EMOTIONS, BEHAVIORS AND INTERACTIONS

Emotions have accompanied man since the beginning of his existence. Indirect evidence of
evolution indicates that hominids (representatives of the human family) experienced and
expressed both positive and negative emotions. Evolutionary adaptive mechanisms are still
visible in humans. Just after birth, a baby reacts emotionally (cries, whimpers) when it feels
discomfort caused by pain or hunger. When he is given bitter food, he can show disgust, disgust,
and revulsion using facial expressions. Smiling can be seen in a three-week-old baby. After two
months, emotions of anger, dissatisfaction, and sadness appear in response to the toy being taken
away. Fear appears around the seventh month of life; while shyness and embarrassment are
observable in a one-year-old child. Over the years, children learn not only to express emotions
but also to properly read them on other people's faces.
An international team of five psychologists (Izard, Haynes, Fantauzzo, Slomine, Castle)
conducted an experiment that illustrated that even several-month-old children can recognize
emotions. In the experiment, mothers were asked to simulate (through facial expressions,
gestures, and tone of voice) extreme emotions when playing with their children - joy/satisfaction
and sadness/anger. Research showed that babies' faces accurately reflected their mothers'
emotions.[ Ackerman et al., 1998, 87; Izard and Malatesta, 1987;]
Emotions arose the moment life emerged on earth. They are not only a human feature, but also
an animal feature - scientists have long proven that animals also react emotionally - e.g. dogs feel
longing for their owners. Elephants experience the death of their offspring extremely intensely,
mourning them for a long time. Some animals may show emotions related to motherhood or
attachment to a partner. All animals, regardless of species, know what fear is. When faced with
danger, they all have a similar physiological reaction - increased heart rate and a periodic
increase in body temperature. On this basis, it can be concluded that some emotions are
biologically conditioned, an innate property, triggered by external circumstances or
environmental changes. Charles Darwin, based on cross-cultural analyses, noticed that some
emotions are recognized and understood identically by most people - regardless of their race,
origin, place of residence, or gender. It is therefore possible to say with high probability that joy,
sadness, surprise, disgust, and anger are innate and instinctive.
John Tooby and Leda Cosmides point out that emotions have developed through evolution to
facilitate the body's adaptation to the environment. By performing adaptive functions, emotions
enabled survival - in response to a threat, they encouraged people to escape from a predator or
compete for access to food. In the course of evolution, subsequent, more complex emotions were
created, and the actions that resulted from them. Lorna Marshall states that for centuries
emotions have influenced many areas of human social functioning: cooperation, division of
labor, collecting food, preparing and sharing food, and raising offspring. Some of these emotions
led to competitive behavior and aggression towards strangers, which served to eliminate those
who did not belong to the group.[ Brase, G.L., 2021]
The meaning and essence of emotions
We all more or less know what emotions are because we experience them every day. Generally,
we can say that an emotion is a certain state of mind accompanied by specific feelings and clear
reactions. For example, when I feel happy, I smile and am full of enthusiasm, while when I am
grieving, I despair, cry, and feel frustrated and discouraged. Etymologically, emotion means
being in motion (Latin ‘ex movere’), which suggests action, being active, determining,
triggering, and reacting. The sources of words highlight the original meaning of emotions - they
mobilize us to be active and move us, thanks to them we are not passive, insensitive, and static.
Emotions are the source of energy and vitality. They stimulate action, giving life a certain
dynamic.
Scientific definitions of emotions are constantly growing. It is difficult to say unambiguously
which definition is complete and most precise. Therefore, Nico Frijda distinguishes the following
classifications:
1. An emotion is the result of a conscious or unconscious assessment of some event that affects
the goals and/or interests of the entity. If the event coincides with the intended goal, the emotion
is positive; if not – the emotion is negative.
