1.

Restoration and 18th century literature

https://www.shmoop.com/study-guides/literary-movements/restoration-
literature/characteristics

Restoration refers to the restoration of the monarchy when Charles II was

restored to the throne of England following an eleven-year Commonwealth
period during which the country was governed by Parliament under the
direction of the Puritan General Oliver Cromwell. This political event coincides
with (and to some extent is responsible for) changes in the literary, scientific,
and cultural life of Britain.

During this time, a premium was placed on the importance of human reason and
on an empirical philosophy that held that knowledge about the world was
through the senses and by applying reason to what we take in through our
senses. Reason was an unchanging, uniquely human characteristic that served as
a guide for man. Thus this time is often also called the Age of Reason or
Enlightenment. Characteristics of this period included observing human nature
and nature itself which were considered unchanging and constant.

The age is also known as the Neoclassical period. Writers of the time placed
great emphasis on the original writings produced by classical Greek and Roman
literature. The literature of this period imitated that of the age of Caesar
Augustus, writers such as Horace and Virgil, with classical influences appearing
prevalent in poetry with the use of rhyming, and in prose with its satirical form.
The Augustans deemed classical literature as natural, that these works were the
idealized models for writing. The Neoclassical “ideals of order, logic, restraint,
accuracy, ‘correctness,’ decorum,. . . would enable the practitioners of various
arts to imitate or reproduce the structures or themes of Greek or Roman
originals” (Victorian Web). Alexander Pope furthers this idea as he says “Learn
hence for ancient rules a just esteem; To copy Nature is to copy them” (Essay
on Criticism). The way to study nature is to study the ancients; the styles and
rules of classical literature. Closely allied with the emphasis placed on the
classics and the unchanging rules of nature was the belief that reason was an
unchanging and unique human quality that served as a guide for man.

Restoration Drama

With the Restoration of the monarchy came the restoration of the theater. After
being shuttered during the Puritans’ rule, theaters opened almost immediately.
Charles II hired companies of actors to provide court entertainment, as his
grandfather James I had been patron of Shakespeare’s troop The King’s Men.
Plays from the Elizabethan Age were revived and new dramatists emerged
although none produced work of the high caliber of Shakespeare’s age. Among
the new generation of playwrights were several women, most notably Aphra
Behn. Another innovation in 18th-century theater was that women were allowed
on stage.

During the 18th century, the comedy of manners, a play which presents
aristocratic characters, exaggerating their obsession with high society manners,
social position, fashion, and wealth, flourished. These plays are noted for their
witty dialogue and satiric manner. The plots generally involve amorous, usually
scandalous, affairs and the characters’ amoral reactions to them. Familiar stock
characters were the fop or dandy, a vain young man obsessed with fashion, and
the rake, a young man devoted to wine, women, and scandalous conduct.
Richard Sheridan’s “The Rivals” and “The School for Scandal” and Oliver
Goldsmith’s “She Stoops to Conquer” were among the more popular comedies
of manners.

The Novel

The 18th century gave birth to the novel, an extended fictional prose narrative,
as a form of literature. Daniel DeFoe’s Robinson Crusoe and Moll Flanders are
considered the first novels. DeFoe’s works were followed by Samuel
Richardson’s epistolary novel (a novel written in the form of a series of letters)
Pamela, and Henry Fielding’s Joseph Andrews and Tom Jones. The novel
continued to develop into a major literary form of the 19th century.

Satire was the most popular literary tool that was utilized by writers of the time.
With the help of satire, writers were better able to educate the public through
literature. Its function was to acknowledge a problem in society and attempt to
reform the problem in a comical manner while still educating the public.

A selection of writers of the period: John Bunyan (1628-

1688), Samuel Butler (1612-1680), John Dryden (1631-1700),

William Congreve (1670-1729), Sir John Vanbrugh (1664-1726),

Alexander Pope (1688-1744), Jonathan Swift (1667-1745),

Richard Steele (1672-1729), Joseph Addison (1672-1719),

Samuel Johnson (1709- 1784), Daniel Defoe (1660-1731),

Samuel Richardson (1689-1761), Laurence Sterne (1713-1768),

Henry Fielding (1707-1754), Tobias Smollett (1721-1771),

Oliver Goldsmith (1730-1774), Richard Brinsley Sheridan (1751-1816).

Gulliver’s Travels, first published in 1726 and written by Jonathan Swift

(1667-1745), has been called one of the first novels in English, one of the
greatest satires in all of literature, and even a children’s classic (though any
edition for younger readers is usually quite heavily abridged).

Gulliver’s Travels is structurally divided into four parts, each of which recounts
the adventures of the title character, a ship’s surgeon named Lemuel Gulliver,
amongst some imaginary fantastical land.

We often celebrate great works of literature for their generosity of spirit: we talk
of Shakespeare’s ‘humanity’, of Wordsworth’s empathy, George Eliot’s
humanistic ability to feel for another person. But Swift is in quite a different
tradition. He was disgusted by us all with our filthy bodies and rotten, wrong-
headed attitudes. Yet he wrote a great work of literature in Gulliver’s Travels,
which tells us much about who we really are, especially through his depiction of
the Yahoos, and who we could be, through Gulliver’s conversations with the
Houyhnhnms.

Perhaps the key aspect of the novel here is its satire: it means that we can never
be sure when Swift is being serious and when he is pulling our leg, when he is
inviting us to share Gulliver’s views and when he wishes us to long to clout the
silly fool round the head. That, too, is one of the signs of a timeless novel: its
multifaceted quality. Gulliver’s Travels has more facets than you can shake a
mucky stick at.

2. Romantic period in English literature

The Romantic period in Europe saw the end of the dominance of the
Renaissance tradition. It saw the fragmentation of consciousness away from the
cultural authority of classical Rome. One result was the rediscovery of local
cultures, and a flowering of vernacular literatures. Romantic literature is strong
in many of the vernaculars of Europe, and indeed is most clearly seen in the
literatures which it more or less creates.

The movement was characterized by a celebration of nature and the common

man, a focus on individual experience, an idealization of women, and an
embrace of isolation and melancholy.

Romanticism focused on emotions and the inner life of the writer, and often
used autobiographical material to inform the work or even provide a template
for it, unlike traditional literature at the time.
The Romantic period saw changes in philosophy, politics, and religion, as well
as in the arts of literature, painting, and music, changes which the English
Romantic poets both articulated and symbolized. In philosophy, the Romantic
period saw a reaction against the rationalism of the eighteenth century. It was a
reaction against a view of the physical world increasingly dominated by science,
and of the mental world by the theories of Locke. The attack on the adequacy of
reason in literature has started with the Augustan satirists; it was the Romantics
who tried to capture and explore what was missing. The Romantic poets
rebelled against the emphasis on the material and on 'common sense' which had
dominated the preceding period. For most of them there was a more real order,
only to be glimpsed but which commanded their faithful allegiance. It is
Wordworth's something far more deeply interfused...'. The more visionary
Romantic poets are concerned with something more than what is derived from
everyday observation, or the sanction of the majority view.

The Romantic period in literature coincided with the French Revolution which
was to some extent a political enactment of its ideas. It too, in its idealistic early
stages, involved breaking out of the restrictive patterns of the past. The two
generations of English Romantic poets were each affected by it. The older
generation, Blake, Wordsworth, and Coleridge, were young men in 1789 and
were fired with revolutionary ideas. In What followed, the Terror and the rise of
Napoleon, all too easily caused disillusionment. Although some of these poets
retreated into reaction in later life, they were lucky to have lived through a
period which offered something to match the idealism of youth. The younger
generation of poets, Byron, Shelley, and Keats, were less fortunate. They grew
up in a society dominated by the repression of a series of Tory governments
apprehensive that every request for freedom might open the floodgates of
revolution. In prose the Romantic Revival is connected with the vogue for
Scott's historical novels, with the development of criticism and essay-writing,
and with the growth of periodical literature.

A selection of writers of the period: William Wordsworth

(1770-1850), Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834), Robert

Southey (1774-1843), George Gordon, Lord Byron (1788-1824),

Percy Byssi Shelley (1792-1822), John Keats (1795-1821), Walter

Scott (1771-1832), Jane Austen (1775-1817), William Blake

(1757-1827), Robert Burns (1759-1796), Ann Radcliffe (1764-

1823).

3. Victorian period in English literature

During the reign of Queen Victoria the literary production of England became
extremely abundant and varied. The chief features of the period were, perhaps,
the prevalence of prose over poetry and the development of the novel which
became the most popular form of literature. Most of the production of the time,
both in prose and in verse, was characterized by a definite social purpose and
was intended to reform, instruct, and inspire. It was generally marked by
absolute compliance with tradition and orthodoxy, and rejected some of the
traits of Romanticism - such as extravagance and unruliness - which were no
longer consistent with the new ideals of self control, order and respectability.
This led to a few minor reversions to classicism, but, as a whole, literature
continued to be romantic in its imaginative and emotional intensity and, above
all, in its interest in humble people and commonplace things.

Victorian poetry was generally purposeful in subject and serious in tone, and,
unlike fiction, was seldom relieved by humor. Its main themes were the
torments of doubt in perplexed souls, the social problems of the day, the
pleasures of wedded love, the ecstasies of religious faith. The prevailing note
was, however, one of sadness and uncertainty and the spirit of the age as a
whole was best interpreted in Tennyson's wistful, polished, and melodious lines.

A selection of writers of the period: Matthew Arnold (1822-

1888), Lewis Carroll (1832-1898), Alfred Lord Tennyson (1809-

1892), Robert Browning (1812-1889), Charlotte Bronte (1816-

1855), Anne Bronte (1820-1749), Charles Dickens (1812- 1870),

Anthony Trollope (1815-1882), William Makepeace Thackeray

(1811-1863), George Eliot (1819-1880), Thomas Carlyle (1795-

1881), John Ruskin (1891-1900).

4.Literature as art: Modern English literature

Since the Second World War there have been great changes in literature and in
the arts. These changes have much to do with the breaking down of social
barriers and the improvement of education. Wider education has made young
people from every social background conscious of the arts, and has awakened
their interest in them. Today, artists, musicians and writers have a much wider
public than they had before the war.
The writers tended to come from the same kind of background, although there
were many exceptions. The novelist, D.H. Lawrence, for example, was the son
of a miner. But Lawrence's books were bought and read by middle-class
readers, and the language which he used was literary, rather than popular.
Lawrence, like other writers of the 1920s and 1930s - Aldous Huxley, H.G.
Wells, and the older men, George Bernard Shaw and John Galsworthy - was
presenting his public with his own view of life. Many of the serious writers of
the period were concerned with social and political problems. Other writers, like
Virginia Woolf and the Irishman, James Joyce, were more interested in thoughts
and feelings than in social life, and they expressed their thoughts in a language
which was sometimes extremely difficult to understand.

Playwrights, too, experimented with language. In the late 1930s and in the
1940s T.S. Eliot and Christopher Fry wrote serious plays in verse. At the same
time there were plenty of novelists and playwrights whose only aim was to
excite, to amuse and to move to tears.

One of my favorite writers is Geogre Bernard Shaw. George Bernard Shaw’s

plays are thematically diverse. He wove threads of humour and romance
between analyses of contemporary hypocrisies and social tensions.

