting of lateral buds, delaying the
ageing in leaves, opening of stomata.
Gibberellins Germination of seed, sprouting of buds, elongation of stem development of
seedless fruits. Breaking the dormancy in seeds and buds, stimulation of
flowering.
Abscisic acid Closing of stomata, promoting seed dormancy and ageing of leaves
Ethylene Ripening of fruits
Tropic and Nastic movements in plants:

The movement of individual parts of plants is possible when they are subjected to an
external stimulus.
In plants there are two types of movements, they are tropic movement and nastic
movement. In tropic movement the direction of stimuli determines the direction of the
movements but where as in nastic movement the direction of movement may not be
determined by direction of stimuli.
When we touch the leaflets of 'touch me not' plant they shrink. This type of movement
is nastic movement.
The response of plant to light and showing movement towards light is called
'phototropism'.
40
Tendrils are thin thread like growth of climbing plant. They grow towards the support
and wind around them. This type of response to make contact (or) touch is called
'thigmotropism'.
Roots always grow towards the earth which is called 'geotropism'.
The plants which grow near a rock or wall side, they grow towards region containing
water. Such type of response to water is called 'hydrotropism'.
The chemical substance stimulates the pollen grain which falls on the stigma. This
type of response to chemicals is called 'chemotropism'.
Practice Questions
1. What is the function of cerebro-spinal fluid?
2. Which part of the brain controls the body equilibrium?
3. Why endocrine glands are called ductless glands? Name their Secretions.
4. Give the examples for sex hormones in human beings?
5. What happens if more amount of adrenalin is secreted in the blood?
6. Why pancreas is called as mixed gland?
7. Draw a well labelled diagram of synapse and explain its function
8. What happens if potted plant is kept near the window? Which side it grows? Why?
9. Write any two differences between Nastic movement and trophic movement.
1. What is the difference between sensory nerve and motor nerve?
2. Explain the autonomous nervous system with an example.
3. Explain the Reflex arc with the help of diagram.
4. Explain the different types of trophic movements in plants.
5. Prepare a table showing the different types of phytohormones and their uses in plants.
6. Explain the structure of Nerve cell with the help of a diagram.
7. Observe the following table of endocrine glands and answer the questions given below
Name of the Location Hormones Response of body to hormones
endocrine gland secreted
Pituitary gland Floor of the brain Somatotrophin Growth of the bones
Gonadotrophin Activities of ovaries and testis
Thyroid gland Neck Thyroxin General growth rate and
metabolic activities
Ovaries Lower abdomen Estrogen Controls menstrual cycle
Testis Scrotal sacs Testosterone Development of secondary
sexual characters
Adrenal gland Attached to kidneys Adrenalin Increase of heart-beat rate, rise
in blood sugar
41
i) Identify the sex hormone which is secreted in females?
ii) Which hormone plays an important role in the development of secondary sexual
characters in male?
iii) Where the pituitary gland is located?
9. Observe the following table and answer the questions.
Phytohormones Uses
Auxins Cell elongation and differentiation of shoots and roots
Cytokinins Promote cell division, development of sprouting of lateral buds, delying

trhe ageing in leaves,opening of stomata
Gibberellins Germination of seed, sprouting of buds, elongation of stem development of
seedless fruits. Breaking the dormancy
Abscisic acid Closing of stomata, promotes seed dormancy
Ethylene Ripening of fruits

i) Which phytohormones help in growth of the plant?
ii) Which hormone helps in ripening of fruits?
iii) Which hormone enhances seed dormancy?
1. Explain the structure of Human Brain with the help of a labelled diagram.
2. Explain the functions of various parts of the brain.
1. The total number of Cranial nerves present in human being are ( )
A)12 pairs B) 43 pairs C) 33 pairs D) 10 pairs
2. Identify the correct pair ( )
A) Pituitary-Thyroxine B) Adrenalin-Testosterone
C) Ovary-Estrogen D) Pancreas-Gonadotrophin
3. Identify the following figure. ( )
A) Motor nerve B) sensors nerve C) mixed nerve D) Association nerve

4. Match the following ( )
a) Phototropism ( ) i) Gravity
b) Geotropism ( ) ii) Light
c) Hydrotropism ( ) iii) Chemicals
d) Chemotropism ( ) iv) Water
A) a-ii, b-iii, c-i, d-iv B) a-ii, b-i, c-iv, d-iii C) a-i, b-ii, c-iii, d-iv D) a-iii, b-iv, c- ii, d-i
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5. Identify the Mixed gland ( )
A) Pituitary B) Adrenalin C) Pancreas D) Thyroid
6. Identify the incorrect pair ( )
A) Mid brain - cerebrum B) Forebrain - diencephalon
C) Hind brain - cerebellum D) Hind brain - Medullaoblongata
7. Auxins were discovered by ( )
A) Charles Darwin B) Francis Darwin C) FW went D) Mendel
9. Islets of Langerhans are present in ( )
A) Kidney B) Liver C) Pancreas D) Trachea
10. The gland that secretes growth hormone ( )
A) Prituitary gland B) Adernal gland C) Pancreas D) Testes
11. Parts of the central nervous system ( )
A) Brain, Cranial nerves B) Spinal cord, Spinal nerves
C) Brain, Spinal cord D) Cranial nerves, Spinal nerves
43
CHAPTER
6 Reproduction
Reproduction is a necessary life process for continuation of life by producing
offspring.
Modes of reproduction:
There are two forms of reproduction: They are asexual and sexual reproduction.
Asexual reproduction involves one parent and produces offspring that are genetically
identical to each other and to the parent without involving male and female gametes. It
includes different types, they are Fission, Budding, Fragmentation, Parthenogenesis,
Regeneration, Vegetative Propagation and Sporogenesis.
Fission:
In this process, an organism divides into two or more daughter cells and each cell
develops into a new organism that remains the parent organism. In binary fission parent cell
divides into two and in multiple fission it splits into many daughter cells. Ex: Single celled
organisms like Bacteria, Paramecium etc.
Budding:
A new organism develops as an outgrowth or bud due to cell division from one
particular site of the parent cell or body. At maturity, the bud detaches from the parent body
and becomes an independent individual Ex:- Yeast, Hydra.
Fragmentation:
When a filamentous organism splits into pieces, each fragment develops into a
mature organism Ex:- Spirogyra, lichens and flatworms.
Parthenogenesis:
The process of development of young ones from unfertilized gametes is called
parthenogenesis. In these organisms the fertilized ovum (zygote) develops into female and
unfertilized ovum develops into male. In this process the sperms develop by mitotic division
in male, whereas ova develop by meiotic division in females Ex:- Spirogyra, honeybee,
ants.
Parthenocarpy: Naturally in same plants like Banana, ovary directly develops in
to fruit without fertilization. This phenomenon is called Parthenocarpy.
Regeneration:
The ability of an organism to give rise to a new individual from their broken body
44
parts is called regeneration. These body parts can regenerate into a complete organism
Ex:- Planaria .
Vegetative propagation:
Plants propagate by their vegetative parts like roots, leaves and stem structures. They
maypropagatenaturallyorartificially.
A. Natural propagation:
It occurs through specialized structures of a mature plant roots, leaves and stem
structures like rhizomes, corms, bulbs, tubers, runners, stolons show such propagation.
Root buds: Guava, Millingtonia, Murraya (Curry leaves) give rise to a new
plant from root buds.
Leaf buds: In Bryophyllum leaves develop small buds with adventitious roots at the margins,
which later give rise to a new plants.
Stem structures: The stem structurs like Rhizome in Ginger, Corm in Colocasia, Bulb in
Onion, Stem tubers in Potato, Runners in grasses, stolons in Jasmin and Strawberry help in
vegetative propagation.
B. Artificial Propagation:
Cuttings: A piece of the stem or branch having bud is cut off from the parent plant. When the
lower part of such cutting is buried in moist soil, it grows as an individual plant after
developing roots. Ex. Rose, Hibiscus.
Layering: A weak lateral branch of the plant with at least one node is bent towards the
ground and covered with moist soil. After few days adventitious roots develop from that branch,
then it is cut off from the parent and grown as a new plant. Ex: Nerium, Jasmine.
Grafting: It is a technique where two plants with desirable characters are joined to
continue their growth as a single plant. The grafted upper part is called the scion and the
lower part- which forms the roots is called stock. Plants with desirable characters can be
produced by this process. Grafting is commonly used in cultivation of flower and fruit
yielding plants. Ex. Mango, Apple, Rose.
Sporogenesis (Spore formation):
The spores are formed from sporangium, when sportangia bursts spores are released
and germinate on reaching suitable substratum in favourable conditions and develop to
form new individuals. Ex: Fungi like Rhizopus, Mucor, few Bacteria, Moss and fern plants
reproduce by asexual spores.
Observing spores in fungus (Rhizopus).
Aim: To observe sporangia and spores of Rhizopus.
45
Material required: Soft rotten bread or fruit or vegetable, mold sample, polythene bag,
Plain glass slide, coverslip, water, disposable gloves.
Procedure:
l Leave the bread in the open air for an hour. Place the bread in a polythene bag, sprinkle
water over it to have dampness, then seal the bag, Place the bag in a dark, warm place.
Mold would start growing in 2-3 days.
l Using a toothpick, scrap very little of the mold and place it on the slide and add a
drop of water.
l Place a cover slip on the specimen without trapping air bubbles underneath.
l Use a tissue paper to remove excess water at the edges of the cover slip and view
the slide under a compound microscope.
Observations: Fine thread like structures called mycelial hyphae and on a small errect
hyphae knob like structures called Sporangia are seen. Each sporangium contains hundreds
of minute spores.
Precautions
Bread
Rhizopus growing on bread Rhizopus mycelium seen under

microscope
(i) Don't tuch the sample mold with hand. Use hand gloves.
Stigma
(ii) Use tissue paper to remove excess of water. Anther
Sexual reproduction in flowering plants: Corolla