2. An emotion causes a specific action.
3. An emotion is experienced as some kind of mental state. The effects of emotions are somatic
changes, facial and pantomimic expressions, as well as behavioral reactions.[Izard CE., 2009]
Emotions cause specific effects on the body's behavior and physiological reactions. This is
because "an emotion is a feeling, a reaction arising in response to specific internal or external
stimuli, manifested both in the form of an experience and at the physiological and behavioral
level."[Fredrickson BL., 2001]

I recommend that you note the emotions you see in the above pictures. Then we will discuss each
emotion. So you understand that basic emotions are relatively easy to notice, distinguish, and
name. Slightly more difficulties arise when we talk about secondary emotions, i.e. a whole range
of individualized experiences - they manifest themselves in different ways, in different
circumstances, and the reason for their occurrence may be various events. Secondary emotions
include shame, aggression, hatred, and guilt. Paul Ekman states that they are a “mixture of
primary emotions,” meaning they arise from a combination of two or more primary emotions.
Plutchik, on the other hand, believes that in addition to primary emotions, humans can
experience a dozen or so secondary emotions resulting from a combination of other emotions. In
this way, many times complex emotions are created, which cause new types of experiences and
sensations. Plutchik calls the combination of two basic emotions a dyad.[ Ekman, P., 1993, 1994,
2003; R. Plutchik, 1980]
Primary emotions Secondary emotion
joy + trust Love
trust + fear Submission
fear + surprise Agitation
surprise + sadness Disappointment
sadness + disgust Regret
disgust + anger Envy
anger + anticipation Aggression
anticipation + joy Optimism
joy + fear Guilt
trust + surprise Curiosity
fear + sadness Despair
surprise + disgust Shock
sadness + anger Suffering
disgust + anticipation Cynicism
anger + joy Pride
prediction + trust Fatalism
joy + surprise Delight
trust + sadness Sentimentality
fear + disgust Shame
surprise + anger Indignation
sadness + anticipation Pessimism
disgust + joy Pathology
anger + trust Dominance
anticipation + fear Anxiety
Although emotions, like other bodily functions, have evolved and are constantly changing, their
expression is similar in humans and animals. Thanks to this, we have no problem recognizing
certain emotions, they are obvious to us. Emotions usually appear spontaneously, but sometimes
they are faked or masked. Outstanding actors have mastered the art of playing with emotions to
perfection, and poker players can "save face." However, in everyday situations, we are unlikely
to be able to consciously control all the facial muscles, so you can tell when emotions are not
natural. Our experiences are most often illustrated by the face, but it should be emphasized that it
is not only the face that takes part in expressing emotions - the eyes, hands, and legs are also
important. In addition, the length of the reaction is important - fake emotions are usually longer
than spontaneous ones.
The expression of emotions is also the result of social and cultural interactions. Depending on the
country, the expression of emotions is different. In Scandinavian countries, restraint and
emotional coldness are accepted, while in the Mediterranean countries, openness, closeness, and
breaking down bodily barriers are valued. Ignorance of the cultural code leads to
misunderstandings, and surprise, and may even cause serious trouble (in Bulgaria, a nod of the
head means refusal, in Australia, the OK gesture is considered offensive, with clear sexual
overtones, the Polish gesture of hitting the neck several times with an open hand means an
invitation to alcohol party, in Romania hitting the neck several times means ‘drunk’, while
among Indians it means: "I'm about to cut your throat"). Therefore, emotional expression and the
accompanying gestures and facial expressions may differ in different cultural circles.
Emotional reactions are also related to the dimensions of closeness and distance. Individualistic
culture, emphasizing the needs of the individual, assumes restraint in expressing emotions.
However, collectivist culture, where the needs of the community come first, is based on the idea
of freedom and self-direction, freedom in expressing emotions, multiplying pleasant impressions,
and hedonism dominates.