•"Pygmalion " is the most popular play of this playwright. In his work, the
playwright asserts several important ideas: the natural equality of people and
their class inequality, the talent of people, the possibility of overcoming the
social gap through the installation of speech culture.

•All the main characters were portrayed as ordinary people with their flaws and
strengths. Each of them was shown from two sides; the author avoided
idealization, but was sympathetic to Eliza.

•Dramatic irony occurs when the audience recognizes the irony of a situation,
but the character does not. The audience can determine this dramatic irony by
observing a character's thoughts, speech, or interaction between one another.

•The author skillfully described the background and characters, trying to

recreate every detail.

•His plays are difficult to understand without a glossary or explanation. His

plays do not follow the conventional laws of playwriting. His plays are short of
prefaces, characterization, and extended stage-directions.

5. Environmental problems

There has been a shoot-up of environmental problems, these environmental

problems caused some people to work round the clock in order to bring
solutions to the problems. Among all the environmental problems and solutions,
global warming and climate change have attracted more attention than the
others.

Global warming leads to rising temperatures of the oceans and the Earth’s
surface causing the melting of polar ice caps, a rise in sea levels, and also in the
natural patterns of precipitation such as flash floods, excessive snow, or
desertification.

Global warming and its solutions come first on the list of environmental
problems and solutions because of the attention it has gathered and the
implications of not controlling it. Global warming is currently the most
prominent environmental problem.

Climate change like global warming is an environmental problem that is a result

of human practice like the emission of greenhouse gasses.

● What steps can humanity take to prevent global warming?

1. Use of Renewable Energies

The first way to prevent climate change is to move away from fossil fuels.
Renewable energies like solar, wind, biomass, and geothermal are better
alternatives that help reduce global warming.

2. Energy & Water Efficiency

Producing clean energy is essential, but reducing our consumption of energy

and water by using more efficient devices is less costly and equally important.

3. Sustainable Transportation

Promoting public transportation, carpooling, but also electric and hydrogen

mobility can definitely help reduce CO2 emissions and thus fight global
warming. Also, using efficient engines can help reduce CO2 emissions.

4. Sustainable Infrastructure

In order to reduce the CO2 emissions from buildings – caused by heating, air
conditioning, hot water, or lighting – it is necessary both to build new low-
energy buildings and to renovate the existing constructions.

5. Sustainable Agriculture

Encouraging better use of natural resources, stopping massive deforestation as

well as making agriculture greener and more efficient should also be a priority.
6. Responsible Consumption & Recycling

Adopting responsible consumption habits is crucial, be it regarding food

(particularly meat), clothing, cosmetics, or cleaning products. Last but not least,
recycling is an absolute necessity for dealing with waste.

● Protecting species from extinction

World governments are having programs that protect flora and fauna. For
example, the Convention, an agreement between governments worldwide to
ensure that international trade in wild plants and animals does not threaten their
survival. CITES began in 1975 with 80 participating nations. Now, 169 nations
participate and the agreement protects more than 30,000 species of plants and
animals.

International organization's action plan to protect wildlife:

1) Defending and strengthening the Endangered Species Act, which

provides an essential legal safety net to prevent the loss of plant and animal
species to extinction.

2) Holding federal agencies and others accountable for complying with laws
protecting rare and endangered species using cooperation, persuasion, and—
where necessary—litigation.

3) Protecting, restoring, and connecting the habitats on which endangered

species and other wildlife depend for their survival, and encouraging wildlife-
friendly land management practices.

4) Reducing threats to wildlife that can lead to their endangerment and

extinction, such as loss of habitat, contamination of water, and spread of
invasive species.

● Are scientists successful in controlling climate change? (state your

opinion) To my opinion, they are not very successful in it right now. We can see
on the news daily that polar bears or penguins are dying. Scientists always come
up with new ideas like controlling the birth rate and other things. Instead, they
could encourage people to plant trees, sort trash, and do other things. If the
whole world does that, we could really live better and climate change would be
partially prevented. But of course not everything they do is bad and other
measures must be taken. First and foremost keeping fossil fuels in the ground.
The scientists call on countries to invest in renewable sources of energy, end
subsidies for fossil fuels and prohibit new fossil fuel projects.

● What should big cities do to prevent air pollution?

This pollution comes in many forms, from plastic and other waste littering the
streets, to toxic chemical substances entering waterways. But perhaps one of the
most worrying (in terms of public health) is the issue of air pollution. Air
pollution from cities is mostly a result of increased numbers of cars and other
vehicles burning fossil fuels along with power plants and industrial complexes.
In lower-income cities, incineration of solid waste and agricultural waste are
also big contributors. According to the World Health Organization (WHO)
around 3.8 million premature deaths are attributed to air pollution, around 80%
of which are due to heart disease and the other 20% due to other illnesses and
cancers.

WHO suggests this: 10 ways you can fight air pollution (who.int)

- no driving in rush hour

- walk to work

- electric vehicles

- compost waste

- recycle waste

- no burning waste

- renewable energy to power homes

- clean energy for cooking

- turn off lights and electronics when not using it

- check air pollution levels daily

● Major environmental problems confronting Ukraine

As Russia’s invasion of Ukraine continues, environmental experts and activists

are warning of a ripple effect of problems, including long-lasting damage to the
war-ravaged country’s urban, agricultural and industrial areas.

Nearly two months into its invasion, Russia has begun its long-feared offensive
in eastern Ukraine along the 300-mile front near Donbas, a region with a 200-
year history of coal mining and heavy industry.
The past seven weeks have been mired by death, displacement and the
demolition of a country’s landscape that will take years to repair, experts told
ABC News. In addition to the direct impact on Ukrainians, the consequences of
the war will be felt socially, economically and environmentally.

“Russia’s invasion of Ukraine raises a host of unique and potentially profound

environmental concerns for not only the people of Ukraine, but the wider
region, including much of Europe,” Carroll Muffett, president and CEO of the
Center for International Environmental Law, told ABC News. “Those human
impacts of the war take on a lot of forms and a lot of dimensions, and many of
them last long after long after the hostilities have ceased.” Once the conflict is
over, the environment in Ukraine is going to be the local government’s “No. 1
priority,” Doug Weir, research and policy director of The Conflict and
Environment Observatory, told ABC News.

● Compare Ukrainian and other countries environmental policies

Environmental policy was initiated in Ukraine when economic and political

reforms were launched in the country in 1991. The main objectives of the
national environmental policy in Ukraine are:

· to provide people with a healthy environment and with natural resources

necessary to promote economic development without causing damage to nature,
and to preserve the diversity of landscapes and biodiversity, while taking into
account economic development, transforming these approaches into a
sustainable development strategy;

· to harmonize and integrate national environmental policy into world policy

processes in general, and the European policy process in particular.

Environmental policy in Ukraine springs from several provisions of the

Constitution of Ukraine. They are:

• right to ensure ecological safety in Ukraine,

• right of citizens to a healthy and safe environment,

• right to free access to information regarding the environment.

Policy examples EU

The European environmental research and innovation policy

The European environmental research and innovation policy aims at promoting
research and innovation for building a resource-efficient and climate-resilient
society and economy in sync with the natural environment. Research and
innovation in Europe are financially supported by the programme Horizon
2020, which is also open to participation worldwide.

The Water Framework Directive and the Birds Directive

The Water Framework Directive is an example of a water policy which aimed

for rivers, lakes, ground and coastal waters to be of "good quality" by 2015. The
Birds Directive established as early as 1979 and the Habitats Directive are
pieces of European Union legislation for protection of biodiversity and natural
habitats. These protections however only directly cover animals and plants;
fungi and micro-organisms have no protection under European Union law. The
directives are implemented through the Natura 2000 programme and covers
30,000 sites throughout Europe.

The Environmental Crime Directive

The | Environmental Crime Directive is a 2008 instrument aimed at protecting

the environment through the use of criminal law. After over a decade from its
publication, as part of the | European Green Deal,the European Commission
submitted a |proposal for a new Directive with the aim of strengthening the
enforcement and prosecution of environmental crimes through the use of clearer
definitions and sanctions other than the typical fines and imprisonment.

POLICY USA

Environmental policy in the United States involves governmental actions at the

federal, state, and local level to protect the environment and conserve natural
resources. Environmental protection is balanced with other public policy
concerns, such as economic growth, affordable energy, and the rights of
businesses and individuals. Debates over state and federal environmental
policies often involve discussions of the trade-offs associated with
environmental laws.

Environmental policy can include laws and policies addressing water and air
pollution, chemical and oil spills, smog, drinking water quality, land
conservation and management, and wildlife protection, such as the protection of
endangered species.

● THE WORST NATURAL AND MAN MADE DISASTER IN

UKRAINE
1) On June 22-23, 2020, rain intensity in Ivano-Frankivsk region stood at
106-168 mm, which led to catastrophic floods that brought casualties. As a
result of the natural disaster, three people died, 250 settlements were flooded,
agricultural lands were flooded, and economic facilities, including roads,
bridges, and fortifications, were destroyed.

2) CHERNOBYL

6. Travelling

Traveling is an extraordinary experience every person needs to try. It reveals a

whole new and exciting world out there, opens out your inner strength, and
presents with unforgettable adventures. There is nothing quite like traveling,
like seeing a new place for the first time or returning to a favorite one. People of
all ages, from all around the world, go to foreign places for different reasons –
mainly, for work, family, and leisure. Whether by plane, train, ship or by
automobile, traveling is generally a pleasurable experience, at least for the
people who can financially afford comfortable and safe methods of travel. But it
has more benefits than satisfying one’s need to make money, like, for example,
to see loved ones and enjoy oneself on vacation.

Why do people travel?

Traveling gives you a chance to do what makes you happy. It also helps you in
overcoming your fears as you have to handle every situation by yourself. This is
the reason why many people love to travel around the world alone. It improves
your overall health. Once in a while, we all need a break from our busy routines.

Describe the most interesting spot you’ve ever visited

Describe your best and yuor worst trip

The most important tourist destinations of Ukraine. Why is tourism

important in our country?

- Bukovel - skiing
 - Kyiv - for city lovers

- Odessa - amazing beaches

- Lviv - for history lovers

- Chernivtsi Univerity - famous as Ukrainian Hogwarts

Tourism helps Ukraine tell its story. For centuries the territory of Ukraine was
controlled by other nations, therefore events that happened have been narrated
by these nations. The Russian Empire and Soviet Government controlled the
narrative for hundreds of years, but Ukrainians are taking back control of their
story.

The causes of emigration. What to do with people who are illegal in the country?

Demographers examine push and pull factors for people to be pushed out of one
place and attracted to another. There can be a desire to escape negative
circumstances such as shortages of land or jobs, or unfair treatment. People can
be pulled to the opportunities available elsewhere. Fleeing from oppressive
conditions, being a refugee and seeking asylum to get refugee status in a foreign
country, may lead to permanent emigration.

Demographers distinguish factors at the origin that push people out, versus
those at the destination that pull them in.Motives to migrate can be either
incentives attracting people away, known as pull factors, or circumstances
encouraging a person to leave. Diversity of push and pull factors inform
management scholarship in their efforts to understand the migrant movement.