Style
Flower - The reproductive parts. Filament
The typical bisexual flower has sepals, petals, stamens and

carpels. Sepals and Petals are non-essential parts where as Calyx
stamens and carpels are called essential Parts. Stamens are male Ovary
parts and are called androecium, produce male gametes in the
form of pollen grains. Carpel is the female portion called Parts of a flower
Gynoecium. It has three main parts called ovary, style and stigma.
Ovules are produced inside the ovary.
46
Pollination:
Transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma of the flower is called pollination. It
is of two types. They are: 1. Self-pollination 2. Cross pollination.
Self-pollination: In this pollen grains are transferred to stigma of the same flower
Cross pollination: In this Pollen grains are transferred to the stigma of another flower of
the same plant or different plant of the same species.
Double fertilization - Triple fusion:
After pollination, pollen grains germinate on stigma to produce pollen tubes and grow some
through the style to reach the ovule. The pollen grains are with two male nuclei. The ovule
is attached by a stalk to the inner side of the ovary. Each ovule has microscopic embryo sac.
It has 7 cells, 8 nuclei.
Pollen tube carries 2 male nuclei. One fertilizes the egg cell, forming a diploid
zygote, it develops into an embryo. The other male nucleus fuses with the two polar nuclei
(secondary nucleus), forming a triploid cell that develops into the endosperm. Because of
two fertilizations, it is known as double fertilization.
1st male nucleus + Egg Cell → Zygote → Embryo (contained in a Seed) → New plant
2nd male nucleus + Secondary nucleus → Endosperm
stigma
pollen tube
style
antipodals
ovary polar nuclei

integuments
ovule synergids
gametophyte cells egg cell
central cell
embryo sac Female gametophyte

Fertilisation
Post-fertilization changes:
After fertilisation, the zygote divides several times to form an embryo within the ovule.
The ovule develops a tough coat and converts into a seed. The ovary grows rapidly and
ripens to form the fruit. Meanwhile the other floral parts may shrivel and fall off.
47
Reproduction in Human beings:
Male reproductive system:
Ureters
Male reproductive system has (1) a pair Urinary bladder
Vasdeferens
of testes, (2) vasa Efferentia, (3) a pair of
seminal ducts
Epididymis, (4) a pair of vasa Deferentia, (5) a
seminal vesicle
pair of Seminal vesicles, (6) Ejaculatory duct, prostate gland
(7) Prostate gland, (8) a pair of Cowper's glands,
(9) Urethra.
penis
Testis are located in the scrotum, hangs outside urethra
the body and maintains temperature suitable for epididymis
sperms. Each testis has highly coiled

testis
seminiferous tubules, in which millions of scrotum
Male reproductive system
sperms are formed by meiosis.
Vasa Efferentia: They carries sperms into the epididymis.
Epididymis stores sperms temporarily.
Vasa Deferentia- From each epididymis arises was Vasadeferens which ascends into
abdominal cavity looping around urethra.
Seminal vesicles: They produce seminal fluid. It is the source of energy for sperm when
they are outside the body.
Prostate Gland: It secrete prostate fluid which is one of the component of semen supplies
nutrients to the sperm.
Cowper's Gland: It's secretion hlep to neutralise acidity in the walls
of urethra. Acrosome
Head
Ejaculator duct : Two ejaculatory ducts join at the center of urethra.
Nucleus
Urethra : Urethra transports not only urine but also sperms. It is Neck
Mitochondria
also called as urino-genital duct.
Middle piece
The passage of spermatozoa: Seminiferous tubules → vasa
Efferentia → epididymis → vasa diferentia → ejaculatory duct → Tail
urethra.
The sperm: The sperm has a head which bears acrosome. It helps
the sperm to penetrate into the ovum. The head has male nucleus. It
fuses with the female nucleus. Head and middle piece are attached
by neck. Mitochondria of middle piece produce energy for the
movement of the sperm. The tail helps the sperm to propel. Sperm cell
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Female reproductive system: The important parts of the female reproductive system are
(1) a pair of ovaries, (2) a pair of fallopian tubes, (3) uterus, (4) vagina. And the functional
mammary glands.
Ovaries: The ovaries are located in the abdominal cavity. The ova develop in tiny cellular
structures called graafian follicles. Each follicle contains a single ovum formed after
meiosis. When an ovum becomes mature, the follicle ruptures and release ovum. It is called
ovulation.
Fallopian tubes: Generally, the ovum enters the widened funnel of an oviduct (fallopian
tube), a tube that carries ovum to the muscular, thick-walled uterus. Fertilization occurs as
the ovum passes through the fallopian tubes, thus forming zygote. The zygote under goes
mitotic division while travelling down in fallopian tube
the fallopian tubes and reaches the uterus
and transforms into a solid ball of cells.
funnel
Uterus: It is inverted pear-shaped
structure. The inner layer of uterus is ovary
uterus
called endometrium. It receives the
cervix
embryo. If there is no fertilization the
vagina
endometrium disintegrates and flows out
Female reproductive system
as menstrual fluid. If there is fertilization
the thickness of endometrium continues, it provides nourishment to the developing embryo.
Pregnancy [Gestation period]: it is the period in which a foetus develops inside a
woman's womb or uterus. The embryo attaches to the soft tissues of the uterus, This is
called as implantation of an embryo. Certain cells of the embryo develop into membranous
structures called chorion, amnion, allantois, yolk sac. These layers nourish, protect, and
support the developing embryo. Placenta is a tissue formed by the cells of foetus and the
mother. Long tube which connects foetus to placenta is called umbilical cord. It supplies
food materials from mother to foetus. Pregnancy lasts, on an average 9 months [40 weeks
or 280 days]. This period is called gestation period.
Vagina: It is the outer canal of the female reproductive tract. During the delivery the baby
is pushed out of the body through the vagina.
Mammary Glands: During the end of pregnancy, a watery yellowish lymph like fluid
called 'colostrum' accumulates in the mammary glands. For the first few days after the baby
is born, the mammary glands secrete only colostrum. It is very important to feed this to the
new born baby. It helps in developing the immune system of the child. After this milk is
secreted. After child birth when production of milk stops menstrual cycle will resume.
49
Birth control methods:
They are used to prevent unwanted pregnancy. Surgical methods of birth control are
available for males as well as females. In males a small portion of sperm ducts is removed
and is called vasectomy. In females a small portion of oviducts is removed and is called
tubectomy.
Reproductive health:
Physical devices such as condoms and diaphragm (cap) prevent fertilisation and also
STD like Gonorrhoea, Syphilis and HIV-AIDS. Every year 1st December is celebrated as
AIDS Awareness Day. The AIDS spread by unsafe sexual contancts, using infected devices,
infected blood transfusion from an infected mother to child.
Cell division
According to cell theory cells arise from pre-existing cells, indicates the importance
of cell division in the creation of new cells. It is the process by which a cell divides into
two or more daughter cells.
Cell cycle: Cell cycle is a series of events that takes place in a cell as it grows and divides.
It has two stages. They are 1. Interphase 2. Division phase (M-Phase).
Interphase: It’s a longest phase. All the materials required for division are prepared in this
phase. cell shows large nucleus and dense cytoplasm, It has 3 stages, they are;
i) G1 Stage- cytoplasm and organelles are synthesized, the cell size increases
during this phase.
ii) S Stage- DNA Synthesis stage, leads to duplication of chromosomes.
iii) G2 Stage- all the proteins necessary for division are synthesised.
M (1 hr)
G2 (3.5 hrs) M
Cell Cycle
G2 Inter phase Mitotic phase
G1-Growth Karyokinesis Cytokinesis

G1
Prophase
S S-DNA Synthesis
G2 - Growth and Metaphase
preparation
Anaphase
S (10.5 hrs)
G1 (10.5 hrs) Telophase
Cell cycle
50
Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase
Mitosis
Types of cell divisions: It is 2 types; they are Mitosis and Meiosis.