Brain architecture
Despite the unquestionable acceptance of the scientific thesis that modern man is rational and
thinking (homo sapiens), one cannot ignore the huge role of emotions in the life of all living
organisms. Emotions are extremely important in animal (and therefore human) life because they
serve cognitive purposes, which means that they enable relatively accurate knowledge of the
surrounding world and a reliable assessment of socio-cultural reality. This is because they guide
our reactions and influence our behavior and way of being. Emotions are the first to suggest what
to do when the task ahead of us exceeds the capabilities of reason or escapes rational
consideration when we are threatened with danger and there is no time to consider how to avoid
it.[Coyne, J. C., & Downey, G., 1991] Sometimes they act on the principle of premonitions -
many times in the memories of people who miraculously avoided death (during a plane crash, a
car accident, the sinking of a ship), there is a memory of a premonition of some tragedy, a
prophetic dream or a strong inner voice that told them not to board or take a different route.
Thanks to emotions, we are ready to take a specific action, sometimes contrary to logic and
common sense.[Cacioppo, J. T., Hawley, L. C., & Bernston, G. G., 2003] This mechanism is
evolutionarily conditioned - Goleman notes that emotions help people cope with life's challenges
and difficulties they encounter during everyday functioning. Therefore, they played an important
role in the survival of the species, being permanently encoded in the body's nervous system as
automatic and internal tendencies.[Goleman, D., 1996]
Evolutionary researchers hypothesize that emotional impulses are a permanent element of the
nervous system because the survival of the species and phylogeny depend on them. In the light
of evolutionary theories, emotions were essential in the process of selecting a sexual partner and
the extension of the species, because they largely influenced the choice of sexual partners and,
consequently, shaped the genotype and phenotype of the offspring.
To understand why emotions have a fundamental impact on human life, it is necessary to
understand the general structure of the most important organ in the human body - the brain. The
architecture of the brain is very complex due to the complexity of this organ.

Broadly speaking, the human brain consists of two hemispheres, the brain stem and the
cerebellum. Over billions of years of evolution, it has changed its size (it is three times larger
than that of other primates), range, and speed of information processing. By comparing brain
models in representatives of individual species (reptiles, birds, mammals), one can easily notice
that, apart from the fact that the brain changed its volume and capacity, the number of nerve cells
and synaptic connections also gradually increased, which made the organisms more and more
intelligent and socially adapted. By acquiring further skills, they became able to perform
complex mental operations (counting, designing, translation), associating events, combining
facts, planning, and remembering.[Bassett, D. S., & Gazzaniga, M. S., 2011]
The oldest part of the brain found in all organisms equipped with a nervous system is the brain
stem, which is responsible for basic life functions such as breathing, metabolism, and muscle
contraction. It is therefore a condition for the efficient operation of all internal organs, a driving
force behind the complex machinery that is the body. Since the limbic system is the core from
which the so-called proper brain, it should be recognized that emotions are the basis of our
functioning, because they were the first to control behavior and actions, thus creating the original
nature of man. The consequence of this is the unusual ability to "sense upcoming events" -
characteristic even of lower animal species (rats perfectly sense an approaching flood and are the
first to escape). Similarly with people - many times a person does not have to make an
intellectual effort to properly understand a given matter or accurately interpret an event. The
emerging intuition informs us about potential danger or, on the contrary, convinces us of the
correctness of the decisions we have made. It happens that after some time we remember the
emotions that appeared when meeting a person for the first time, establishing a relationship,
signing a contract, or inviting a business partner to cooperate with us, and we realize that our
intuitive beliefs turned out to be correct.
The outer layer of the trunk is formed by the cerebral cortex, which is responsible for emotional
processes, which is why it is colloquially referred to as the emotional mind. Phylogenetically, the
primary part is the olfactory brain, which influences smell or olfactory sensations and is also
responsible for the sphere of emotions and internal experiences. The limbic (limbic) system - the
source of proper emotions - is responsible for the experiences we feel when we are overcome
with anger, fall madly in love, are filled with joy, fall into despair, etc. In subsequent stages of
development, additional structures emerged from the limbic system responsible for cognitive
processes, the ability to learn, remember, and think, which enabled man to control his instincts
and primitive impulses, making his life easier and nobler (distinguishable from the life of other
animals).