Push factors

● Poor living conditions

● Lack of employment
 ● Lack of educational opportunities

● Lack of political or religious rights

● Threat of arrest or punishment

● Persecution or intolerance based on race, religion, gender or sexual

orientation

● Inability to find a spouse for marriage

● Lack of freedom to choose religion, or to choose no religion

● Shortage of farmland; hard to start new farms (historically)

● Oppressive legal or political conditions

● Struggling or Failing economy

● Military draft, warfare or terrorism

● Cultural fights with other cultural groups

● Overcrowding
Pull factors

● Better living conditions

● Favorable letters relatives or informants who have already moved;

chain migration

● Better opportunities for acquiring farms for self and children

● Cheap purchase of farmland

● Quick wealth (as in a gold rush)

 ● More job opportunities

● Promise of higher pay

● Educational opportunity (including university for adults or K-12

for children)

● Prepaid travel (as from relatives)

● Better welfare programmes

● Join relatives or fellow countrymen who have already moved;

chain migration

● Building a new nation (historically)

● Building specific cultural or religious communities

● Political freedom

● Cultural opportunities

● Greater opportunity to find a spouse

● Favorable climate

● Ease of crossing boundaries

● Reduced tariff

Why illegal immigration is bad?

● Some argue that immigrants take the jobs of the local population.
Moreover some immigrants, in particular the "illegal" ones, work without
a contract and accept a lower salary and working conditions than other
workers. This may contribute to lower wages in the country.
 ● Illegal migration is often associated with problems such as
prostitution, slavery, and violence. There are many criminal gangs that
exploit those willing to do whatever it takes to reach the land of their
dreams. Sometimes these gangs abuse the migrants even after they have
arrived in the destination country.

● Loss of human capital. Developing countries also suffer from

emigration because many strong and driven men and women leave. This
means fewer people of working age and fewer taxpayers.

● Problems of adaptation and nationalism. Immigrants do not

always adapt well to the culture of their host country and sometimes
tensions emerge. Nationalism also makes people in the destination
countries sometimes feel their ways of life and culture are somehow
threatened.

Require Licensed Businesses to Use E-Verify. One of the major driving forces
behind illegal immigration is our economy and the ability to earn money. That
is where the term “economic migrants” stems from. The country can pass laws
that make it more difficult for illegal aliens to work, hold jobs, and earn salaries
by considering requiring businesses, which are licensed by the state, to use E-
Verify.

Target Businesses Who Knowingly Hire Illegal Aliens. The other aspect of
the Arizona law that was upheld by the Supreme Court, above and beyond the
use of E-Verify, is the part that provides that the license of a business can be
suspended or revoked by the state if an employer “knowingly” hires an illegal
alien. Willful ignorance of immigration status by businesses happens all too
often.
Pass Vehicle Laws Aimed at Thwarting Day Labor. One obvious outward
sign of aliens who are in the country illegally is the proliferation of day
laborers. llegal immigrants choose the day-labor route precisely because it
avoids official work verification tools, such as E-Verify.

WHAT IS GLOBALISATION AND WHAT IS THE FUTURE OF IT?

Globalization is the word used to describe the growing interdependence of the

world’s economies, cultures, and populations, brought about by cross-border
trade in goods and services, technology, and flows of investment, people, and
information. Countries have built economic partnerships to facilitate these
movements over many centuries.

The future of globalization looks bright. With the increasing innovation,

development, and transferability of technology, the global economy will witness
more integration and interconnectedness. Enhancing this is the inherent high
mobility of the current and upcoming generation.

7. Health Care.

On October 19, 2017 the Ukrainian Parliament finally passed a law that will
start medical reform in Ukraine. Right after passing the law on financing
healthcare, the Ukrainian parliament approved two other related bills: one is
aimed to provide people in remote areas with access to medical services,
including telemedicine, and another that amends the financial code of Ukraine.

The reform project seems to be rationally laid out in time, with supposed
finalization within a perspective of several years. In other words, the success of
the reform in health care is directly dependent on the success in the
transformation and growth of the Ukrainian economy.
Health Insurance is important because

• Lifestyle related ailments are common these days

• Healthcare is becoming increasingly expensive

• It is difficult for a family to quickly arrange for huge amounts of money

required for treatment

Disadvantages

One of the main disadvantages of having health insurance is the cost. Health
insurance can be very costly even for those that have a health insurance plan
through their employers. Costs may be so high that many end up struggling to
make payments. Another disadvantage would involve people who have a pre-
existing illness. They have to undergo a waiting period which is typically four
years.

The best doctors - United States. The US takes the crown on our list of the top
10 countries with the best doctors in the world, United Kingdom, Germany,
France, Switzerland.

UK Healthcare System

The United Kingdom provides public healthcare to all permanent residents,

about 58 million people. Healthcare coverage is free at the point of need, and is
paid for by general taxation. About 18% of a citizen’s income tax goes towards
healthcare, which is about 4.5% of the average citizen’s income. Overall,
around 8.4 percent of the UK's gross domestic product is spent on healthcare.
The UK also has a growing private healthcare sector that is still much smaller
than the public sector.

5 Countries with the Healthiest People in the World:

Iceland, Japan, Sweden, New Zealand, Finland

Healthy Lifestyle Habits from the World's Healthiest Humans

Move
- Walking is the main mode of transportation in the world's healthiest countries
- Moderate daily activity reaps the most benefits, and may be better for your
body than high-intensity exercise
- Other good examples: Gardening, Playing with children, Walking a dog

Know Your Purpose

- Having a meaningful reason to get out of bed can help reduce stress and ward
off disease
- Studies show people who retire early often see a decline in their health and
higher mortality rates than those who work

Decompress the Stress

- People who live in healthy countries report less stress
- Slow down
- Prioritize sleep
- Take vacations
- Schedule calm time: meditation, bathing, hobbying

Follow the 80% Rule

- Stop eating when you're 80% full. Wait 10 minutes, then reassess your hunger
- Prevents overeating
- Increases mind body connection

Eat a Natural Diet

- People in healthy countries eat less processed food and more local, fresh,
natural food than Americans
- Limit processed foods, sweets and unnatural fats like margarine
- Prepare more of your food from fresh, local sources
- Fat is ok if it comes from a plant or animal (but not a factory!)
- Drink plenty of water and herbal teas (and avoid sodas)
- Herbal teas act as diuretics, lower blood pressure, and prevent heart disease.

8. The System of Secondary Education in Britain.

The educational system of G.B. is extremely complex and bewildering. It is

very difficult to generalize particular types of schools as schools differ from one
to the other. Each school has its own board of governors consisting of teachers,
parents, local politicians, members of the local community, businessmen and
sometimes pupils. According to the law only one subject is compulsory. It is a
religious instruction.

Schooling for children is compulsory from 5 to 16, though some provision is

made for children under 5 and some pupils remain at school after 16 to prepare
for higher education.

The state school system is usually divided into 2 stages (secondary and
primary). The majority of primary schools are mixed. They are subdivided into
infant schools (ages 5 to 7), and junior schools (ages 7 to11). In junior schools
pupils were often placed in A,B,C or D-streams, according to their abilities.
Under the pressure of progressive parents and teachers the 11+ examination has
now been abolished in most parts of the country. There are several types of
schools in G.B. Grammar schools provide an academic cause for selected pupils
from the age of 11 to 18. Only those children who have the best results are
admitted to these schools. They give pupils a high level of academic education
which can lead to university.

Private School Pros

Here are the pros of sending your child to private school: May offer alternative
or enhanced teaching methods, Flexible curriculum, Independently funded,
Smaller class sizes.

Public School Pros

Here are the pros of sending your child to public school: Tuition Free, State
certified teachers, State-set standards, Free special education programs

Private School Cons

Here are the cons of sending your child to private school: Must pay tuition,
Teachers don’t have to be certified, May not have special education programs,
Less diversity

Public School Cons

Here are the cons of sending your child to public school: Less flexible
curriculum, Larger class sizes, Overcrowding

The main school examination, the General Certificate of secondary education

(GCSE) examination is taken at the age of 16. If pupils are successful, they can
make their choice: they may either go to a Further Education College or a
Polytechnic or they may continue their education in the sixth form. Those who
stay at school after GCSE, study for 2 more years for "A' (Advanced) Level
Exams in two or three subjects which are necessary to enter one of British
universities. Universities usually select students based on their A-level results
and an interview.

After three years of study a university graduate gets the Degree of a Bachelor of
Arts, Science or Engineering. Many students then continue their studies for a
Master's Degree and then a Doctor's Degree.
9. The System of Secondary Education in the USA.

The American education system consists of 3 basic components: elementary,

secondary and higher education.

The preschool education programme aims to prepare children for elementary

school through playing and help them to acquire the experience of association.
It lasts for one year. Then they go to the first grade (or grade 1). The main goal
of elementary education is the general intellectual, social and physical
development of a pupil from 5 to 12 or 15 years old.

The main difference between private and public school is the source of funding.
Public schools are funded by local, state, or federal government while private
schools are generally funded through tuition paid by the students. Because
public schools receive federal funds, they must also follow federal guidelines
and that sometimes limits what public schools are able to teach.

The programme of studies in the elementary school includes English,

Arithmetic, Geography, History of the USA, Natural Sciences and, besides,
Physical Training, Singing, Drawing, Wood or Metal Work, etc. Sometimes
they learn a foreign language and general history. Beside giving general
education some high schools teach subjects useful to those who hope to find
jobs in industry and agriculture or who want to enter colleges or universities.

10. The System of Secondary Education in Ukraine.

Primary and secondary education is divided into three levels of accreditation of

general education. Elementary schooling lasts for 4 years, middle school for 5
and high school for 3. Primary forms comprise 1 to 4 forms. Junior secondary
forms comprise 5 to 9 forms. After the 9th form children can enter technical
schools of different types. Those who want to enter higher educational
institutions should complete 10—11 forms. Students can also enter higher
educational institutions after graduating from specialized colleges or lyceums.
They prepare students in different fields, whether the humanities or the
sciences. Some of them are organized under the authorities of higher
educational establishments.

There are several types of institutions of General Education, namely: Middle

School of General Education (ЗОШ) (or just Middle School), Lyceum,
Gymnasium and some boarding schools called School-Internat or Lyceum-
Internat. The institution is called Middle School of General Education (ZOSh)
or simply Middle School and usually combines primary and secondary levels of
education. The middle school curriculum includes classes in the Ukrainian
language, Ukrainian Literature, a foreign language, world literature, Ukrainian
History, world history, geography, algebra, geometry, biology, chemistry,
physics, physical education, music and art. At some schools, students also take
environment and civics classes. Lyceum provides field-specific secondary
education. Gymnasium is a general educational institution of II-III levels with
in-depth study of individual subjects in accordance with the profile. School-
Internat or Lyceum-Internat. The peculiarity of these schools is that students
live where they study, this type of school is similar to campuses

Since 2018, pre-higher education now lasts for 12 years.

Children usually go to school at the age of 6 or 7. There are some preschool

institutions, like nursery schools or kindergartens, but they are not obligatory.

Some people believe that the school is the answer to all problems, but in fact it
is not. School gives a person education, but a significant role in life is played by
how a person is brought up in a family, and what values and morals are taught
by the relatives. Only the combination of school education, principles of
upbringing and personal opinion (point of view, principles) may propose the
answers to problems, but not taken separately. School gives us the ground for
further development of our thoughts and actions.

