TOPIC 3

PN JUNCTION DIODE
3.1 What is a PN Junction Diode?
Diodes are the simplest type of semiconductors. They allow current to flow in only one direction.
A diode is created by joining N- and P-type materials together. Where the materials come in
contact with each other, a junction is formed called the PN Junction diode.
Diodes are used to protect circuits by limiting the voltage and to also transform AC into DC.
Semiconductors like silicon and germanium are used to make the most of the diodes. Even though
they transmit current in a single direction, the way with which they transmit differs. There are
different kinds of diodes and each type has its own applications.
A standard diode symbol is represented as below. In the diagram, we can see that there are two
terminals that are known as anode and cathode. The arrowhead is the anode that represents the
direction of the conventional current flow in the forward biased condition. The other end is the
cathode.

Figure 6: Diode (the cathode supplies and the anode collects electrons)

At the junction, there is a concentration gradient of electrons and holes. Holes tend to diffuse
from the p-type region to the n-type region leaving the p-region slightly negative. Similarly,
electrons from the n region will diffuse into the p-region leaving the n-region slightly positive.

In a layer between n and p regions, holes and electrons recombine and since this layer is now
depleted of free charge carriers, it is called the depletion region. This region acts as a potential
barrier, which opposes any further diffusion of charge and the junction assumes a state of
dynamic equilibrium.
Opposite charges build up on each side of the PN junction which creates this voltage is called
barrier voltage. The barrier voltage for germanium PN junction is 0.3V and for a silicon PN
junction, it is 0.7V at 25°C.
 Figure 7: The depletion region

3.2 Diode Biasing

When a voltage is applied to a diode, it is referred to as a bias vollage. Forward biasing means
putting a voltage across a diode that allows current to flow easily while reverse biasing means
putting a voltage across a diode in the opposite direction. The voltage with reverse biaring doesn't
cause any appreciable current to flow. This is useful for changing AC current to DC current.
(combination of four diodes forming a bridge rectifier).
When a diode is reverse biased, only a small current flows which is a leakage current, it is called
reverse current. It is this characteristic that allows the diode to be used as a rectifier. A rectifier
converts an AC voltage to a DC voltage.

Figure 8: Diode forward and reverse bias

 Figure 8: Diode Characteristics Curves

3.3 Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)

Both Germanium and Silicon diodes can be damaged by excessive heat and excessive reverse
voltage. Manufacturers alusays specify the Peak Inverse voltage or maximum safe reverse voltage
that can be handled safely. Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) refers to the maximum voltage a diode can
withstand in the reverse-biased direction before breakdowr

3.4 Testing PN Junction Diodes

Every diode has a silver band which indicates the cathode terminal of the diode. The other
terminal is the anode terminal. A diode can be tested by measuring the voltage drop across the
diode when it is forward biased. A forward biared diode acts ar a closed switch permitting current
to flow. first placing your multimeter in diode mode, This test is done by taking the black probe
of the multimeter and placing it on the cathode terminal and the red probe on the anode terminal.
Current through the multimeter should flow through the diode and the multimet should indicate
the voltage. If the meter probes are reversed, the diode is reverse biaged. Little current should
flow and measure a small voltage. If a diode shous both low forward and low reverse voltage, it is
probably shorted (short-circuit).

3.5 Zener Diodes

Zener diodes are designed to work at voltager greater than the breakdown voltage (peak inverze
voltage). It is also known as a break down diode. It is a heavily doped semiconductor device that
is designed to operate in the reverse direction anode cathode.
 In a zener diode the number of added impurities is high - the greater the doping level, the lower
the resistivity. The application of reverse bias causes the valence band of the p-material to overlap
the conduction band of the n-material. When this happens, the junction breaks down. By using
heavily doped material, a zener breakdown can be introduced at predetermined voltages of up to
about 15V. High voltage range reference diodes use avalanche breakdown.