MITOSIS: It is somatic division. 2 daughter cells are produced. Both are genetically identical
to the parent cell.
Mitotic phase: It has two divisions. They are Karyokinesis and Cytokinesis.
Karyokinesis: Division of the nucleus is called as ‘karyokinesis’. It has four phases. They
are; prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase.
1. Prophase: Chromatin condenses to form visible chromosomes. Centrosome devides
into centrioles and forms the ends of spindle fibers. Chromosomes split length-wise to
form chromatids.
2. Metaphase: Chromosomes are now lined up at the equator. Spindle apparatus is clearly
seen between the opposite poles and spindle fibres attached to Centromeres.
3. Anaphase: It occurs rapidly. Centromeres split, separating chromatids as a result Daughter
chromosome are formed. Spindle fibres pull daughter chromosomes (sister chromatids)
to opposite poles of the cell.
4. Telophase: The daughter chromosomes arrive at both the poles, of the cell. Nuclear
membrane is resynthesized around each set of daughter chromosomes. Nucleoli re-appear
in each daughter nuclei. As a result, two nuclei are formed at both poles of a cell. Daughter
chromosomes elongate, become invisible due to decondensation, forming chromatin.
Cytokinesis: Division of the cytoplasm is called as cytokinesis. As soon as the telophase
completed, the remnants of spindle fibres and Golgi complex reach the cell plate and produce
cell wall materials where the parent cell divides into two daughter cells. In plant cells cell
plate, in animal cells, cleavage furrow forms at the equator to divide cell during cytokinesis.
Meiosis
It is a reproductive division, by the process of meiosis 4 daughter cells are produced.
Chromosomes in the daughter cells are reduced to half. Haploid gametes or spores are
formed from a diploid parent cell.
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It has two nuclear divisions. 1st nuclear division is Meiosis-I and 2nd is Meiosis-II.
Meiosis-I is a reductional division in which '2n' parent cell divides into 2 haploid (n) daughter
cells.
Prophase 1 Metaphase 1
Anaphase 1 Telophase 1
Meiosis Daughter cells
Meiosis-II is like mitosis, in this division 2 haploid (n) daughter cells of Meiosis-I
undergoes one mitosis. As a result FOUR haploid (n) daughter cells are formed at the end
of meiosis.
Practice Questions
1. What would happen if, organisms do not reproduce?
2. When does occur parthenogenesis. Give examples.
3. What would happen if, meiosis fails to occur in sexually reproducing organisms?
4. What precautions will you suggest to prevent sexually transmitted diseases?
5. How does the repair of worn-out parts take place in organisms?
6. What are the different artificial vegetative propagation methods used in plants?
1. Write the differences between grafting and layering.
2. What are the advantages of grafting?
3. Name the plants which propagate vegetatively by stem structures?
4. Name some important crop plants of daily life, which can be cultivated by using
their vegetative parts?
5. Write the differences between regeneration and fragmentation.
6. Write the differences between mitosis and meiosis.
7. Explain the structure of human sperm with the help of diagram.
8. Write difference between Asexual and Sexual reproduction
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1. Draw the labelled figure of human female reproductive system and explain.
2. Write the apparatus used and procedure followed to observe the Sporangia of Rhizopus
in the laboratory.
3. Draw the labelled diagram of a bisexual flower and explain briefly about each part.
4. Explain the double fertilization and triple fusion in angiosperms.
5. Draw the well labelled diagram of Embryosac of angiosperms and explain.
1. Identify the plant which propagates by bulbs. ( )
A) Potato B) Murraya C) Ginger D) Onion
2. Identify the method of asexual reproduction in yeast from the following ( )
A)Binary fission B) Parthenogenesis C) Budding D) Spore formation
3. Identify the stage of cell cycle in which DNA replicates? ( )
A) Interphase B) Prophase C) Metaphase D) Anaphase
4. Match the following ( )
1. Prophase ( ) a) Nuclear membrane synthesized
2. Metaphase ( ) b) Daughter chomosomes are formed
3. Anaphase ( ) c) Nuclear membrane disintegrate
4. Telophase ( ) d) Chromosomes are aligned at equators
A) 1-c; 2- a; 3- d; 4- b C) 1-d; 2- a; 3- b; 4- c
B) 1-b; 2- d; 3- a; 4- c D) 1-c; 2- d; 3- b; 4- a
5. The number of cells and nuclei in the embryo sac ( )
A) 7cells, 8 nuclei B) 8cells, 7 nuclei
C) 1cell, 3 nuclei D) 3cells, 8 nuclei
6. Identify the correct pair.
A) Budding - Yeast B) Fragmentation - Amoeba
C) Regeneration - Hydra D) Graffing - Euglena
7. Identify the mitotic stage in the diagram
(A) Telephone (B) Metaphase
(C) Anaphase (D) Protophase
53
8. One of the following organisms does not reproduce by binary fission. ( )
A) Amoeba B) Euglena C) Spirogyra D) Paramoecium
9. Which of the following is a parthenocarpic fruit? ( )
A) Dates B) Almonds C) Banana D) Coconut
10. What is the surgical method of contraception in males? ( )
A) Hysterectomy B) Copper - T C) Vasectomy D) Tubectomy
54
CHAPTER
COORDINATION IN
7 LIFE PROCESSES
Organs that carry out different life processes such as digestion, respiration, blood
circulation, excretion, control and reproduction in living organisms are located in specific
places in the body and perform the tasks assigned to them. They interact with each other
in many ways and work in coordination. Organisms are able to carry out all their tasks
properly because each life process is carried out in coordination with other. Every
process is dependent on other process to keep the body in good condition.
Factors that stimulate hunger:
When glucose levels in the blood fall, we get hunger pangs in stomach. Ghrelin is
secreted from certain cells in the wall of the stomach when it goes empty. Hunger
contractions (hunger pangs) start to occur in the stomach due to hunger generating signals
that reach the brain from the stomach due to the secretion of this hormone. Hunger pangs
continue up to 30- 45 minutes. Increase in ghrelin levels results in sensation of hunger
and motivation to consume food. When you feel your stomach is full and there is no need
of food any ore, another hormone leptin is secreted that suppresses hunger.
It is believed that the Diencephalon in fore brain and vagus nerve (10th cranial
nerve) plays an important role in carrying these signals to the brain.
Taste and smell are closely related:
Taste and smell are intimately entwined. This close relationship is most apparent in
how we perceive the flavours of food. Anyone with severe cough and cold cannot make
out the difference in tastes of certain food items. That's because only the taste, not the
food odours, are being detected.Taste itself is focused on distinguishing chemicals that
have a sweet, salty, sour, bitter, or umami taste (umami is Japanese for 'savory'). However,
interactions between the senses of taste and smell enhance our perceptions of the foods
we eat.
When we smell, the air borne substances get dissolved in the watery film of nasal
mucus. The chemoreceptors in nose are other wise called olfactory receptors which
trigger signals in the form of nerve impulses to the brain where smell is detected. Similarly
as we take food into our mouth the taste buds sends signals to the brain. Picking up the
slight differences in smell the food tastes are identified in our brain.
55
Relation among taste, tongue and the palate:
Taste can be identified easily when the tongue is pressed against the palate. As we
know the tongue is sensory in function and contains taste buds. These taste buds are tiny
papillae with an opening on top. Within them there are several taste sensitive cells. Any
food substance when placed on the tongue gets dissolved in the saliva secreted by
salivary glands in the mouth. When the tongue is pressed against the palate the food
substance is pressed against the opening of the taste bud letting it to reach the taste cells
and triggering taste signals. Finally the taste is recognized in the brain.
Mouth - the munching machine :
Tongue and teeth are useful in chewing the
food we eat. There are different types of teeth in
our mouth to break food into small pieces. There
} molars
(3)
are four types of teeth in our mouth namely incisors, } premolars (2)
}
canine (1)
canines, premolars and molars. Teeth grind food,
incisors (2)
chew it and break it into small pieces. This is called
'mastication'.The teeth help in cutting and grinding while tongue movements evenly spread
out the food and help in mixing it with saliva. The muscles of the mouth enable the food
to be pushed in the oral cavity and to be moved around.
Different Types of Teeth and their Functions:
Type of teeth Number of teeth Function

Incisors 8 Cutting food into pieces
Canines 4 Tearing of food
Premolars 8 Chewing of food
Molars 12 Chewing and grinding of food
Dental formula :
It refers to the arrangement of teeth in the mouth. Dental formula indicates half of
the total number of teeth present in the upper jaw and lower jaw. So the human dental
formula can be written as 2123/2123.
Vinegar and chalk piece experiment:
Aim : To know the importance of chewing of food.
Materials required: chalk pieces, vinegar, beakers.
Procedure : 1. Take two beakers and Fill half of them with Vinegar.
2. Put small pieces of chalk in one beaker and a long unbroken chalk in
another beaker.
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3. This arrangement should be kept undisturbed for half an hour and
then observe the changes.
Observation : The crushed chalk pieces dissolves faster than intact chalk.
Analysis: Breaking food into small pieces in the mouth increases the surface area of the
food and helps it to react with digestive enzymes, so the food is digested quickly.
Action of saliva on flour :
Aim : To examine the action of saliva on flour.
Materials required: Test tubes, watch glass, flour, iodine solution, saliva.
Procedure:
1. Take a test tube and fill it half with water. Add a pinch of flour to it and shake the
test tube until mixed well.
2. Take few drops of flour mixture in a watch glass. Add iodine solution to this. It
turns into blue-black colour.
3. Divide this mixture into two equal parts. Care should be taken to ensure that the
solution is equal in both the test tubes.
4. Add a teaspoon of saliva in a test tube. The second test tube should be kept
unmixed. Observe the solutions after 45 minutes.
Observation : The loss of colour of the solution in the test tube mixed with saliva can
be observed. The solution to which saliva is not added remain in blue-black colour only.
Analysis: The enzyme amylase (ptyalin) in saliva converts the carbohydrates into small
molecules. Thus the solution in the test tube mixed with saliva has lost its blue-black
colour.
Testing the PH of mouth:
A small piece of PH paper should be placed on the clean tongue and taken out to
observe the colour change. The colour formed on the paper should be checked (matched)
with the PH colour chart. The PH value of saliva is determined based on this colour
change. Saliva in a clean mouth normally has a value slightly above 7 and is alkaline in
nature. Saliva converts the food into an alkaline medium. This medium is suitable for
salivary amylase to act on the food that we eat.
Peristaltic movement in the oesophagus:
The oesophagus receives the food pushed by the swallowing action of the mouth.
The walls of the food pipe secrete a slippery substance called mucus. Mucus lubricates
and protects the oesophageal walls from damage. The wall of the oesophagus is made up
of two kinds of smooth muscles. The inner layer consists of circular muscles and the
outer layer of longitudinal muscles.
57
Contraction of the circular muscles results
in narrowing of the oesophagus just behind the
bolus. So the food is squeezed downwards. epiglottis
Contraction of the longitudinal muscles in front oesophageal sphincter