In general, school education in Ukraine is designed in such a way that students

can cover the widest range of different sciences in their studies, even if they
study in field-specific classes. Compared to other countries and their education
system, students in Ukraine have more opportunities to enter higher education,
as different types of schools provide this opportunity almost equally. What is
more, Education reform has ensured the introduction of new methods,
techniques of teaching and education. One of the disadvantages of Ukrainian
schools is that there are sometimes too many students in the classrooms. And
considering the recent education reform, classes with fewer students would be
appropriate so that the teacher can devote more time to each student
individually. A wide range of subjects may be a disadvantage to some extent,
particularly in the senior grades, when some students want to focus more on the
specific subjects they need to enter universities.

11. The System of Higher Education in Great Britain.

Many students apply to several universities through *UCAS (Universities and

Colleges Admission Service) and receive offers of a place on condition that they
achieve certain grades in their *A levels. The oldest and most famous
universities are *Oxford and *Cambridge.
At most British universities the academic year is divided into three terms.
Students study a main subject throughout their degree course, which is usually a
mix of compulsory courses and electives. Most students have lectures and
seminars and there are practicals for those doing a science subject. At some
universities students have individual tutorials or supervisions.
А professor is the person in charge of a department or a senior member of staff.
Other teaching and research staff are called lecturers. Junior academic staff may
be called research associates.
Students in Britain formerly had their tuition fees paid by the state and received
a government grant to help pay their living expenses. Now, they receive only a
loan towards their expenses, and from 1999 most will also have to pay 1 000
pounds a year towards tuition fees.
The University of Oxford is a collegiate research university in Oxford, England.
There is evidence of teaching as early as 1096, making it the oldest university in
the English-speaking world and the world's second-oldest university in
continuous operation. It grew rapidly from 1167 when Henry II banned English
students from attending the University of Paris. After disputes between students
and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled north-east to Cambridge
where they established what became the University of Cambridge. The two
English ancient universities share many common features and are jointly
referred to as Oxbridge. Oxford is ranked among the most prestigious
universities in the world.
The university is made up of thirty-nine semi-autonomous constituent colleges,
six permanent private halls, and a range of academic departments which are
organised into four divisions. All the colleges are self-governing institutions
within the university, each controlling its own membership and with its own
internal structure and activities. All students are members of a college. It does
not have a main campus, and its buildings and facilities are scattered throughout
the city centre. Undergraduate teaching at Oxford consists of lectures, small-
group tutorials at the colleges and halls, seminars, laboratory work and
occasionally further tutorials provided by the central university faculties and
departments. Postgraduate teaching is provided predominantly centrally.

At first, the students lodged with the townspeople or lived in halls. William of
Durham founded the first college, University College, in 1249. (The oldest part
of the existing buildings dates from 1634). Less than a century later, Oxford had
achieved eminence above every other seat of learning in the country, and had
won the praises of popes, kings and sages by virtue of its antiquity, curriculum,
doctrine and privileges. From its early days, Oxford was a centre for lively
controversy, with scholars involved in religious and political disputes. In the
Middle Ages, students learned the seven liberal arts of grammar, rhetoric, logic,
arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music. In the 16th century, they began to
study the humanities. The University assumed a leading role in the Victorian
era, especially in religious controversy. From 1833 onwards The Oxford
Movement sought to revitalise the Catholic aspects of the Anglican Church.
Somerville College for women was founded in 1879. St Hildas College was
founded in 1893 by Dorothea Beale. The University Act of 1854 made it
possible for those who did not belong to the Church of England to study at
Oxford. During the 20th and early 21st centuries, Oxford added to its
humanistic core a major new research capacity in the natural and applied
sciences, including medicine. In so doing, it has enhanced and strengthened its
traditional role as an international focus for learning and a forum for intellectual
debate.

The University of Cambridge is a collegiate research university in Cambridge,

United Kingdom. Founded in 1209 and granted a royal charter by Henry III in
1231, Cambridge is the second-oldest university in the English-speaking world
and the world's third-oldest surviving university.

Cambridge is formed from a variety of institutions which include 31 semi-

autonomous constituent colleges and over 150 academic departments, faculties
and other institutions organised into six schools. All the colleges are self-
governing institutions within the university, each controlling its own
membership and with its own internal structure and activities. All students are
members of a college. The university does not have a main campus, and its
colleges and central facilities are scattered throughout the city. Undergraduate
teaching at Cambridge centres on weekly small-group supervisions in the
colleges in groups of typically 1–4 students. This intensive method of teaching
is widely considered the 'jewel in the crown' of an Oxbridge undergraduate
education. In addition, lectures, seminars, laboratory work and occasionally
further supervisions are provided by the central university faculties and
departments. Postgraduate teaching is provided predominantly centrally.
Degrees are conferred by the University, not the colleges.

12. The System of Higher Education in the USA.

Americans talk about 'going to college' even if the institution they attend is a
university. To Americans the phrase 'going to university' sounds pretentious.
Most colleges offer classes only for undergraduate students studying for a
bachelor's degree. *Community colleges offer two-year courses leading to an
associate's degree, and afterwards students transfer to a different college or
university to continue their studies. Universities are larger than colleges and
also offer courses for graduate students who study in graduate school. Many
universities also have separate professional schools, e.g. a medical school or a
law school. There are many private colleges and universities but most students
choose a public institution because the costs are lower. All universities charge
tuition, and students pay extra for room and board.

The most famous universities are those in the *Ivy League, including *Harvard
and *Yale, but many others have good reputations. Large universities often put
most emphasis on research. Smaller colleges tend to concentrate on teaching
undergraduates, and many students prefer these colleges because they offer
smaller classes and more personal attention from teachers.

The US academic year may be divided into two semesters of about 15 weeks.
Students take courses in a variety of subjects, regardless of their main subject,
because the aim of the liberal arts curriculum is to produce well-rounded people
with good critical skills. At the end of their sophomore (= second) year students
choose a major (= main subject) and sometimes a minor (= additional subject)
which they study for the next two years. Students take four or five courses each
semester from the course catalog. Courses may consist mainly of lectures or
may include discussion sections or lab sessions.

Students are given grades at the end of each course. The highest grade is A; the
lowest is F, which means that the student has failed the course and will not get
credit for taking it. To check a student's overall progress, the university
calculates a *grade point average (GPA). Students who finish their degree with
a high GPA may be awarded Latin honours, of which the highest is *summa
cum laude.
American *high school students who want to study at a college or university
have to take a standardized test, e.g. "ACT (American College Test). Students
from countries outside the US who are not native speakers of English must also
take the *TOEFL (Test of English as a Foreign Language). Each college or
university decides on the minimum score it will accept, though test scores are
never the only factor taken into account. Students apply directly to between
three and six colleges in their last year of high school. Each college has its own
application form and most include a question for which the student must write
an essay. The student also has to send a transcript (= an official list of all the
subjects studied and the grades received) and letters of reference. Prices range
from a few hundred dollars a year to well over $25 000 at some private colleges.
Students whose families cannot afford to pay the full amount apply for financial
aid. Many students receive a financial aid package which may be a combination
of grants from the government, a scholarship, a student loan and work-study (=
a part-time job at the college).

13. The system of higher education in Ukraine

The structure of higher education system in Ukraine is based on the

education systems of the developed nations of the world in accordance with
recommendations from UNESCO, UN and other international organizations.
Higher education is an integral part of the Ukrainian education system as laid
down in the Law of Ukraine “On Education”. The four-level system provides
thorough academic, professional and practical training with the following
degrees: Junior Specialist, Bachelor, Specialist, Master.

Higher education can be obtained in higher education establishments of a

certain level of accreditation. The applicants must have either basic general
secondary education, complete secondary education, or hold degrees of the
Junior Specialist or Bachelor, as well as of the Specialist or Master if they apply
for a postgraduate degree.
 The students can take either the full-time courses (day), part-time courses
(evening classes, distance learning), or take a combination of these. Sometimes
they can do an external course.

Admission to higher educational establishments is selective and depends on

the applicants' ability; it does not depend on the ownership type of the education
establishment or the sources of money to pay tuition fees.

According to their status, all education establishments fall into four

categories:

∙ First level – the technical school, vocational school, or other

schools of the same level;

∙ Second level – the college, or other establishments of the same

level;

∙ Third and fourth levels (according to their accreditation) –

the institute, conservatory, academy, university.

The higher education establishments can award degrees:

∙ Junior Specialist (technical schools, vocational schools, and

other education establishments of the first accreditation level);

∙ Bachelor (colleges and other education establishments of the

second accreditation level);

∙ Specialist, Master (education establishments of the third and

fourth accreditation level)

The multi-layer structure of the higher education system means that on

completion of education on a given level, students obtain a corresponding
degree and can move up from level to level.
 According to the structure of the higher education system, the first level
leads to Junior Specialist Diploma, the second level to Bachelor’s Degree (basic
higher education), the third to Specialist, Master’s Degree (complete higher
education).

Accredited education establishments provide instruction according to their

accreditation level. However, the higher the accreditation level of an education
establishment is, the more options it can offer its students, who can graduate
with a diploma or degree of any chosen level.

Being a participant of the Bologna process, Ukraine joined common

European education system, as well as European academic research community.
In this way it will take part in creation of the "Europe of Knowledge", and
become more competitive.

Top 10 universities in Ukraine:

1. Lviv Polytechnic National University

Having many years of experience, Lviv Polytechnic National University has

been the best college in Ukraine and truly outstanding in all of Europe. It is
from one of the best medical universities in Ukraine

Sixteen instructive establishments involve Lviv Polytechnic, while its most

elevated positioning subjects are Architecture and Civil Engineering. The
college educates at the Bachelor's , Master's, and Doctoral levels with dedicated
divisions for global students. Students at Lviv Polytechnic gain from prepared
teachers that are among the best in their fields. The establishment likewise deals
with its own special distance learning stage.

2. Sumy State University (SumDU)

Eastern Ukraine's driving advanced education organization is the Sumy State
University. It represents considerable authority in STEM subjects, including
data innovation, designing, and medication. Students can seek after Bachelor's,
Master's, or PhD degrees, which are accessible in various investigation modes.
SumDU finishes quality schooling with a scope of sporting offices. From
committed games clubs to scholarly workshops to people groups, students get
an all-encompassing scholastic experience.

Most of the universities in Ukraine are good but this top college in Ukraine
broadens learning help with different supporting divisions. These are the
Department of Language Training for global students, the Faculty of Skills
Upgrading, and the Center of Postgraduate Education. Through these
augmentations, students and the graduating class improve and reinforce their
expert abilities.

3. Kharkiv National University of Radio Electronics (NURE)

The Kharkiv National University of Radio Electronics is one of the best

universities in Ukraine in hardware, telecom, PC innovations, and electrical
designing. Having mastery in association advances, it spearheaded distance
schooling in the country. NURE comprises of 34 offices coordinated into seven
resources. The projects offered center around innovative advances for society,
for example, Artificial Intelligence, Economic Cybernetics, Info-
correspondence Engineering, and Design and Operation of Electronic Devices.