3.6 Avalanche Breakdown

In lightly doped pn junction, it is postulated that the electrons and holes of the reverse saturation
current are accelerated to high drift velocities by the reverse potential across the diode. At a
critical field level, the moving electrons acquire sufficient energy to break valence bonds upon
collision with the fixed atom. After each collision, there exists a new electron-hole pair. These
charges are also accelerated and create more pairs upon collision and the current rapidly goes into
an avalanche condition. The requirement is that the field intensity be high enough to permit a
charge acquire the needed energy in a distance less than one mean free path - about 10-7 m

3.7 Types of Diodes

1. Light Emitting Diode
2. Laser diode
3. Avalanche diode
4. Zener diode
5. Schottky diode
6. Photodiode
7. PN junction diode

Light Emitting Diode (LED)

When an electric current between the electrodes passes through this diode, light is produced. In
other words, light is generated when a sufficient amount of forwarding current passes through it.
In many diodes, this light generated is not visible as there are frequency levels that do not allow
visibility. LEDs are available in different colours. There are tricolour LEDs that can emit three
colours at a time. Light colour depends on the energy gap of the semiconductor used.

Laser Diode
It is a different type of diode as it produces coherent light. It is highly used in CD drives, DVDs
and laser devices. These are costly when compared to LEDs and are cheaper when compared to
other laser generators. Limited life is the only drawback of these diodes.

Avalanche Diode
This diode belongs to a reverse bias type and operates using the avalanche effect. When voltage
drop is constant and is independent of current, the breakdown of avalanche takes place. They
exhibit high levels of sensitivity and hence are used for photo detection.

Zener Diode
It is the most useful type of diode as it can provide a stable reference voltage. These are operated
in reverse bias and break down on the arrival of a certain voltage. If current passing through the
 resistor is limited, a stable voltage is generated. Zener diodes are widely used in power supplies to
provide a reference voltage.

Schottky Diode
It has a lower forward voltage than other silicon PN junction diodes. The drop will be seen where
there is low current and at that stage, voltage ranges between 0.15 and 0.4 volts. These are
constructed differently in order to obtain that performance. Schottky diodes are highly used in
rectifier applications.

Photodiode
A photo-diode can identify even a small amount of current flow resulting from the light. These
are very helpful in the detection of the light. This is a reverse bias diode and used in solar cells
and photometers. They are even used to generate electricity.

P-N Junction Diode

The P-N junction diode is also known as rectifier diodes. These diodes are used for the
rectification process and are made up of semiconductor material. The P-N junction diode includes
two layers of semiconductors. One layer of the semiconductor material is doped with P-type
material and the other layer with N-type material. The combination of these both P and N-type
layers form a junction known as the P-N junction. Hence, the name P-N junction diode. P-N
junction diode allows the current to flow in the forward direction and blocks the flow of current
in the reverse direction.

3.8 Some Common Applications of Diodes

 In common systems, as limiters, clippers, clampers, microwave oscillators etc.
 In computer systems as logic gates, clampers etc.
 In power supply systems as rectifiers, inverters, regulators, lighting systems, voltage
multipliers etc.
 In TV systems as phase detectors, limiters, clampers, decoders, remote controls etc.
 In radar circuits as gain control circuits, parametric amplifiers, remote controls, indicators etc.
 TOPIC 4
TRANSISTORS
4.1 What is a Transistor?
A transistor is a three-element, two-junction device used to control electron flow. By varying the
amount of voltage. applied to the three elements, the amount of current can be controlled for
purposes of amplification, uscillation, and switching.
When a third layer is added to device is produced that a semiconductor diode, a can amplify
power, current or voltage. This device is called a bipdar transistor. A bipolar transistor is a type of
transistor that uses both electrons. and electron boles as charge carriers. In contrast, a unipolar
transistor, such as a field effect transistor (FET) ures only. one kind of charge carrier.
A transistor, like a junction diode can be constructed of germanium or silicon, but silicon is more
popular. A transisto consists of three alternatively doped regions (as compared to two in a diode).
The three regions are arranged in one of two ways.
In the first method, the p-type material is sand wiched between two N-type materials, forming an
NPN transistor. In the second method, a layer of N-type material is sandwiched between two
layers of p-type material, forming a PNP transistor. In both types of transistor, the middle region
is called the bass and the outer regions are called the emitter and the collector. The emilter, base
and collector are identified by the letters E, B and C respectively