contracted
of the bolus widen the tube, this results in
relaxed
shortening of that particular part of the muscles
contracted muscles
oesophagus. Contraction and relaxation of these bolus
sphincter relaxed
muscles bring in a wave like motion that propels
the food bolus into the stomach by the action
called as "peristalsis". This is involuntary and stomach
under the control of autonomous nervous system.
Fig.: Peristaltic movement of bolus
Stomach the mixer and digester
Our stomach is like a pouch which is elastic in nature. The size of the stomach
increases based on the food that we intake. The messages are transmitted from the brain
through motor nerve to the wall of the stomach, and stimulate the gastric glands to
produce gastric juice. When the food reaches stomach, the walls of stomach secrete the
strong acids like hydrochloric acid (HCl) and other digestive juices.
The contraction of the stomach muscles squeeze and mix the food with the acids
and juices of the stomach. These digestive juices turns the food into a smooth porridge
like consistency called chyme. Some large protein molecules are broken down in to
simple molecules. As the process of digestion in the stomach nears completion, the
contractions of the stomach decrease.The muscles, called as pyloric sphincter at the
opening of the stomach and the first part of the small intestine or duodenum, to contrast.
This opens the pathway into duodenum releasing the partially digested food (chyme) in
small quantities into the duodenum.
Reverse peristalsis - rumination:

In cow or buffalo, it is observed that the bolus moving from a part near the stomach
to its mouth. It is reverse peristalsis. Rumination is the process by which the chewed
food moves from the digestive tract to the mouth and then begins to chew. This reverse
peristalsis happens when we vomit.
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Acid and leaf experiment
Aim: To understand how stomach protected from the secretions of its own acids.
Material Required: Leaves, Vaseline, Hydrochloric acid, Petry Dish.
Procedure:
1. Take any two similar green leaves.
2. Apply Vaseline on one leaf and leave the other free.
3. Keep the leaves in Petry dish.
4. Add 1 or 2 drops of Hydrochloric acid on both the leaves. Observe them after 5
minutes.
Observation:
The leaf applied with Vaseline doesn't changed. Stains observed on the leaf without
Vaseline.
Application:
As the leaf with Vaseline protected by the action of acid, the walls of stomach
which are covered by mucus is protected from damage being caused by the secretion of
its own acids.
Travel of food from the stomach to the intestine:
Food is a soup like mixture when it leaves the stomach and enters the small
intestine. When the food enters the intestine, hormones like secretin and cholecystokinin
which stimulate pancreas, liver and walls of small intestine to secrete pancreatic juice,
bile juice and succus entericus. Due to the effect of enzymes in these digestive juices,
various elements of food are completely digested.
Absorption in the small intestine:
The absorption of nutrients by finger like projections
in the small intestine is a very selective process. These
projections are called villi. These villi increase the surface
area so that the food retained in the folds can remain longer
thereby enhancing absorption. The intestine has developed
a rich store of coordinated movements of its muscular
apparatus along with neural apparatus.
59
Second Brain:
The neural apparatus of our digestive tract comprises of such a vast and
complicated network of neurons that it has been nicknamed by scientists as the second
brain. There is much more to this mass of neural tissue, filled with important neurotrans
mitters, than just handling digestion and supplying the occasional nerve pang of hunger.
Technically known as the enteric nervous system, the second brain consists of sheaths of
neurons embedded in the walls of the long tube of our gut, or alimentary canal, which
measures about nine meters end to end from the oesophagus to the anus. The second
brain contains some 100 million neurons. Thus equipped with its own reflexes and
senses, the second brain can control several gut functions often independently on the
brain.
Defecation:
The peristaltic waves move the waste material into
the rectum. The left side of the colon acts like a storage
tank of faeces. Water gets reabsorbed and the remaining
wastes gets stored in the last part (Rectum) of the large
intestine. This waste is called as stool. It is later expelled
out of the body through the anus. The two muscular layers
at the end of rectum, forms as anal sphincter. Inner internal
anal sphincter works as involuntary and other external
anal sphincter works as voluntary control. These control the exit of the stool.
Release of the energy from Food:
If energy has to be obtained from food it has to be oxidised. For this purpose
respiration has to go on. During inhalation oxygen moves across the walls of the alveoli
and enters the blood. From here it enters the red blood cells and gets distributed throughout
the cells of our body. Nutrients in the cells get oxidized and energy is released. A number
of involuntary processes occur during respiration, is controlled by the medulla oblongata
of the autonomous nervous system (ANS).
Practice Questions
1. What is the role of ghrelin and leptin hormones in controlling hunger?
2. What are olfactory receptors? Write their functions?
3. Write the materials required to test the PH of mouth.
4. What happens if you swallow food without chewing it?
5. What is mastication?
60
6. What happens if there is no mucus layer in the oesophagus?
7. Draw a diagram showing the process of perstaltic movemnt in oesophagus.

1. How taste and smell are inter linked to each other?
2. Explain reverse peristalsis movement with suitable example.
3. Why is alimentary canal called as second brain?
4. Observe the following table and answer the questions.
Type of teeth Number of teeth Function
Incisors 8 Cutting food into pieces

Canines 4 Tearing of food
Premolars 8 Chewing of food
Molars 12 Chewing and grinding food
i) How many canines are there in our mouth? What are their functions?
ii) What is the total number of teeth in human mouth?
iii) Which teeth are used for tearing the food?
1. Explain the process of peristaltic movement in stomach with the help of diagram.
2. Explain the role of villi in digestion with the help of diagram.
3. Write the procedure of acid and leaf experiment and its application.
4. Write the materials required, procedure, and observation of activity "action of
saliva on flour."

1. Identify the hormone that stimulates hunger. ( )
A) leptin B) ghrelin C) secretin D) cholecystokinin
2. The part of the brain that controls hunger pangs are ( )
A) Cerebrum B) Mid brain
C) Medulla oblongata D) Diencephalon
3. Identify the correct dental formula in humans. ( )
A) 2 1 1 3 / 2 1 1 3 B) 1221 / 1221
C) 2123 / 2123 D) 2132 / 2132
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4. Identify the correct sentence related to oesophagus. ( )
A) The inner layer is made up of longitudinal muscle tissue.
B) The outer layer is made up of circular muscle tissue.
C) Outer and inner layers are made up of circular muscle tissue.
D) The inner layer is made up of circular muscle tissue and the outer layer is made
up
of longitudinal muscle tissue.
5. The Acid secreted by walls of the stomach is ( )
A) Hydrochloric acid B) Sulphuric acid
C) Nitric acid D) Acetic acid
6. Identify the correct pair. ( )
A) Pyloric sphincter - oesophagus B) Anal sphincter - anus
C) Cardiac muscles - oesophagus D) Gastric muscles- large intestine
7. Identify the part that represents the question mark in the figure given below. ( )
A) Muscle tissue
B) epithelial tissue
C) lymphatic vessel
D) Blood capillary
8. The part of the brain which Controls breath in respiration is ( )
A) Optic lobes B) Olfactory Lobes
C) Medulla oblongata D) Cerebellum
62
CHAPTER
8 Heredity and Evolution
We find different living organisms in the world around us. We see variations and
similarities among them. Differences in characters within very closely related groups of
organisms are referred to as variations. Passing of characters or traits from parent to
offsprings is called heredity. The process in which traits or characters are passed from one
generation to another generation is called inheritance.
Gregor Johann Mendel did many experiments on pea plants to explain how characters
and variations are passed from one generation to another.
Reasons for Mendel selecting pea plant for his experiments

Mendal choosed the pea plant for his experiments, as of the following advantages.
having well defined characters having Bisexual flowers
Predominantly self pollinating plant Suitable for cross pollination
It is an annual plant
Mendel choosed 7 pairs of contrasting characters in pea plants for his study. They are
colour of the flower, position of the flower, colour of the seed, shape of the seed, shape of
the pod, colour of the pod, length of the stem.
Mono hybrid cross

Mendel selected one character of pea plant and examined how that character is passed
to next generation.
Every character has factors,which are called alleles.
If these factors are of same type, they are homozygous or if the factors are of different
type then they are referred to as heterozygous.
When a pure breed yellow seed pea plant is cross pollinated with pure breed green seed
pea plant (parent generation) in the first generation (F1) all the pea plants with yellow
seeds were obtained.
When these plants are self pollinated in F2 generation. 75% yellow seed pea plants and
25% green seed pea plants were obtained, it is in the ratio of 3:1.
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In F1 generation all pea plants are with yellow seeds, this character is called dominant
character and the green seed character which did not express is called recessive character.
In F2 generation 75% are yellow seed producing pea plants and 25% are green ones.This
is known as phenotype (externally visible characters) and this ratio is called phenotype
ratio, It is 3:1. Based on the factors genetic constitution it is 1:2:1 ratio. It is known as
genotypic ratio.
YY yy
Parent
pure breed pure breed green
generation
yellow seed plant seed plant
Gametes
cross pollination Y y
F1 generation
Yy
100% yellow seed plants
(Yellow colour dominant character,
green colour recessive character)
Yy Yy
Gametes Y y Y y
Self pollination
Y y
Y YY Yy
y yY yy
75% Yellow seed plants
F2 generation
25 % Green seed plants
Phenotypic ration 3:1