4. Ivan Franko National University of Lviv

The Ivan Franko National University of Lviv, perhaps the best college in
Ukraine for global students, was allowed its first regal sanction by a Polish King
in 1661, making it the most established college in Ukraine. It is named after the
well-known Ukrainian legislator, dissident, and author who was before a student
there. The college has conquered numerous verifiable occasions, improvements,
and name changes consistently. These encounters drove the college to develop,
have a rich culture, and offer a far-reaching set of orders.

Seventeen resources involve the college, Furthermore, its scholastic aptitude is

known internationally through more than 90 concurrences with accomplice
colleges.

5. Public Technical University "Kharkiv Polytechnic Institute" (NTU

KhPI)

The National Technical University "Kharkiv Polytechnic Institute" was first

settled as a Practical Technological Institute. It followed the Russian Empire's
specialized instruction program and at first have just two divisions: mechanical
and substance. As the years progressed, the organization extended and is
currently offering software engineering, financial matters, physical science, and
data innovation programs. At this top college in Ukraine, there are additionally
undeniable level designing offices, for example, power-plant designing, electric
force, inorganic-substance innovation, and synthetic machine designing.

6. Public Technical University of Ukraine – Ihor Sikorsky Kyiv Polytechnic

Institute (NTUU KPI)

Another esteemed specialized college in Ukraine is the National Technical

University of Ukraine – Ihor Sikorsky Kyiv Polytechnic Institute. Generally
speaking, there are 15 resources, eight establishments, five logical divisions
housed in Kyiv and Slavutych grounds.

Kyiv Polytechnic accepts coordinated relaxation is fundamental for student life.

In this way, the college gives framework to diversion, including human
expressions and sports. International students can appreciate these offices in
NTUU KPI, particularly with the college helping out different nations. Its most
dynamic relations are with Poland, Denmark, Italy, China, and the United
States.

7. Taras Shevchenko National University of (Kyiv University/KNU)

The Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv got its name from the
originator of present day writing in Ukraine. It is situated in the capital city of
Kyiv and is a noticeable image of the advanced education framework in the
entire country. Kyiv University is perhaps the best college in Ukraine for global
students and offers a wide scope of controls with an aggregate of 14 resources
and six organizations. From history to science to gadgets and PC frameworks,
they give top notch educating to college students. KNU keeps up with relations
with more than 400 colleges in forty nations.

The structures in KNU add to Kyiv's in general design gathering, particularly

the chronicled Red University Building, the Yellow Building, and the college's
33-meter-high nursery, which is the biggest all around the world.

8. Borys Grinchenko Kyiv University

Borys Grinchenko Kyiv University (BGKU) offers courses and projects

prompting authoritatively perceived advanced education degrees, for example,
four-year certifications, ace degrees in a few spaces of study. Even International
students can enlist in the college. BGKU likewise gives a few scholastic and
non-scholarly offices and administrations to students including a library, sports
offices, study abroad and trade programs, just as managerial administrations.

UZHHOROD NATIONAL UNIVERSITY

It was founded on October 18, 1945 . It is one of the classic universities of

Ukraine, accredited at the IV (highest) level of accreditation.
The University has 20 faculties (biological, geographical, engineering, history
and international relations, mathematical, medical, medical №2, dental,
economic, health and physical education, information technology, postgraduate
education and pre-University training, social sciences , foreign philology,
tourism and international communications, physical, philological, international
economic relations, chemical, legal), 2 educational and scientific institutes, 115
departments.

The University is included in the list of the best - in terms of educational,

scientific, international, innovative and information activities - higher education
institutions of Ukraine, occupying 20th positions in the consolidated ranking,
11th place in the Webometrics rating, 14th - in the SciVerse Scopus rating, 12th
- in the U- rating. Multirank, 13th in the QS EECA University Rankings and
11th in the TOP-200 rankings of Ukrainian universities.

Uzhhorod National University has a full-time academic staff comprising 1285

scientific and pedagogical workers, including 158 doctors of sciences,
professors, and 715 candidates of sciences and associate professors. 284 people
work part-time, including 34 doctors of sciences, professors, 132 candidates of
sciences, associate professors. The share of doctors of sciences, professors is
12.2%, candidates of sciences, associate professors - 54%. Among the higher
education institutions in Ukraine in terms of the number of teachers with
scientific degrees UzhNU - in 5th place.

The University has 2 corresponding members of the National Academy of

Sciences of Ukraine, 5 academicians of the Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, 13
honored workers of science and technology of Ukraine, 9 honored educators of
Ukraine, 6 honored lawyers of Ukraine, 15 honored doctors of Ukraine, 5
honored inventors of Ukraine, honored journalist of Ukraine.

At the end of 2020, 14,946 students were studying at Uzhhorod National

University, College of Natural Sciences and Humanities. 5,315 people receive
higher education at the expense of the state budget, and 9,631 people at the
expense of individuals and legal entities. Form of study: full-time and part-time.
Specialists are trained at the educational and qualification levels: bachelor,
doctor of philosophy, master.

14. What makes a good teacher. Reflecting on the teaching experience.

8 qualities of a good teacher:

Effective teachers are critical to the development and academic success of

students. If you are looking to become a good teacher, you need to showcase
strong skills in communication, teamwork, time management, problem-solving
and organization. Then you should put these skills to work to educate your
students.

1. Good teachers often have these qualities and characteristics:

Effective goal-setting

2. Clear communication

3. Acting as a role model

4. Adaptability and flexibility

5. Preparation

6. Self-reflection

7. Life-long learning

8. Promoting a love of learning

How can I be a good teacher?

Good teachers are life-long learners dedicated to the academic development of
students. They typically continue their own education to further develop their
methods and skills. In seeking to become a strong teacher, you should look to
build and hone the following characteristics:

1. Effective goal-setting

The most effective teachers know how to set clear objectives for individual
students, single lessons, their entire class and themselves. Developing goals can
assist with gauging academic performance while giving students clear directives
on how to improve. Goals are also an important part of setting and measuring
challenges, both for the students and the teacher. You can set clear objectives
with the following steps:

Check for understanding

Instead of waiting to test students’ knowledge in a test, check for

comprehension during each lesson. This process allows you to answer student
questions and provide a deeper understanding of the topic for students.

Offer feedback
Feedback allows students to know how their performance matches up
with your expectations. Feedback that is timely, detailed and
constructive can assist students in understanding academic
expectations.
2. Clear communication

Teachers use verbal and nonverbal communication skills to identify student

needs and to know when to listen versus when to talk. Teachers also use
developed written communication skills to report information to parents and
other school professionals. You can develop these skills with the following tips:
Use active listening skills

Instead of preparing how to respond, use active listening skills when

communicating and listen to understand the other person’s needs. Give yourself
a few seconds after the question to decide how to respond so that you can truly
focus on what the student, parent or fellow teacher is saying.

Ask for clarification when needed

If you do not fully understand what the other person needs, ask them to rephrase
their question or request. You can also repeat what you understood in your own
words to assess what part of their request needs more clarification.

3. Acting as a role model

Setting rules and encouraging certain behaviors is a good step toward student
development. Teachers who model the same behaviors they ask from their
students are more likely to help students cultivate desirable habits and
behaviors. You can be a role model for your students with the following tips:

Be aware of your behavior

Students observe and learn how to speak, act, treat others and other
developmental behaviors. Modeling behaviors of patience, understanding,
empathy and communication can encourage students to develop these same
skills.

Create an environment of honesty

Encourage your students to be honest with one another through mediating open
conversations. You can model honest behavior by sharing your intentions
behind classroom decisions to help students better empathize with you and your
position. This step can translate into students evaluating their own intentions
and how they impact others, increasing empathy and honesty.

4. Adaptability and flexibility

Each student comes from a unique background with individual personalities,

educational needs and developmental milestones. Teachers find that while one
lesson plan or method of teaching works well with one type of student, it does
not work well with another student. Good teachers learn how to adjust to meet
the individual needs of each student. You can learn to adjust using the following
steps:

Celebrate students’ individuality

Create an environment of acceptance by encouraging creativity, freedom of

thought and questions in the classroom. Accept students where they are at
developmentally and academically. When students feel comfortable and
accepted, they also feel more comfortable asking questions and learn.

Identify different learning styles

Good teachers can identify the individual learning needs of their
students while also creating lesson plans that cater to their academic
style. For example, some students may learn best in a lecture classroom
whereas other students are better able to grasp information with hands-
on learning opportunities. Consider blending methods in lessons to
appeal to more students at one time.
5. Preparation

In addition to learning to adjust to individual student needs, effective teachers

also learn to prepare for every possible scenario. Preparation can promote trust
and comfort in the classroom, and it allows teachers to create lesson plans that
are catered to the individual needs of each student. Use the following tips to
become more prepared:

Create intentional lesson plans

The most effective teachers create lesson plans with intention by considering
the ways the lesson plan could shift as well as the potential emotions, thoughts
and concerns that each lesson plan could bring up with each student. Teachers
can also define each lesson’s purpose to ensure students understand why they
are learning that specific topic.

Understand strengths and weaknesses

It can also be useful to create lesson plans based on the strengths and
weaknesses of each classmate. Getting to know these areas of improvement
early on can assist you in creating classroom plans that are catered to the
individual needs of your students.

6. Self-reflection

Self-reflection is a person’s ability to reflect on their own needs, desires and

interests that can lead to self-acceptance as well as academic success. Teachers
who are reflective of their own strengths, weaknesses and characteristics as a
teacher and are intentional about improvement are better able to encourage the
same level of self-reflection from their students. You can encourage this in your
classroom with the following tips:

Designate time

Designate a time each day to focus on self-reflection activities. Encourage

students to evaluate their own progress for the day and come up with ways they
can do better tomorrow. Promote self-evaluation with the focus on improvement
by having self-reflection time after a big test or near the end of the semester’s
class.

Offer privacy

Some students can be hesitant with self-reflection, so good teachers encourage

students to share when they are comfortable and allow them to remain private
when they are not. Journals can be a great way to encourage self-reflection
without requiring students to share their insights with the entire classroom.

7. Life-long learning

Teachers are often required to complete continuing education courses and

encouraged to pursue professional development opportunities to best serve their
students. Teachers can employ their continuing education in the following
ways:

Prepare for the changing classroom

Courses in child psychology allow teachers to keep up to date as emotional

development strategies change. Technological courses help teachers make the
most of the new tools in the classroom.

Encourage personal and professional development in the classroom

Continuing education classes allow you to develop your teaching skills, which
can demonstrate to your students that you value self-improvement. You can also
use the same study techniques you teach your students to prove how impactful
they can be.

8. Promoting a love of learning

Good teachers also make learning enjoyable by educating students in a way that
is engaging and appeals to students’ interests. When students enjoy learning,
they are more likely to participate in the classroom, perform better academically
and value continued education. You can instill positive feelings in your students
in the following ways:

Use alternative methods of teaching

The best teachers aim to try something new to make any topic more
entertaining. Turn a lesson into a game, performance or music. This step can
help students want to learn and even promote creativity, critical thinking and
collaboration skills they can apply outside the classroom as well.

Ask for feedback

Good teachers ask their students for feedback to identify if students are
struggling with a specific lesson plan and the elements they like and dislike
about a lesson or topic. You can apply feedback to create a lesson plan that
works for them and even come up with new areas to explore that best engage
them in the classroom.