Further evolutionary changes contributed to the creation of a new cerebral cortex, thanks to
which humans increased their intellectual capabilities, skillfully interpreting information
provided by the senses (sight, hearing, touch, taste, smell). The new cerebral cortex made it
possible to understand emotions and associate them with a specific situation or event, e.g. in a
moment of danger the appropriate emotion was fear, in a moment of mourning - sadness. The
ability to properly perceive and experience emotions has contributed to culturally recognized
ways of dealing with them - providing support when needed, uplifting, and encouraging. How a
person experiences emotions and deals with them proves his intellectual development and level
of civilization.
Thanks to an additional layer of the cerebral cortex directly connected to the limbic system,
mammals have developed a maternal instinct and a deep emotional bond between the mother and
her child. This causes her to take care of her offspring, protect them from danger, and provide
food. Animals that do not have this extra layer (e.g. reptiles) do not show any parental feelings,
abandoning their offspring. Sometimes it happens that after hatching from the eggs, the young
have to find shelter themselves so as not to be killed and eaten by their mother or father.

In a moment of emotional exaltation, the nervous system is stimulated, with particular emphasis
on the limbic brain. In this state, it is difficult to control the emotions that drive us - a person
stops thinking rationally, analyzing logically, and sensibly interpreting the situation in which he
finds himself. In this state, we become angry or furious, unable to control the words we say and
the movements we make. The peak of this state is affect - an emotional exaltation during which
the individual acts unconsciously, and irrationally, often against his or her own will. Affect is a
state so deep and pervasive that it can lead a person to the most unpredictable acts, e.g. crimes.[
Hart, S. D., Hare, R. D., & Harpur, T. J., 1992; Muris, P., Merckelbach, H., Otgaar, H., & Meijer,
E., 2017]
Although the example described above is quite extreme and it is rather rare to completely lose
control of our emotions, it is important to recognize that we all act under their influence to a
greater or lesser extent. The degree of emotional arousal directly translates into the body's
physiological responses. When we feel angry, we react aggressively and angrily, become
defensive, make a threatening face, and have a sharp look. On the other hand, when we are
overwhelmed by happiness, we emanate joy, a sincere smile appears on our faces, and our
movements become free and light. Depending on one's well-being, the attitude towards people is
also different, as is a higher level of acceptance and tolerance towards people or facts that are
different (or contradictory) to the vision of the world in which we stubbornly believe.
Emotionally well-balanced people have a positive attitude toward themselves and everyone else,
and they accept with great openness and trust what was previously alien or unfamiliar to them.
On the other hand, emotionally disturbed people see enemies lurking everywhere, ambushes
have been laid, they are constantly on the lookout for tricks, they do not tolerate other people's
mistakes or mistakes, and they accuse and blame others for their failures.