Genotypic ration 1:2:1
Y Y, yy are homozygous; Yy are heterozygous
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Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance
Mendel proposed laws of inheritance which include law of dominance, law of
segregation, Law of Independent Assortment.
Law of Dominance: Out of two factors which are responsible for a character, only one
factor is expressed in F1 generation and other factor remains recessive (or) suppressed,this
is called as 'law of dominance'.
Law of Segregation: At the time of gamete formation, allels get suparated and each one
enters into a separate gamete randomly. This is called 'Law of Segregation'.
Law of Independent Assortment: When two different characters pass from parent
generation to next generation one character of it except the opposite character does not
show influence on any other characters. This is law of independent assortment.
Sex Determination in Human Beings
Each human cell contains 23 pairs of chromosomes. Out of 23 pairs 22 pairs of
chromosomes are autosomes and one pair are allosomes (or) sex chromosomes. Sex
chromosomes are two types one is ‘X’ and other is ‘Y’.
In both male and females autosomes are same but allosomes are different. Females
have XX chromosomes, where as males have XY chromosomes. Female gamete (ova)
have only X chromosome. Male gamete (sperm) are of two types, one with X
chromosome and other with Y chromosome.
If a sperm carries X chromosome and fertilizes the ovum with X chromosome it
results in a baby girl. If a sperm carries Y chromosome fertilizes the ovum with X
chromosome it results in a baby boy.
Who determines the sex of the baby - mother or father?

Observe the flowchart below Father Mother
Parents
44+XY 44+XX
22 22
+X Gyno +Y Andro
Sperm Sperm 22+X 22+X Gametes
Eggs
Offspings
Baby girl Baby boy Baby girl Baby boy
(44+XX) (44+XY) (44+XX) (44+XY)
65
We can observe from the above flowchart that the type of chromosome in the sperm
of the father plays an important role in the sex determination of the baby.
EVOLUTION:
From ancient times it is believed that living things do not change and remain the same
forever. But some scientists, after much research have proposed theories of evolution.
Inheritance of acquired characters proposed by Jean Baptist Lamarck
(Lamarckism):
According to Lamarck's theory, at some point of time in the history, the size of giraffes
was equal to that of deer. He thought that due to the shortage of food materials on the
ground and to reach the branches of trees, giraffes started stretching their necks. Because
of continuous stretching of neck, after several generations giraffes developed long necks.
Such characters that are developed during the lifetime of an organism for its need and
survival are called acquired characters and passing of acquired characters to its offsprings
(next generation) is the "Inheritance of acquired characters", proposed by Lamarck.
August Weismann experimental results on rats tail:

August weismann removed tails of rats and observed that their offsprings are normal
with tails. He has done it again and again for 22 generations but still offsprings are normal
with tails. He disproved lamarck's theory "Inheritance of acquired characters" saying that
the bodily changes caused due to the surroundings are not inherited to their offsprings.
Theory of Natural selection proposed by Charles Darwin (Darwinism)
Charles Darwin proposed 'Natural Selection' theory:
It states that the nature itself decides which organism should survive or perish from
it.
The organisms with useful traits will survive. The organisms with unfavourable traits
will perish from its environment.
Each species tend to produce large number of offsprings. They compete with each
other for food, space, mating and other needs. Sometimes they have to compete with
other species for survival. In this struggle for existence, only the fittest can survive.
This is called 'struggle for existence'.
In a population when there is a struggle for the existence the fittest will be survived.
Nature favours only useful variations. This is called 'survival of fittest'. Surviving in
the struggle for life is called 'survival of the fittest'.
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The offsprings of survivors inherit the useful variations and the same process happens
with every new generation until the variations becomes a common feature.
Above a long period of time this leads to the formation of new species. This new
species is distinctly different from the original species.
All species on the earth have evolved in the same way.
Small changes within the species is known as "Micro evolution". Formation of new
species is known as "Speciation" or "Macro evolution".
Evalution is a slow and continous process.
Evidences of Evolution:
Some evidences for evolution are currently available. Some of them are:
Homologous organs Analagous organs
Evidences from Embryology Fossils

Vestigial organs
Homologous Organs:
Similar arrangement of bones in the
forelimbs of organisms, though their
functions are different, these organs are
called homologous organs. For example,
flippers of whale (swimmer), wings of a bat
(flyer), legs of a cheetah (runner), claws of
a mole (digger) and hand of a man (grasping).
This type of evolution is called divergent
Homologous organs
evolution.
Analogous Organs:
Organs which are structurally different but functionally similar Insect wing
are called analogous organs. For example wings of insects and wings
of birds, they are structurally different but functionally similar, used
for flying. This type of evolution is called convergent evolution.
Bird wing
Based on these two evidences, it evident that all living organisms Analogous
have evolved from a common ancestor. organs
67
Evidences from Embryology:
There are remarkable similarities in the embryos of different animals, from fish to
human being. The resemblance is so close that at an early stage it is difficult to distinguish
one embryo from the other. Even a tadpole of a frog resembles fish more than the frog.
When we observe the life cycle, every organism exhibits the structural features of their
ancestors. This indicates that all organisms have common ancestor, from which all organisms
have evolved.
Fossils:
Some species which were existing million years ago, but we may not find them now.
Fossils are evidences of ancient life forms which has been preserved by natural processes
with in the sediments deposited beneath water and land. They can be actual remains of once
lived such as bones or seeds or even their foot prints. All such preserved traces of extinct
organisms are called fossils.
Age and period of fossils is determined by radioactive isotopes of certain elements
such as Carbon, Uranium and Potassium. By calculating the half life of radioactive
isotopes the age of fossils can be estimated. This is called corbon dating method. The study
of fossils is called 'Palesntology'.
Through fossils, the characteristics of organisms belonging to different groups are
identified and their evolution is estimated.
Vestigial organs:
During the course of evolution some organs which are not useful gradually disappear.
Some organs which do not have any function, but still remain in the body of organism are
called vestigial organs. Sometimes vestigial organs abruptly appear even in human beings.
This phenomenon is called 'Atarvism'. Ex: baby with tail. In human beings appendix has no
role to play in the process of digestion. But in herbivores like rabbit appendix plays an
important role in digestion. There are nearly 180 vestigial organs in human beings. Human
being is said to be a 'moving museum of vestigial organs'.
Practice Questions
1. Why Mendel choose pea plants for his experiments?
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2. Write the Phenotypic and Genotypic ratio of Monohybrid cross.
3. Why human being is called as 'moving museum of vestigial organs'?
4. What would happen if evolution does not take place?
5. How the age of the fossils can be determined?
1. Who among the parents (mother or father) determines the sex of the baby? Explain.
2. Explain the inheritance of acquired characters proposed by Lamarck with examples.
3. Observe the table below and answer the following questions
Y y
Y YY Yy
y yY yy
i) YY, yy - Indicates which character?
ii)Write the phenotypic ratio.
iii) Write the homozygous traits from the above table.
4. Write the results of experiment conducted by August Weismann.
5. Explain the 'laws of inheritance' proposed by Mendel.
1. Explain monohybrid cross based on any one character.
2. Explain the evolutionary evidences with examples.
3. Explain the main points of the "theory of natural selection" proposed by Darwin.
4. Explain the sex determination in human beings with the help of flow chart.
1. Genotype ratio of monohybrid cross is ( )
A) 1:2:1 B) 3:1 C) 1:3 D) 2:1:1
2. Which of the following indicate the homozygous state? ( )
A) yy B) Yy C) yY D) Yr
3. Which one of the following indicates the number of chromosomes in female?
( )
A) 44 + XY B) 22 + XY C) 44 + XX D) 23 + XX
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4. Identify the correct statement ( )
A) Homologous, analogous organs both indicate convergent evolution
B) Homologous organs indicate convergent evolution
C) Analogous organs indicate divergent evolution
D) Homologous organs indicate divergent evolution
5. Identify the CORRECT pair from the following ( )
A) Inheritance of acquired characters - August weismann
B) Natural selection - Lamarck
C) Struggle for existence - Charles Darwin
D) Origin of Species - Mendel
6. The following picture indicates ( )
A) Vestigial organs B) Analogous organs

C) Fossils D) Homologous organs
7. Natural selection means ( )
A) Nature selects desirable characters.
B) Nature interacts with organisms.
C) Organisms produce more offsprings
D) Ensuring that there are more trees in nature.
70
CHAPTER
9 Our Environment
Surroundings plays an important role in the survival of all organisms. The sum of
physical and biological factors along with their chemical interactions that affect an organism
is called environment. The living organisms always try to maintain a balance with biotic and
abiotic factors. The physical factors refer to abiotic factors are land, air, water, sunlight etc.
and biological factors refer to biotic factors are flora and fauna. The place where an organism
lives iscalled habitat.
Food Relationships:
The relationships between organisms and their food can be understood with the help of
food chains and food webs.As you know a food chain shows who eats what in a particular
habitat. The arrows between two organisms in the chain always point from the food to the
feeder.
Food relationships
Food Chain:
If we want to show a food relationship between grass, snake, rabbit and hawk then connect
the given organisms by putting arrows and make a food chain. Generally,in a food chain as
we move from producer to consumers (primary, secondary & tertiary) the numbers of
organisms at each level decreases. In an ecosystem the energy rich food passes from
producers to consumers stepwise,with respect to their food relationships.
Sun
Primary Secondary Tertiary Top