TYPES OF TEACHING METHODS

There are different types of teaching methods which can be categorised into
three broad types. These are teacher-centred methods, learner-centred methods,
content-focused methods and interactive/participative methods.

(a) INSTRUCTOR/TEACHER CENTRED METHODS

Here the teacher casts himself/herself in the role of being a master of the subject
matter. The teacher is looked upon by the learners as an expert or an authority.
Learners on the other hand are presumed to be passive and copious recipients of
knowledge from the teacher. Examples of such methods are expository or
lecture methods - which require little or no involvement of learners in the
teaching process. It is also for this lack of involvement of the learners in what
they are taught, that such methods are called “closed-ended”.

(b) LEARNER-CENTRED METHODS

In learner-centred methods, the teacher/instructor is both a teacher and a learner

at the same time. In the words of Lawrence Stenhouse, the teacher plays a dual
role as a learner as well “so that in his classroom extends rather than constricts
his intellectual horizons”. The teacher also learns new things everyday which
he/she didn’t know in the process of teaching. The teacher, “becomes a resource
rather than an authority”. Examples of learner-centred methods are discussion
method, discovery or inquiry based approach and the Hill’s model of learning
through discussion (LTD).

(c) CONTENT-FOCUSED METHODS

In this category of methods, both the teacher and the learners have to fit into the
content that is taught. Generally, this means the information and skills to be
taught are regarded as sacrosanct or very important. A lot of emphasis is laid on
the clarity and careful analyses of content. Both the teacher and the learners
cannot alter or become critical of anything to do with the content. An example
of a method which subordinates the interests of the teacher and learners to the
content is the programmed learning approach.

(d) INTERACTIVE/PARTICIPATIVE METHODS

This fourth category borrows a bit from the three other methods without
necessarily laying emphasis unduly on either the learner, content or teacher.
These methods are driven by the situational analysis of what is the most
appropriate thing for us to learn/do now given the situation
of learners and the teacher. They require a participatory understanding of varied
domains and factors.

In summary, three types of methods commonly used in instruction are:

Teacher-centred methods

Learner centred methods

Content focused methods

Interactive/participative methods

15. RECENT TEACHING EXPERIENCE. THE IMPORTANCE OF

TEACHING LITERATURE IN SCHOOL.

I think it's necessary to study literature at school, as it gives you a variety of

opportunities. Firstly, literature allows a person to step back in time and learn
about life on Earth from the ones who walked before us. We can gather from it
a better understanding of culture and have a greater appreciation of them.
Through books, we will learn about various historical events and start to
understand a wide range of cultures. Essentially, English Literature will help
students understand different experiences from a variety of viewpoints, helping
them to become more open-minded and empathetic. It broadens their horizons
and allows them to understand the world around them on a deeper level.

English methodologists in their courses in literature distinguish the following

methods;

1. Teacher's presentation (lecture).

2. Conversation.

3. Method of independent work.

 A school lecture is a logically consistent presentation of material by a
teacher used in senior classes. The method of conversation is the most
common in modern school and is used in the study of major works of
program material. The method of independent work involves the
development of students' educational material under the guidance and
control of the teacher.

Recently, the study of English literature has gained considerable popularity in

Ukrainian schools. Children became more and more interested in English
authors and drew ideas from them. In my opinion, it is a really good idea to
study the literature of England in Ukraine, because it helps children to open new
horizons, to begin to see the world from another angle. English authors really
deserve a place in the study of literature in Ukraine.

The modern students would recommend such list of the most fascinating
American and English books, like:

1.Lord of the Flies by William Golding

The classic study of human nature depicts the degeneration of a group of

schoolboys marooned on a desert island.

2.The Fault in Our Stars by John Green

The Fault In Our Stars is a fabulous book about a young teenage girl who
has been diagnosed with lung cancer and attends a cancer support group.

3.Harry Potter by J.K. Rowling

It's been 20+ years since we first met the boy who lived, but the
adventures of Harry and friends Hogwarts still resonate with teens today.
There are different variants how to conduct the lesson, but I would suggest
something like this one:

- Understand the historical context of the text.

- Identify key facts about the novel.

- Discuss the presentation of conflicts.

- Identity and analyze characters.

Write a letter to a selected character.

16. Recent teaching experience: new methods of teaching grammar.

Grammatical structures provide the basis for speech.

Simply put, we need grammar to be able to speak! It’s true that you can get by
with a lack of grammar up to a certain point and be understood, but it won’t
help with fluency.

Grammar is a valuable tool.

Besides being the groundwork for good communication, grammar is useful to

the learner in many different aspects. These include job opportunities, study
opportunities, social skills, and a boost of confidence, plus more.

• What methods would you recommend to use in teaching English grammar?

Dialogue building

This collaborative technique involves setting a scene and, with the students’
help, writing a dialogue on the board including the language you want to focus
on. A great way to push students towards memorizing the language is to
gradually erase the text, word by word, until the students are repeating the
dialogue from memory.

Dictation

With grammar points where the written form is already familiar to the students,
but where meaning needs to be explored in more depth, a quick and effective
means of introducing the language is to dictate model sentences to the class.
Dictation immediately gets students working with the language and tests
listening skills and spelling, as well as grammatical knowledge.

Drilling

To help students pronounce a new language correctly, get them to say it

repeatedly so you can check for accuracy. Simple drilling can be either choral,
i.e. all students repeat the structure at the same time, or individual. A suggested
order is to let students practice chorally first, but to insist on individual
repetition so that you can check everyone is pronouncing it correctly.

Songs

Another popular way of encouraging students to repeat structures as well as to

make them memorable is through songs. Songs can be used to present the target
language through listening tasks such as gap-fills or reordering the lines or
words in the lyrics.

• What grammar topics are pupils usually fond of?

Nouns

Nouns are people, places, or things, They tell us what we are talking about.
Children usually like it, but they always forget about articles.

Adjectives
Adjectives modify, or describe, nouns. Children like to describe nouns with the
help of adjectives.

• Give a short sketch of an English lesson dealing with grammar

Presentation

In this stage the teacher presents the new language in a meaningful context. I
find that building up stories on the board, using realia or flashcards and miming
are fun ways to present the language.

For example, when presenting the 2nd conditional, I often draw a picture of
myself with thought bubbles of lots of money, a sports car, a big house and a
world map.

Practice

There are numerous activities which can be used for this stage including gap fill
exercises, substitution drills, sentence transformations, split sentences, picture
dictations, class questionnaires, reordering sentences and matching sentences to
pictures.

• It is important that the activities are fairly controlled at this stage as students
have only just met the new language. Many students' books and workbooks
have exercises and activities which can be used at this stage.

17. The American Legal System. Court System in the USA.

The U.S. Constitution establishes a federal system of government. The

constitution gives specific powers to the federal (national) government. All
power not delegated to the federal government remains with the states. Each of
the 50 states has its own state constitution, governmental structure, legal codes,
and judiciary.

The courts

There are several types of courts: the Supreme Court of the United States,
circuit courts, district courts, bankruptcy courts, and courts of specific subject-
matter jurisdiction.

The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest judicial body in the
nation and leads the judicial branch of the federal government. Its rulings are
final and cannot be appealed to any other court. Its rulings are used as precedent
by other courts in the country.

The United States Courts of Appeals are the intermediate appellate courts of the
nation. There are 16 of these courts. Decisions of the district courts are appealed
to the circuit courts, and appeals of circuit court decisions are heard by the
Supreme Court of the United States. The appellate court’s task is to determine
whether or not the law was applied correctly in the trial court. Appeals courts
consist of three judges and do not use a jury.

The United States District Courts are the trial courts of the federal courts.
Both civil and criminal cases are filed in the district court, which is a court of
both law and equity. This level of court is composed of 94 different courts.

Bankruptcy courts

The United States Bankruptcy Courts handle matters of bankruptcy across the
nation. Bankruptcy case cannot be filed in state court. Through the bankruptcy
process, individuals or businesses that can no longer pay their creditors may
either seek a court-supervised liquidation of their assets, or they may reorganize
their financial affairs and work out a plan to pay their debts.
 Courts of specific subject-matter jurisdiction

There are seven courts of subject-matter jurisdiction in the federal court system.
State and federal jurisdictions of these courts.

Each type of court has its own jurisdiction, i.e. it deals with certain kinds of
cases. Some courts hear only criminal cases. Other courts are for civil cases, in
which two people disagree over something. Cases are first heard in trial courts.
The person accused in a criminal trial, and both sides involved in a civil trial,
have the right to appeal against the court's decision, and if they do the case goes
to a court of appeals. Some trial courts have limited jurisdiction. Many states,
for example, have family courts where people get divorced, and small claims
courts, which hear cases involving small sums of money. States have trial courts
of general jurisdiction, which can hear a wider range of cases. These are often
called courts of common pleas. State courts of appeals are called superior courts
or district courts, and most states have a supreme court. States have their own
criminal code, but some crimes are federal offences, i.e. against federal law.
Crimes may fall under federal jurisdiction if more than one state is involved,
e.g. if cars are stolen in one state and then sold in another. The highest court is
the Supreme Court in Washington, DC, which can hear almost any case on
appeal. When the Supreme Court decides such a case, it sets a precedent, which
lower courts will use to decide similar cases.

Types of crimes most often committed in the USA

The US has a reputation for having a lot of crime, especially violent crime. In
2020, property crime was the most common type of crime committed in the
United States, at 6.45 million cases. Violent crime increased significantly in
2020. Despite the increase in violent crime, particularly murders, between 2020
and 2021, the quantity of overall crime is still far below the peak of crime seen
in the United States during the late 1980s and early 1990s, as other crimes such
as rape, property crime and robbery continued to decline.

Larceny (=theft) is very common. Many people believe that the increase
in crime is linked to the use of drugs. Guns are easy to buy in the US and are
often used in crimes. A new crime that began in the 1990s is carjacking.

18. The Legal System in Britain. Court System in the UK.

• types of British law:

For historical reasons a different system of law is used in Scotland from that in
England and Wales. Northern Ireland law is similar to that in England. Scots
law was influenced by Roman law. When making decisions Scottish courts look
for an appropriate general principle and apply it to a particular situation. English
law relies more on case law, of previous decisions called precedents. English
courts look at precedents for the case being tried and make a similar judgment.
English common law developed in "Norman times when judges traveled round
the country. Later, legal scholars collected together the most significant cases
and they became part of case law. Another branch of law, equity, deals with
cases involving rights and duties, e.g in connection with contracts. These two
branches were joined in 1873. A third branch of law, statute law, consists of
laws made by Acts of Parliament. It describes general principles and is superior
to case law.

Civil and criminal law

Civil law concerns disagreements between individuals over rights and

responsibilities. Many civil cases relate to business contracts. Criminal law
deals with offences that involve harm to a person resulting from somebody
breaking the law.
• the basic principle of law in Britain:

A basic principle of law in Britain is that anyone accused is innocent until

proved guilty, so it is the job of the prosecution to prove beyond reasonable
doubt that the defendant has broken the law as stated in the charge.