We become emotional because of the activity of the amygdala. These are structures (a human has
two such bodies, one on both sides of the head) located above the brain stem, resembling an
almond. The fundamental role of the amygdala in experiencing emotions was discovered by
Joseph LeDoux, an American neurologist. He stated, based on experimental studies on rats, that
the amygdala receives impulses flowing directly from the sense organs before they are registered
and recognized by the cerebral cortex, which means that some reactions and emotional memories
can be shaped without any participation of consciousness and reason.[LeDoux, J. E.,
1992;Johnson, L. R., & LeDoux, J. E., 2010]
The amygdala (next to the hippocampus responsible for memory) is an element of the olfactory
brain and is responsible for the sphere of emotions - it informs us about what we feel and how
we should react. To be more specific: it initiates the production cycle of hormones prompting
flight or fight, stimulates the circulatory and muscular systems, and releases additional energy
and strength. Norepinephrine is released into the blood, which increases the activity of all areas
of the brain, putting it on alert. The senses become more sensitive, characteristic facial
expressions and gestures appear, the heart beats faster, blood pressure increases and breathing
slows down. The more the amygdala is stimulated, the stronger and longer the emotions
experienced become remembered. By depriving a person of the amygdala, we deprive him of the
ability to feel and experience emotions. This condition is called "emotional blindness" in the
professional literature and is characterized by the absence or weakening of emotional reactions
and indifference to situations that commonly cause extreme emotions. It is the amygdala that
causes tears to come to our eyes and we start crying in situations of grief, sadness, or
bitterness.[LeDoux J., 2012]
Some people, even though they have a properly functioning amygdala, do not understand
emotions, and cannot name them or express them (when trying to describe their emotional state,
they use an extremely poor emotional vocabulary). They are alexithymics. Even if they feel
physiological arousal related to the appearance of some emotion, they do not connect these two
facts, e.g. they perceive facial redness as a sign of high temperature in the room, not as a signal
of emerging stage fright.
Alexithymia is the inability to identify and express experienced emotions. The disorder was first
diagnosed in 1973 by Greek psychiatrist Peter Sifneos. Its causes include stress, constant
physical and mental tension, excess work, and lack of relaxation and rest.
Interactional theory of emotions
In the late 1970s, sociological theories began to move towards explaining the role that emotions
play in interpersonal and social relationships. Efforts, actions, and decision-making processes,
with particular emphasis on the ways of expressing emotions in some cultures.
Arlie Russell Hochschild, an American sociologist, described emotions as the organized actions
of individuals that are determined by situational norms and a broader cultural context. It is
culture and the patterns it creates that determine what emotions can be shown in specific
situations. Hochschild introduces the concept of a "culture of emotions", which - created based
on collective imaginations - assumes how and what people should feel in certain circumstances
during specific events (e.g. during a funeral one should feel sadness, mourning, depression; and
during a celebration Joy and joy are recommended for weddings - both among the newlyweds
and guests). Emotional patterns determined by culture are regularly repeated by members of a
given community and, consequently, experienced as natural and the only possible ones. Every
culture contains the so-called emotional ideologies that determine what attitudes and feelings are
adequate, and how one should react to be accepted by the environment. The manifestation and
symbol of these ideologies are "emotional markers", i.e. certain events in people's lives that
confirm the existence of emotional cultural rules (holidays, traumatic events, ceremonies,
rituals).[Hess, U., Beaupre, M., and Cheung, N., 2002]
Regardless of the situation, in the context of emotions, sociologists point to two types of norms:
rules for feeling and rules for expressing emotions. The former determines what emotions are
appropriate in a given situation, how many there should be, how long they should last, and what
direction they should take (positive/negative). However, the rules for expressing emotions
indicate the intensity, nature, and style of expressive behavior. It is clear that emotionality, which
includes the way of feeling and expressing emotions, influences a person's functioning in society
- his/her behavior, actions, interactions, and the social relations he or she creates.
It often happens in social life that a person cannot reveal his or her true emotions because it
would be inadvisable or even dangerous. The individual is forced to adapt to the circumstances,
adopt the applicable and desired style of functioning, and control feelings and the way they are
expressed. The situation he is in imposes a model of behavior and reaction that prohibits the free
disclosure or demonstration of emotions, encouraging them to mask or deny them. This
emotional coercion causes great discomfort and stress, as it requires constant control of the Self.
If we are forced to block or suppress emotions, neutralize them, or immediately change negative
feelings into positive ones, this difficult emotional work will most probably cause symptoms of
depression or a nervous breakdown. Therefore, you should avoid situations in which emotions
cannot be vented, cannot be fully revealed, or where the circumstances themselves require them
to be hidden. Operating under emotional pressure is always detrimental to your physical and
mental health.