Producer
Consumer Consumer Consumer Carnivore
All organisms in an ecosystem derive energy from food to live and for that sunlight is the
main source of the energy. Food chain shows that how the energy is passed from one organism
to another. At each transfer, a large proportion about 80 to 90 percent of energy is dissipated
71
as heat produced during the process of respiration and other reactions. After three steps
in a food chain, a very little energy is still available for top carnivores to use.
Examples
Grass grasshopper frog snake Hawk
Grass Rabbit Fox Wolf
Grass Goat Man
The Figure shows some of the feeding relationships
amongst organisms living in an ecosystem. So that
animals fit into special positions within the food web;
each is described as its niche. The term ‘niche’ denotes
not only the animal’s position in the food web and what it
eats, but also its mode of life. So,”Niche describes the
role of an organism in its particular ecosystem”.
Food Web
In nature food
chains are usually
not simple and
linear. They are
forest pond
often interlinked, grassland
because at every
Food chains in different
stage or trophic
ecosystems
level consumers
have several alternative forms of food to choose
from. For example, snakes prey upon frogs, mice and
small birds. Similarly, cranes prey upon fish and frogs
and also aphids are eaten by many insectivorous birds
in addition to warblers, and also ladybirds and other
insects.Hawks, prey upon a considerable variety of
Food web birds and small mammal as seen in the figure. It
reflects that the whole Community is a complex one
and it is an inter-connected unit. As a result, food chains become branched and interlinked
at various stages leading to a web like structure. This is called a food web.
Ecological pyramids
The term ‘Ecological pyramid’was introduced by a British ecologist Charles Elton
in 1927.The ecologists used the term pyramid to show the feeding relationships among
organisms in an existing food chain. Ecological Pyramid is a graphical depiction which
is meant to illustrate the relationship between different living organisms at different trophic
72
levels in an ecosystem.In the ecological pyramid the producers (1st trophic level) are
represented at the base; and other consumers are at successive trophic levels (primary,
secondary and tertiary consumers) with top carnivores at the tip.
Types of pyramids
Pyramids are of (3) types. They are1)Pyramid of number,2)Pyramid of biomass, 3)
Pyramid of energy.
1. Pyramid of numbers
In this pyramid,number of organisms in a food
chain can be represented graphically. Each bar
represents the number of individuals at each
trophic level in the food chain. At each link in a
food chain, from the first-order consumers to the
large carnivores, there is normally an increase in
size, but decrease in number.
Let us observe the figure.For example in a forest,
the aphids are very small and many in numbers,
the ladybirds which feed on them are distinctly Pyramid of numbers
larger and not so numerous, the insectivorous
birds which feed on the ladybirds are larger still and are only present in small numbers, and
there may only be a single pair of hawksof much larger size than the insectivorous birds on
which they prey.The relationship is best shown as a pyramid, which is upright.
2. Pyramid of Biomass
Biomass is organic material of biological origin that is ultimately derived from the fixation
of carbon dioxide by trapping solar energy during photosynthesis. This includes trees, shrubs,
crops, grasses, algae, aquatic plants, agricultural and forest residues and all forms of human,
animal and plant waste.Any type of plant or animal material that can be converted into energy
is called biomass.When these materials are used for energy production, they are known as
biofuels.
The Pyramid of biomass represents the relationships that exist
Secondary consumers
between the quantities of living matter (biomass) at different (Fish and other aquatic
animals)
trophic levels. Primary
consumers
In Terrestrial ecosystems, the biomass progressively (Insects)
Producers
decreases from producers to top carnivores. Hence it is upright (Algae)
in terrestrial ecosystems.
In an aquatic ecosystem, the biomass of phytoplankton is Pyramid of
Biomass
quite negligible as compared to that of the crustaceans and small (pond)
73
herbivorous fish that feed on these producers. The biomass of large carnivorous fish
living on small fishes is still greater. This makes the pyramid of biomass inverted.
1. Pyramid of Energy
Food is the source of energy for
organisms that are used in the growth and re
building the parts of the body. Photosynthesis is
eagle
an essential process for the life.
Energy enters the producers i.e. green snake
plants and photosynthetic bacteria in the frog
ecosystem from the sun in the form of solar
grass
energy. The solar energy is converted into hopper
chemical energy by the producer. This chemical
energy reaches to the consumers through a food
chain. The biomass of producers is eventually Pyramid of Energy
consumed by herbivores or predators and its
energy there by enters the next higher trophic level in the ecosystem.
From the producers, the chemical energy passes to the consumers from one trophic level
to the next through food. At each trophic level, organisms use most of the food energy that
they assimilate into their bodies to fulfil their metabolic requirements, performance of
work, growth and reproduction. Because biological energy transformations are inefficient,
a substantial proportion of metabolized food energy is lost, unused as heat.Only a small
fraction goes to the eater at next trophic level. Hence the pyramid of energy is always
upright.
Solar energy Producers (Chemical energy) Consumers (Chemical energy)
Heat Heat
The materials keep on cycling i.e. entering the living beings and through death and decay
returning to the soil and atmosphere.
The effects of human activities on the ecosystem:
Pollution is increasing due to human intervention in the ecosystem. When we cut forests to
grow food crops, and for development activities like construction at highways, buildings, industries
etc. brings harmful changes in the ecosystem and affects organisms of each tropic level.
Story of Kolleru lake:
Kolleru is one of the largest fresh water lakes in India. In November 1999, the
Government of India had declared the lake as bird sanctuary. This lake is hosting around 193
species of birds and a variety of flora and fauna, including medicinal plants. Every year, it
74
attracts migratory birds from northern Asia
and Eastern Europe between the month of
October and March.
In recent years, this lake has shrunk in
size and facing great threat due to pollution.
The decrease in water area in the lake resulted
in flooding problems. Kolleru Lake
In 80’s Aquaculture in Kolleru was
started extensively, and also almost the entire lake was brough under cultivation and bunds
were constructed to protect the crops. The drains and rivulets from industries carry
substantial quantities of various pollutants. The major sources of pollution are agricultural
runoff containing several types of residuals like agrochemical, fertilizers, fish tank
discharges, industrial elements, and municipal and domestic sewage.These excessive
nutrients in the lake resulted to explosive weed growth ex: Pistia, Eichornia
At present the lake is prone to siltation, and encroachment blockages in canals. 15 local
varieties of fish are endangered. The ministry of environment and forest (MoEF), Govt of
India constituted a committee "Operation Kolleru" to bring back the ecological balance of
Kolleru lake.
Bioaccumulation:
The process of entry of pollutants into a food chain is known as Bioaccumulation.
Biomagnification:
The tendency of pollutants to concentrate as they move from one trophic level to
the next trophic level.
Seasonal Bioaccumulation of heavy metals in fish of Edulabad Water Reservoir
(EBWR):
The aquatic biota is being contaminated with heavy metals here due to industrialisation and
anthropogenic activities. As the fish strongly respond to stress conditions, considered as
bioindicators. In a study revealed that bioaccumulation is higher and the glycogen and lipid
contents are lower in the fish of EBWR, compared to the Bibinagar freshwater reservoir.
The metal concentrations in EBWR were found to be higher than Indian standard limits as
Fe >Pb>Cr>Ni>Cd. The heavy metal could find its way into the human food chain. This
bioaccumulation causes various physiological disorders such as hypertension, sporadic fever,
renal damage, nausea etc. Unplanned urban settlement combined with the proliferation of
unorganised small-scale industries and sewage leads to, the contamination of EBWR.
Sparrow campaign :
In 1958, In China a campaign has started to achieve rapid increase in industrial products.
One of the most famous initiatives was to form co-operatives or collectives. This initial
75
success yielding double led to ambitious goals for the following years. But the weather
didn’t cooperate. The sparrows were accused of pecking away the grains in wave houses.
Almost half of the labour force was mobilised into the anti-sparrow army. People
started killing sparrows. Destroyed eggs and nests. Non-material rewards were offered in
accordance with the number of sparrows killed. But some Scientists found the insects harmful
to crops in the digestive system of sparrows. Later the scientific findings showed that
sparrows were beneficial for humans. The country was soon swarmed with no sparrows to
eat the locust population. The use of pesticides further degraded the land and led to famine.
Steps towards prevention:
Following are some important Biological controlling methods to be used to “Ban all
pesticides”.
Rotation of crops - growing different crops on a particular piece of land in successive
years
Studying the life histories of pests: by understanding the life cycle of pests, the seeds can
be sown
Biological control: introducing natural predators of pests.
Genetic strain: genetically modified plants to resistant to certain pests.
Environmental ethics: people need to know some basic ethics in view of the environment.
Practice Questions

1. Grass → Goat → Man
Name the producers and consumers in the above food chain.
2. What is the difference between fodd web and niche.
3. Explain the ecological Pyramid with suitable example.
4. What factors caused the number of migratory birds to decrease in Kolleru lake?
5. Write the difference between Bio accumulation and Bio magnification.
6. What will happen if we remove primary consumers from a food chain ?
1. What are the consequences of contamination of Kolleru lake ?
2. Why Pyramid of energy is always upright ?
3. What was the impact of sparrow campaign in China in 1958 ?
76
4. Observe the following table and give the answers to the questions given below.
Portion of Kolleru Lake Area in 1967 Km2 Area in 2004 Km2
Lake – Water spread area 70.70 62.65
Lake with sparse weed 0 47.45
Lake with dense weed 0 15.20
Lake liable to flood in rainy season 100.97 0
Aquaculture ponds 0 99.74
Rice fields 8.4 16.62
Encroachment 0.31 1.37
TOTAL 180.38 180.38
i. In which year lake water spread area is more ? Why ?
ii. Why weeds are dense in the lake ?
iii. What are the reasons for decrease in lake area ?
5. Observe the following table and give the answers to the questions given below.
Problem Agricultural Aquaculture Industrial Human
Practices practices activities activities
Biological
1. Decreased
Migratory birds
- + - -
2. Population loss of - + - -
flora and fauna
3. Pathogens - - - +
Chemical
1. Eutrophication + + - +
2. Toxic contamination + + + -
Physical
1. Siltation + + - -
2. Flooding + + - +
Note: (+) means has influence on the mentioned problem.
(−) means has no influence on the mentioned problem.
i. What are the factors that affected the number of migratory birds to decrease ?
ii. What are the reasons for chemical problems ?
iii. What happens if the dissolved oxygen is reduced in lake water ?
77
1. Draw a pyramid of numbers and write about the tropic levels.
2. Draw a pyramid of biomass and explain why aquatic pyramid of biomass is inverted.
3. Draw a pyramid of energy and explain why this pyramid is always upright.
4. Suggest some alternative methods to protect the crops and food from pests based on
sound biological principles.