• courts in England:

Every town has a Magistrates Court, where minor cases are judged and more
serious cases are examined briefly before being passed to higher courts. Young
people under 17 are sent to special juvenile courts. More serious criminal cases
are heard in the Crown Court, which sits at a number of towns in England and
Wales. Cases are heard by a judge and a 'jury. the end of a trial the jury decides
whether the defendant is guilty or not guilty. Minor civil cases, such as divorce
and bankruptcy proceedings, are heard in the County Courts. More serious cases
are heard in the High Court of Justice. Appeals against decisions of the County
Courts go to the High Court. Appeals from the Crown Court or the High Court
go to the Court of Appeal.

• the problems in the UK court system:

Access to Justice basically focuses on improving people’s chances of achieving

substantive justice by first gaining access to the justice system before they can
even have a chance of achieving justice. Access to justice is the ability to bring
a matter before the court for adjudication, and this is the major problem of the
judicial system in the United Kingdom. Access to justice in U.K is hindered by
barriers which may be material, subjective, sociological, psychological, but
most significantly by objective barriers which include: Cost, delay, and
complexity in the U.K judicial system.

• the criminal situation in the country and crime prevention:

Crime has increased in Britain, as in many countries, since the early 1950s,
though recently the number of crimes reported to the police has fallen. People
living in inner city and urban areas are the ones most likely to be victims of
crime. Burglary is twice as likely there as elsewhere. Theft is the commonest
crime. As to the crime prevention - at a local level, many British people have
joined Neighborhood Watch schemes, which encourage people to report
anything suspicious happening near their houses. Community policemen go into
schools to talk to teenagers to try to stop them from taking part in crime. Young
people are responsible for a lot of petty crime such as shoplifting, as well as
more serious crimes such as arson drug-dealing and joyriding.

19. The Ukrainian Legal System.

The judicial system of Ukraine is outlined in the 1996 Constitution of Ukraine.

Although there are still problems with the performance of the system, it is
considered to have been much improved since the last judicial reform
introduced in 2016.

• Fields of Ukrainian Law;

Ukrainian law is commonly divided into Public law, Private law, and
International law. These areas of the legal system are further subdivided into
Civil law, Criminal law, Constitutional law, Administrative law, and
International law.

Civil law regulates the everyday life of citizens and other legal entities, such as
corporations. The main code of Ukrainian civil law is the Civil Code of
Ukraine.

Criminal law deals with the prosecution and punishment of criminal offenses.
There is no capital punishment in Ukraine. The maximum criminal punishment
is life imprisonment. Criminal proceedings, investigation, and court
examination in criminal trials are regulated by The Criminal Procedural Code of
Ukraine.

Constitutional law frames the constitution and the structure of Ukraine. It

regulates the powers of democratic institutions, the organization of elections
and the division of power between central and local government. Only the
Constitutional Court of Ukraine is allowed to determine the constitutionality of
laws created by the legislature.

Administrative law is the area of law that regulates the operation of the various
levels of Ukrainian Government, including the process for people and legal
entities to appeal decisions by the government. This code is referred to as the
Administrative Code of Ukraine.

International law involves the application of international laws in Ukraine.

Commercial law of Ukraine describes the details for compliance with the
Constitution of Ukraine's clauses for commercial activity. The Code regulates
the fundamentals of commercial activity, including business entities, property
basis, responsibility for violations, peculiarities of legal regulation, and foreign
commerce regulation.

Financial Law regulates issues of the state budget, banking, tax system etc. and
its object of regulation includes money, securities and other financial
instruments.

Law of Property regulates the matters of property and ownership in Ukraine

• Hierarchy of Ukrainian Law;

The principal source of Ukrainian law is the Constitution , having the highest
legal force.

The next layer of Ukrainian legislation is secondary legislation. Different

normative acts in the form of decrees, resolutions, orders etc. issued by the
President, the Cabinet of Ministers, the National Bank, ministries and other state
agencies are adopted on the basis and in realization of the general provisions of
laws.

The President of Ukraine issues decrees ( ukazy ) and directives (

rozporiadzhennia ). The Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine, within the limits of
its competence, issues resolutions ( postanovy ) and directives (
rozporiadzhennia ). All the documents produced by the highest state bodies are
mandatory for execution by every person on the territory of Ukraine.

In pursuance of the laws of Ukraine, the ministries, state agencies,

administrations and committees issue resolutions, directives, regulations,
instructions and orders that concern their specific sphere of competence.
• Types of courts and their jurisdiction;

Courts in Ukraine are divided by jurisdiction including constitutional courts,

general (criminal and civil jurisdiction) courts, economic courts, and
administrative courts. There is also the Constitutional Court of Ukraine(a
special body with authority to assess whether legislative acts of the Parliament,
President, Cabinet or Crimean Parliament are in line with the Constitution of
Ukraine), the Supreme Court of Ukraine(the highest court within the system of
courts of general jurisdiction), Appellate Courts (in every Region oblast of
Ukraine), and District Courts in every city, town, or raion. Cases concerning
corruption in Ukraine will be brought directly to the Tertiary Court.

Therefore, the current legal system in Ukraine, despite its flaws and
complications, does provide a certain legal basis for doing business and for
protection of the legitimate interests of parties involved in it.

20. Government and Political System in the USA.

The Federal Government of the USA is composed of three distinct

branches: legislative, executive, and judicial, whose powers are vested by the
U.S. Constitution in the Congress, the President, and the Federal courts,
respectively.

• The functions of American President;

The presidency of the United States is the highest governmental office.

President of the USA is the head of the State and the Government, he is also the
Commander-in-Chief of the US Armed Forces."Administration" is a popular
term to identify the executive branch of the federal government, responsible for
administering and executing the laws. President is assisted by Vice-President
and the Cabinet. The President and Vice-President are elected for a term of four
years and can be re-elected for another term. US President is assisted in
Administration by a Cabinet of 12 members.

• the structure of American Congress:

Supreme legislative power in the American government lies with

Congress, which consists of two chambers or houses - the Senate (the upper
house) and the House of Representatives (the lower house). Each state has its
own government, following the Washington pattern - State Assemblies or
Legislatures with two chambers. According to the Constitution of the USA, all
citizens of both sexes over 18 years of age have a right to vote.
 The main task of Congress is to make laws. The US Constitution also gives
Congress the power to impose taxes, to make rules for trade with foreign
countries and between states, to coin money, to organize the Armed Forces, to
declare war, etc. Another power possessed by Congress is the right to propose
amendments to the Constitution whenever two-thirds of both Houses shall
consider it necessary. Under the Constitution, the US Senate has some special
powers, not given to the House of Representatives. The Senate approves or
disapproves major Presidential appointments of such high officials as
ambassadors, Cabinet members, and federal judges.

The Senate is composed of 100 members, two from each of the 50 States, who
are elected for a term of six years. Although Congressional elections take place
every two years, only one-third of the Senate is re-elected, thereby ensuring
continuity. The Senate is stabler and more conservative than the House of
Representatives, as many Senators are re-elected several times and often they
are more experienced politicians.

The House of Representatives has a special power of its own. Only a member
of the House can introduce a bill to raise money, but it must be passed by the
Senate before it can become a law. The House of Representatives, at the present
time, has 435 members. The number of Representatives which each state sends
to the House depends on its population. The Constitution says that each state, no
matter how small in population, must have at least one Representative.

• the Judicial Branch of American Government:

The judicial branch is one part of the U.S. government. The judicial branch is
called the court system. There are different levels of courts. The Supreme Court
is the highest court in the United States.

The Supreme Court is made up of 9 judges called justices who are nominated by
the President and confirmed by the Senate. The justices hear cases that have
made their way up through the court system. The main task of the Supreme
Court is to decide cases that may differ from the U.S. Constitution.

21. The Constitution of the USA. Elections and Political Parties in the
USA.

Dwell on the Constitution of the USA:

The Constitution of the USA was adopted after the War of Independence
on September 17, 1787. It lists the set of rules, laws and regulations which
provide the practical norms regulating the work of the government. The main
principle underlying the Constitution was as follows: private property is the
backbone of liberty. It was put forward by a rich plantation owner from
Virginia, James Madison, who is known to be the "Father of the Constitution"
precisely for this reason.

The Constitution consists of the Preamble and seven articles. Twenty-

seven amendments have so far been added to its original text. The first 10
amendments, known as the Bill of Rights, were added in a group in 1791, as a
result of growing popular demands. These amendments establish the individual
rights and freedoms of all people of the USA. All the amendments adopted by
the Congress become an integral part of the Constitution. Mention should be
made of some of them. The Thirteenth amendment abolished slavery. The
Fourteenth and Fifteenth adopted in 1868 and 1870 defined citizenship and gave
the vote to all male citizens, regardless of race, colour or previous condition of
servitude. The Nineteenth gave the vote to women, and was adopted in 1920.
The Twenty-second amendment, adopted in 1951, makes it impossible for any
President to hold office for more than two terms. The 26th amendment was
adopted in 1971, it lowered the voting age to 18 years.

· Describe the system of election and Political Parties in the USA:

As for elections, anyone who is an American citizen, at least 18 years of

age, and is registered to vote may vote. Each state has the right to determine
registration procedures. There are 50 different registration laws in the US - one
set for each state. The national presidential elections really consist of two
separate campaigns: one is for the nomination of candidates at national party
conventions. The other is to win the actual election. The nominating race is a
competition between members of the same party. In November of the election
year the second part of the election starts. The voters across the nation go to the
polls. If the majority of the popular votes in a state go to the Presidential (and
vice-presidential) candidate of one party, then that person is supposed to get all
of that state's "electoral votes". These electoral votes are equal to the number of
Senators and Representatives each state has in Congress. The candidate with the
largest number of these electoral votes wins the election. In January of the
following year in a joint session of Congress, the new President and Vice-
President are officially announced.

The US has developed a two-party system. The two leading parties

are the Democrats and the Republicans. The present-day Democratic Party was
founded in 1828, representing Southern planters -slave owners and part of
Northern bourgeoisie, as well as groups of petty bourgeoisie and farmers. The
Republican Party was founded in 1854. It united industrial and trade
bourgeoisie from North-East, farmers, workers, craftsmen who were interested
in destroying the political power of the South. Every four years the American
parties come together as national bodies in the Presidential nominating
conventions and make up the party programs. What distinguishes two parties is
not so much opinion as position. Sometimes, the Democrats are thought of as
associated with labour, and the Republicans with business and industry.
Republicans also tend to oppose the greater involvement of the federal
government in some areas of public life which they consider to be the
responsibility of the states and communities. Democrats, on the other hand, tend
to favour a more active role of the central government in social matters.

One of the reasons of the stability of the two-party system is family

tradition. Each new generation of Americans inherits its politics and party
loyalty from their fathers. National origin plays a role, too. Descendants of
northern Europeans tend to the Republican party while those of southern and
eastern Europeans prefer the Democratic party.

22. The Ukrainian Government and Political System.

There are three branches of the Ukrainian political system: the executive
branch, the legislative branch and the judicial branch.

Executive Branch

The President of Ukraine is elected by popular vote for a five-year term. On the
proposal of the President, the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine appoints the Prime
Minister of Ukraine, other members of the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine.The
President of Ukraine is the guarantor of state sovereignty, territorial integrity of
Ukraine, observance of the Constitution of Ukraine, human and citizen rights
and freedoms. The Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine is the supreme body of the
executive power of Ukraine. It is responsible to the President of Ukraine and the
Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine, is under the control and accountable to the
Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine within the limits provided by the Constitution of
Ukraine.