4.2 Types of Power Transistors

Power transistors are classified into the following types:
1. Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)
2. Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor (MOSFETs)
3. Static Induction Transistor (SITs)
4. Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBTs)
Let us study in detail about these individual types of transistors.

Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)

These are the types of transistors which have the capacity to handle two polarities. Bipolar
Junction Transistors can either be used as an amplifier or switch. These are mainly used to control
the current, the process of controlling includes the act of amplification, switch-on, and switch-off.
William Shockley in the year 1948, invented the first Bipolar Junction Transistor.
In BJT the emitter is heavily doped, the base is moderately doped and the collector is lightly
doped. It features two junctions; Emitter-Base junction and Collector-Base junction. Bipolar
Junction Transistors are of two types:
 NPN transistor
 PNP transistor
 Figure 9: NPN and PNP Transistors

Power Bipolar Junction Transistors has the following characteristics:

1. Bipolar Junction Transistors are large in size and hence allow maximum current to
flow.
2. Bipolar Junction Transistors have high breakdown voltage.
3. BJTs have high handling capability as well as current carrying capacity.
4. Mainly seen in high power applications.

Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor (MOSFETs)

MOSFET is a type of FET transistor. Metal oxide semiconductor field-effect transistors feature
three-terminals; source, base and drain. MOSFET functionality is based on the width of the
channel. If the MOSFET channel is wide, the transistor works with high efficiency.
Characteristics of a Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor are:
 MOSFET is known as a voltage controller
 It does not need input current
 Offers a high input impedance

Static Induction Transistor (SITs)

Static induction transistor is a vertically oriented device that contains three terminals. When
compared with field-effect transistors, static induction transistors provide higher voltage
breakdown. This type of transistor has high power, high frequency with short multichannel. It is
purposeful in getting higher breakdown voltages than a field emitter transistors. Properties of
static induction transistor are:
 Short channel length
 Less noise
 Offers low terminal resistance.

Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBTs)

It is a device composed of semiconductor material and features three-terminals. Insulated gate
bipolar transistors are mainly utilized for switching purposes. Insulated gate bipolar transistors
consist of (P–N–P–N) four alternating layers that are controlled by a metal–oxide–semiconductor
(MOS) gate structure. Properties of IGBT are:
 The loss is negligible at the input
  High power gain

Structure of Power Transistor

As we know that bi-polar junction transistor is a vertically oriented device with comparatively
large area of cross-section that accommodates alternate P and N-type layers connected together. A
bi-polar junction transistor is composed of PNP or an NPN transistor. The power transistor BJT
features three terminals: emitter, base, and collector. The PNP and NPN type transistor is shown
in the figure below.

4.3 V-I Output Characteristics of a Power Transistor

The output characteristics are as shown below, where the x-axis represents VCE and the y-axis
represents IC.

Figure 10: V-I Output Characteristics of a Power Transistor

4.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Power Transistors

The advantages of power transistors are:
 Voltage gain is high
 The density of the current is high
 The forward voltage is low
 The gain of bandwidth is large
The disadvantages of power transistors are:
 Low thermal stability
 Controlling is a complex task
 High noise
4.5 Applications of Power Transistors
Power transistors are used in:
 Switch-mode power supplies (SMPS)
 Relays
 Converters
 Power amplifiers
 DC to AC converters
 Power supply
 Power control circuits
 Inverters