1. Identify the Correct Pair from the following
A) Producer - Phytoplankton B) Herbivore - Wolf
C) Omnivore - Tiger D) Carnivore - Rabbit
2. Which one of the following pair belongs to the same trophic level?
A) Frog - Lizard B) Snake - Squirrel C) Rabbit - Fox D) Hawk - Rat
3. Which level in the food chain has minimum Energy?
A) Producers B) Herbivores C) Omnivores D) Carnivores
4. In an ecosystem, herbivores represent,
A) Producers B) Primary Consumers
C) Secondary Consumers D) Tertiary Consumers
5. A food chain comprising Eagle, Green Plants, Grasshoppers, Frog and Snake.
The concentration of harmful chemicals entering the food chain will be maximum in
(A) Frog B) Grasshoppers C) Eagle D) Snake
6. Which of the following statements about food chain and energy flow through
ecosystem is false?
A) Food webs include two or more Food Chains.
B) All organisms that are not Producers are Consumers.
C) A single organism can feed at several Trophic Levels.
D) Detritivores feed at all trophic levels.
7. Which group of organisms are not constituents of a food chain?
A) Frog, Snake, Eagle, Grass, Grasshopper
B) Plankton, Man, Fish, Grasshopper
C) Grass, Lion, Rabbit
D) Wolf, Grass, Snake, Tiger
78
8. In a Food Chain third trophic level is always occupied by
A) Carnivores B) Herbivores C) Producers D) Decomposers
9. Identify the incorrect sentence from the following regarding producers:
A) all green plants and blue green algae are producers
B) green plants get their food from organic compounds
C) producers prepare food from inorganic substances
D) plants convert solar energy to chemical energy
10. The energy flow in an Ecosystem is,
A) Unidirectional B) Bidirectional
C) Multidirectional D) No specific direction
79
CHAPTER
10 Natural Resources
The Earth’s natural resources include air, water, soil, minerals, fuels, plants and animals.
Conservation is the practice of caring for these resources, so that all living things can
benefit in the future. All the things we need to survive, such as food, water, air and shelter,
come from natural resources.
Renewable Resources- Non-Renewable Resources
Some natural resources, after being used up, are regenerated. These are called
renewable resources. Ex: Air, water etc.
Resources like fossil fuels are non-renewable. Once these are completely used up,
they seem to wear out forever. This is because it takes a long time for their formation.
These are called non-renewable resources
Status of Water Resources in Vaddicherla Village, Janagama District:
There are no alternatives to wells in Vaddicherla village. At the beginning of the study,
in Vaddicherla village only 450 acres of land was under cultivation out of 3000 acres of
agricultural land, through 175 wells. The population of this village has increased by about
10% in 5 years. After 5 years only 56 wells had water and only 315 acres of land was under
cultivation. Farmers in Vaddicherla were earning less per acre, but their expenditure increased
in terms of instalation of pump sets, pipe line connection to farms, cost towards maintenance,
electric charges etc.
Status of Water Sources in Wanaparthi Village, Janagama District:
At the beginning of the study, in Vanaparthi village only 1000 acres of land was under
cultivation out of 4000 acres of agricultural land, through 155 wells. The population of this
village has increased by about 10% in 5 years. After 5 years only 95 wells had water and
only 860 acres of land was under cultivation.
Farmers in Wanaparthi are also earning less than the actual expenditure per acre, their
costs increased by digging borewells to greater depths.
Depth of the borewells- irrigable land area:
Increasing the depth of the borewells is not suitable solution to increase the total
irrigable land area. A pond in Wanaparthi village has been converted into Percolation tank
so the water supply has improved to some extent.
80
Center for World Solidarity Project:
The Center for World Solidarity's project focused on groundwater sustainability,
bringing water to dried wells in the villages. All the farmers are encouraged to use the same
water source so that they can share and use water collectively. Farmers are encouraged to
adopt micro irrigation methods with drip and sprinklers. Soak pits were dug to collect rain
water. Soak pits help to replenish water reserves in dry borewells by diverting water flow
and increasing groundwater levels.
Kothapally village - Water management effort:
Initial survay of Kothapally village indicated
Cultivated land is less than waste land
Low literacy rate
Less labour force
High use of pesticides and fertilizers
Crop yield is low
There are no water conservation structures in the village
International Crop Research Institute for Semi-Arid Tropics:
ICRISAT is an international organization that conducts agricultural research for rural
development. It is located at Patancheru, near Hyderabad in Telangana state. It conducts
research on five highly nutritious drought-tolerant crops such as Chickpea, Pigeonpea,
Pearl millet, Sorghum and Groundnut.
Water management practices in Kothapally village:
ICRISAT educated villagers in large numbers and provided technical support for cost-
efficient water storage and soil conservation structures. The measures were community as
well as individual farmer-based. These helped to restore some resources and conserve
others so that they may never be depleted. This is an example of sustainable management.
Community Based Interventions:
V Construction of 14 water storage structures
V Construction of 60 mini percolation pits and
V Construction of field bundings in 38 hectares
V Open wells were recharged by building dykes or barriers in the nearby canals to retain
rain water
V Structures to conserve rainwater
V Formation of Water User Association
81
Farmer based Interventions:
V Soil and water conservation measures implemented in individual fields
V Constructing canals around fields and constructing landforms useful for water
conservation.
V Farmers were encouraged to use water resources jointly and
V Contour farming
V Broad bed furrows
V Construction of contour trenches across slopes
V Cultivation of Glyricidia plants on the bunds
V Micro irrigation methods such as Drip and sprinkler irrigation techniques.
Wasteland development and tree plantation:
V Saplings of useful species were planted along the roads, field bunds and canals.
V Trenches at 10 m intervals with a 0.3 m height of bund were laid out.
V Custard apple plantation along with other useful species in trenches
V Fruit trees and teak plants were planted.
Sustainable Development
Development and conservation can coexist in harmony. When we use the
environment in ways that ensure we have resources for the future, it is called
Sustainable Development. There are many different resources we need to
manage and conserve to live sustainably.
Water is a renewable natural resource:
V If water resources are not taken care of we will have to depend on other states or if
necessary other countries also for our needs in future.
V The economical use of water is closely related to the cultivation system
V For irrigation in agriculture in Telangana, water use can be reduced by implementing
drip irrigation (a type of micro irrigation).
V There is a great need to augment the ground water. Most of the water is used in
agriculture. Although there are big rivers like Godavari and Krishna, groundwater is
the main source of agriculture.
Forest: an important renewable resource:
Forests are rich habitat for plants and animals. Forests serve as a lung for the world
and the bed of nutrients for new life to prosper. Deforestation destroys wild life habitats
and increases soil erosion. It also releases greenhouse gases into the atmosphere,
82
contributing to global warming.
Sustainable forestry practices are critical for ensuring resources well into the future.
some sustainable forestry methods include, harvesting with natural regeneration in mind
and avoiding certain logging techniques, such has removing all the high value trees or all
the large trees from a forest. Trees can also be conserved if consumers recycle some
forest products. If half the world's paper were recycled, much of the world wide demand
for new papers would be fulfilled, saving many trees.
Soil Conservation
We need high-quality soil to grow the crops that we need. Soil is also important to
plants that grow in the wild. Plant conservation and animal conservation, depend on soil
conservation. One soil conservation method is called contour strip cropping. Several crops
such as corn, wheat and clover are planted in alternating strips across a slope or across the
path of the prevailing wind. Different crops, with different root systems and leaves, help to
prevent soil erosion. Selective harvesting methods mean we harvest mature commercial
trees of a specific diameter on a rotational cycle to maintain the forest Eco balance.
Biodiversity Importance:
Biodiversity is the variety of living things that populate the Earth. The products and
benefits we get from nature rely on biodiversity. Through hunting, pollution, habitat
destruction people are speeding up the loss of biodiversity at an alarming rate. Biodiversity
is more important than food. For instance, we use between 50,000 to 70,000 plant species
for medicines worldwide.
Government has established parks and sanctuaries to protect wildlife and their habitats.
They are also working to abolish hunting and fishing practices that may cause the extinction
of some species.
Fossil Fuels:
Fossil fuels are formed from the remains of ancient plants and animals. They include
coal, petroleum and natural gas. Apart from its use in vehicles, many of the products we use
today are made from petroleum. These include plastics, synthetic rubber, fabrics like nylon,
medicines, cosmetics, waxes, cleaning products, medical devices etc. We need to conserve
fossil fuels by using them carefully. Turn off lights and other electronics when you are not
using them. Walk, ride a bicycle and use public transportation whenever possible. It is
better to prefer public transport system like bus or train instead of travel in personal vehicles.
The use of Fossil fules can be reduced by increasing the use of renewable resources such
as biofuels and generating electricity from natural resources such as sunlight, wind and
water.
83
Minerals:
Earth's supply of raw mineral resources is in danger. Many mineral deposits that have
been located and mapped have been depleted. This makes tools and machinery more expensive
to purchase and operate. Many mining methods, such as mountaintop removal mining,
devastate the environment. They destroy soil, plants and animal habitats. Many mining
methods also pollute water and air, as toxic chemicals leak into the surrounding ecosystem.
Less wasteful mining methods and the recycling of materials will help conserve mineral
resources.
4 R's to save the environment:
Reduce, Reuse, Recycle and Recover. Help to sustain natural resources.
1. Reduce: We can save water by repairing leaky taps and avoiding a shower or switching
off unnecessary lights and fans.
2. Reuse:Reuse things that you often tend to throw away like paper and wrapping papers.
This would save plants and minimize pollution.
3. Recycle: Recycling material to make a new product. But it may not always be a good
option, for example recycling plastic is not always easy. It is expensive and also cause
pollution.
4.Recover: When we cut trees to construct Industries or roads for transportation, it is
important to grow trees in another area.
Conservation Groups:
The International Union for the Conservation of Nature(IUCN) is an alliance of
governments and private groups founded in 1948. The IUCN works to protect wildlife and
habitats. In 1980, the group proposed a world conservation strategy. Many governments
have used the IUCN model to develop their conservation plans. In addition, the IUCN
monitors the status of endangered wildlife, threatened national parks and preserves and
other environments around the world.
Practice Questions
1. What are natural resources?
2. What are renewable resources? Give examples.
3. What are non-renewable resources? Give examples.
84
4. State the benefits of adopting micro irrigation systems.
5. State the benefits of forests to humanity.
6. State the measures to be taken for soil conservation.
7. What is the importance of biodiversity?
8. What is Sustainable development?
1. Write about the measures to be taken to raise the groundwater level.
2. Mention the measures to be taken by the farmers to achieve higher yields.
3. What are your suggestions for the development of wastelands?
4. Suggest the action to be taken to conserve forests.
5. What are the steps to be taken to conserve biodiversity?
1. Explain Farmer-based Approaches and Community-based approaches.
2. Explain the disadvantages of using fossil fuels and suggest alternatives.
3. Write about the '4Rs' required for environmental protection.
1. Identify Non-Renewable resource. ( )
A) Air B) Water C) Forest D) Fossil fuels
2. Which of the following plays a vital role in raising the groundwater level. ( )
A) Development of waste lands B) Drip irrigation
C) Percolation Pit D) Formation of water consumer associations
3. Sustainable development mean ( )
A) Deforestation and establishment of industries
B) Deforestation and construction of shopping malls
C) Development and conservation coexistence in harmony
D) Converting forests as zoos
4. ICRISAT does not do research on these crops ( )
A) Paddy B) Bajra C) Jowar D) Groundnut
5. The reason for more ground water levels in Vanaparthi than in Vaddicharla
A) More bore wells B) Less irrigated land
C) Presence of percolation tanks D) The high expenditure for farming
85
6. _________________ are called as the lungs of nature ( )
A. Oceans B) Forests C) Rivers D) Villages
7. Which of the following is NOT important in environment conservation ( )
A) Reduce B) Reuse C) Recycle D) New generate
8. Which of the following does not play a vital role in soil conservation ( )
A) Contour strip cropping
B) Planting different crops with different root systems
C) Plantation across the path of prevailing wind
D) Ploughing along the slope
86
Writers
Sri E.D. Madhusudhan Reddy, ZPHS, Baharpet, Kosgi, Narayanapet District.
Sri Sanjeev Kumar, ZPHS, Abhangapatnam, Nizamabad.
Sri Pesara Prabhakar Reddy, ZPHS, M. J. Pally, Khammam.
Sri Manikya Reddy, GNHS, Sadashivpet, Sanga Reddy
Sri G. Shyam Sundar, ZPHS, Chetlapotharam, Sanga Reddy
Smt. Maram Pavithra, ZPHS, Gaddipally, Suryapet.
Sri Md. Akbar, ZPHS, Urella, Ranga Reddy.
Smt. B. Malathi Bai, GHS, Mud Fort, Hyderabad.
Smt. U. Kalyani, ZPHS, Jeedimetla, Medchal Malkajgiri.
Smt. S. Srivani, TSMS, Palamakula, Ranga Reddy.
Sri D. Nagaraju, SCERT, Telangana, Hyderabad.
Team Assistance
Smt. G. Usha, SCERT, Telangana, Hyderabad.
Smt. R. Vasavi, SCERT, Telangana, Hyderabad.
Smt. V. Latha Madhavi, SCERT, Telangana, Hyderabad.
Cover page design

Sri Md. Ayyub Ahmed, SA, SCERT, Telangana, Hyderabad.
Layout and Design

Sri Mohammed Zakiuddin Liaqat, Mumtaz, Computers, Hyderabad.
Smt. Ratna Sowjanya, SCERT, Telangana, Hyderabad.
Assistance
Smt. Kota Lalitha, Smt. S. Soundarya,
SCERT, Telangana, Hyderabad. SCERT, Telangana, Hyderabad.
87
Chief Advisor
Smt. Vakati Karuna, IAS
Secretary, Education Department,
Telangana.
Advisor
Smt. A. Sridevasena, IAS
Director of School Education,
Telangana.
Chief Co-ordinator
Smt. M. Radha Reddy,
Director, SCERT,
Telangana.
Co-ordinator
Smt. Tahseen Sultana, Professor & HoD,
Department of Curriculum & Textbooks, SCERT,
Asst. Co-ordinator
Smt. I. Karunasree
Department of Curriculum & Textbooks, SCERT,
Telangana.
Subject Incharge
Sri E.D. Madhusudhan Reddy
Zilla Parishad High School, Baharpet, Kosgi, Narayanapet District.
88

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BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE

State Council of Educational Research and Training, Government of Telangana

STATE COUNCIL OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH & TRAINING

Further, SCERT expresses profound thanks to Faculty of SCERT, subject experts

January, 2023 M. Radha Reddy

Hyderabad. Director, SCERT,

51 Control and Coordination 35

71 Coordination in Life Process 55

81 Heredity and Evolution 63

• Focus on all the chapters.

• Provide ample practice on the questions given in Abhyasa Deepika.

• Provide ample practice on Multiple Choice Questions.

• Focus on Experiments, Analysis of Tables, Daily Life Applications.

• Correlate with Text Book in case of doubts.

• Understand the concepts lesson-wise to answer various types of questions

Presence of starch in leaves:

Boiling the leaf Iodine test

Oxygen is evolved during photosynthesis in the presence of light:

in the sunlight at least for 2- 4 hours.

Sunlight is necessory for photosynthesis

Structure of the Chloroplast:

organelles which carry photosynthesis stroma

found exclusively in plant cells.

Dark phase (Light independent reaction /Biosynthetic phase):

Digestion in Human beings:

Vitamin-B2 Riboflavin Glossitis Mouth cracks at corners, red and

Vitamin-B3 Niacin Pellagra Dermatitis, diarrhoea.

Vitamin-B6 Pyridoxine Anaemia Nausea, vomiting, fits.

Vitamin-B12 Cyanocobalamin Pernicious anaemia Lean and weak, less appetite.

Folic acid Folic acid Anaemia Diarrhoea, loss of leucocytes.

Pantothenic acid Pantothenic acid Burning feet Walking problems, sprain.

Biotin Biotin Nerves disorders Fatigue, mental depression.

Vitamin-C Ascorbic acid Scurvy Delay in healing of wounds,

Vitamin-A Retinol Eye, skin diseases Night blindness, xerophthalmia.

Vitamin-D Calciferol Rickets Knock-knees, swollen wrists,

Vitamin-E Tocoferol Fertility related Sterility in males, abortions in

Vitamin-K Phylloquinone problems related to Delay in blood clotting

Retinol (A) Eye, Skin Leafy vegetables, carrot, Tomato, pumpkin,

Carbon diooxide pathway

After undergoing strenuous exercise, we feel pain in muscles. Why?

Organisms Organ/Organelle Respiration / Respiratory System

Amoeba, Hydra, Plannaria, Body Surface Diffusion

Insects (cockroach, Trachea Tracheal respiratory system

Fishes Gills Branchial respiratory system

Frog Skin, Lungs Cutaneous and pulmonary respiratory

Apparatus: Glass jar or plastic bottle, Germinated seeds,

Gas % in inhaled air % in exhaled air

a. Which gas composition is same in both inhalation and exhalation?

Lactic acid + Energy

3. Identify the correct sentence about exhalation. ( )

superior vena cava

right atrio ventricular valve left atrio ventricular valve

Internal structure of heart

muscle layer lumen

The cardiac cycle

Single and double blood circulation

cells of cortex cell wall of root hair

transpiration. Water evaporates through stomata of leaves and

Internal Structure of the kidney:

glomerulus efferent arteriole