Judicial Branch
Justice in Ukraine is administered exclusively by courts. Judicial proceedings
are performed by the Constitutional Court of Ukraine and courts of general
jurisdiction . The Constitutional Court of Ukraine is the sole body of
constitutional jurisdiction. It decides on the issues of conformity of laws and
other legal acts of the Verkhovna Rada, acts of the President and the Cabinet of
Ministers with the Constitution and provides the official interpretation of the
Constitution and laws.The Constitutional Court is composed of eighteen judges.
The President of Ukraine, the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine and the Congress of
Judges of Ukraine each appoint six judges to it . In accordance with the
Constitution and the Law On the Judicial System of Ukraine as amended, it
includes local courts, courts of appeal, the specialized courts with their highest
judicial bodies, and the Supreme Court of Ukraine. These courts administer
civil, criminal, administrative and commercial matters. The Supreme Court is
the highest judicial body in the system of courts of general jurisdiction. The
following types of courts belong to the courts of general jurisdiction: local
courts,courts of appeal, the Supreme Court of Ukraine as a cassation court
(Court of Review), and higher specialized courts

Legislative branch

The Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine is the only legislative body of state power in
Ukraine, which has a collegiate structure and consists of 450 people’s deputies
of Ukraine elected for a period of 5 years on the basis of universal, equal and
direct suffrage by secret ballot.The Verkhovna Rada is the only legislative body
authorized to pass laws in Ukraine. The powers of the Verkhovna Rada are
realized by joint activity of people’s deputies of Ukraine at the sessions of the
Verkhovna Rada. The Verkhovna Rada ratifies international agreements and
approves the budget.The powers of people’s deputies of Ukraine are determined
by the Constitution and laws of Ukraine. People’s deputies of Ukraine can
voluntarily unite in factions, provided that each of them includes at least 15
deputies.

23. The Ukrainian Constitution and Party System.

The Constitution of Ukraine is the fundamental law of Ukraine. The

constitution was adopted and ratified at the 5th session of the Verkhovna Rada
(parliament) of Ukraine on June 28, 1996. The only body that may interpret the
constitution and determine whether legislation conforms to it is the
Constitutional Court of Ukraine. The current Constitution of Ukraine is
characterized, on the one hand, by maintaining continuity in the regulation of
many spheres of public life, and on the other hand, a significant update of the
normative material, which reflects the revolutionary changes that have taken
place in Ukrainian society since the early 90's of the twentieth century.

The novelties of the Constitution of Ukraine of 1996 can be divided into two
groups: 1)Those concerning the organization of public power in
Ukraine:formulated new principles of organization and exercise of public
power, such as the principle of legal, social state (Article 1), the rule of law
(Part 1 of Article 8), recognition and guarantee of local self-government (Article
7), universal jurisdiction of the court. 2 Article 124)

new bodies of state power were established, such as the Commissioner for
Human Rights of the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine (Article 101).2)Those
concerning the basics of the legal status of a person in Ukraine: established new
principles of legal status of the person, in particular: the highest social value of
human (Article 3), inviolability and inalienability of fundamental rights and
freedoms (Article 21), mutual responsibility of man and the state (Part 2 of
Article 3, Article 68) recognition international legal standards in the field of
human rights (Article 9)the list of constitutional duties of citizens has been
changed: for the first time the obligation to pay taxes and fees, to respect state
symbols has been established; the obligation to protect socialist property has
been abolished; the content of other responsibilities has been adjusted.

Ukraine has a multi-party system with numerous political parties, in which no

one party often has a chance of gaining power alone, and parties must work
with each other to form coalition governments. In the (October 2014) Ukrainian
parliamentary election 52 political parties nominated candidates.[1] In the
nationwide (October 2015) local elections this number had grown to 132
political parties. Main political parties are Servant of the People,European
Solidarity,Batkivshchyna,Voice,Radical Party,Strength and Honor,Ukrainian
Strategy,Civil Position,Ukrainian Democratic Alliance for Reform and Self
Reliance. Elections in Ukraine are held to choose the President (head of state)
and Verkhovna Rada (legislature). The president is elected for a five-year term.
The Verkhovna Rada has 450 members and is also elected for a five-year term,
but may be dissolved earlier by the president in the case of a failure to form a
government. The next election to the Verkhovna Rada (set to be in 2023) will
be (for the first time) with different regional open lists (with again an electoral
threshold of five percent) and a return (and thus abolition of the constituencies
with first-past-the-post voting) to only one national constituency.

24. The Executive and Legislative Branches of the British Government

System.

The United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy. This means that it has a

monarch (a king or a queen) as its Head of State. The monarch has very little
power and can only reign with the support of Parliament.The Queen is involved
in some acts of government, including summoning and dissolving (= ending)
Parliament and giving the royal assent to new laws. She also formally appoints
the Prime Minister, senior ministers, judges and diplomats. She is expected to
be completely impartial and not to support any political party.
The prime minister of the United Kingdom is the head of government in the
United Kingdom. The Prime Minister chooses about twenty MPs from his or
her party to become Cabinet Ministers. Each minister is responsible for a
particular area of government, and for a Civil Service department.

The Parliament of the United Kingdom is the supreme legislative body of the
United Kingdom. Parliament consists of two chambers known as the House of
Commons and the House of Lords. The House of Commons is made up of 650
elected members, known as Members of Parliament, each of whom represents
an area of the United Kingdom.

The House of Commons has several rows of seats facing each other. MPs who
belong to the Government sit on one side and those from the Opposition sit on
the other. There are no cross-benches (= seats for MPs who do not support the
main parties). Ministers and members of the Shadow Cabinet (= leaders of the
Opposition) sit on the front benches. Other MPs sit behind and are called
backbenchers. On the table between them are two wooden dispatch boxes.
There are only about 400 seats, not enough for all MPs to sit down at once. The
press and members of the public can listen to debates from the Strangers'
Gallery.

The House of Lords consists of Lords Spiritual, i.e. the Archbishops of

Canterbury and York and senior bishops, and Lords Temporal, i.e. ail hereditary
peers and life peers. The total number of people eligible to attend the Lords is
about 1 200 but some get permission to be absent. The Lord Chancellor presides
over debates from the Woolsack. The power of the House of Lords has been
reduced over time.

Detailed arrangements of parliamentary business are settled by the Chief Whips.

The Whips then inform party members, and make sure that enough of them
attend and vote in important debates. The Whips also pass on the opinions of
backbenchers to the party leaders. Both Houses have a similar system of debate.
Each debate starts with a motion by a minister or a member of the house. An
Act of Parliament is called a bill. Bills introduced in the House of Commons go
through several readings and are then passed to the Lords. Likewise, bills that
have their first reading in the Lords are passed to the Commons. MPs or Lords
may speak only once in a debate.
25. The British Theatre. Theatre in London.

Theatre of the United Kingdom plays an important part in British culture, and
the countries that constitute the UK have had a vibrant tradition of theatre since
the Renaissance with roots going back to the Roman occupation.

Theatre helps us to see a different perspective from our own. We’re shown
humanity, psychology, motivations, conflict and resolution. We as the audience
get to witness the trajectory of persons other than ourselves.

The genre of a performance refers to the type of story being told, and the style
refers to how the work is presented on stage. A genre or style can help to give
performers a framework to shape the devised work. Popular theatrical genres
and styles include:

physical theatre

Epic theatre

political theatre

comedy

tragedy

melodrama

The Royal Shakespeare Theatre (RST) (originally called the Shakespeare

Memorial Theatre) dedicated to the English playwright and poet William
Shakespeare. It is located in the town of Stratford-upon-Avon – Shakespeare's
birthplace – in the English Midlands, beside the River Avon. The building
incorporates the smaller Swan Theatre. The current theatre complex includes
the remains of the original 1879 theatre, which was rebuilt and incorporated into
Scott's building to serve as a conference centre and rehearsal room.

Today, the theater hosts regular performances by the Royal Shakespeare

Company in its 1,000-seat auditorium, but it’s also a popular destination for
tourists. A range of tours allow visitors to explore the Front of House, peek
behind-the-scenes, visit the grounds and gardens, or even get a backstage look
at the nearby rehearsal rooms and costume store.

Elizabethan theatre, sometimes called English Renaissance theatre, refers to that

style of performance plays which blossomed during the reign of Elizabeth I of
England and which continued under her Stuart successors. Elizabethan theatre
witnessed the first professional actors who belonged to touring troupes and who
performed plays of blank verse with entertaining non-religious themes.
The Elizabethan age saw a boom in the arts in general but it was the
performance arts that perhaps made the most lasting contribution to English and
even world culture. The queen was herself an admirer of plays, performances,
and spectacles which were frequently held at her royal residences. Elizabeth
carefully managed her image as the Virgin Queen who had sacrificed her
personal life to better concentrate on the good of her people. Theatre was,
therefore, just one of the media she used to project her own glory and that of her
family, the Tudors. The queen actively sponsored artists and playwrights.

Despite the threats, Elizabethan theatre seems to have quickly established itself
as an important and lasting part of England's popular and literary culture. As
early as 1623, for example, 36 of William Shakespeare's plays were collected
together in print in the First Folio.

Every play is its own world, and I imagine that even these worlds vary with
each performance.

26. The Fine Arts. The Still Life.

Art is the expression or application of human creative skill and imagination,

typically in a visual form such as painting or sculpture, producing works to be
appreciated primarily for their beauty or emotional power.

Art is everywhere, whether you know where to look or not. It’s the design of
your soda can and cereal box, or the graphics of that videogame your kid is
currently obsessed with beating. It’s the songs you sing in church or synagogue,
and that quilt your grandmother made you years ago. It’s the mp3s you bop to
on your way to work, and the books stacked on your bedside table. It is all art,
and it affects our lives in ways both subtle and obvious, expected and
unexpected.

Art exists in time. Once it is created, it exists outside of the artist. The artist is in
one world, and the art is now in another. How it finds its value among a culture
depends on the conditioning of its citizens. An artist is not responsible for the
experience that the viewer has. The art itself is abstract, and irresponsible. An
artist chooses various paths. Aesthetic and political paths. Art is not always
political, but can become influential in political action, with or without the
artist's consent. The private life of an artist is important. We sometimes have to
look at an individual's behavior, not just their work. Sometimes the behaviors
and actions of the artist supersede their work. But the art and the artist are
ultimately separate. During an artist's life, their private acts will always be
examined. The public wants to establish a connection between the art and the
artist, and they may get it wrong. Only the artist knows, and they may not fully
understand it themselves.

An artist need not be a decent human being. Artists are not required to be good
or bad. But the art must be of some value in order for the artist to claim any
special rights or privileges. An artist is often given permission to behave worse
than the rest of us. Artists are looked to as rebels, as iconoclasts, and that can
lead to some questionable choices. The artist is still a person, and is subject to
the same laws as everyone else. Yet we often let the artist go. We would rather
keep a wild person on the loose if they create art of real value.

Everyone has their own opinion of what constitutes art. If you want to try to
expand your parameters and understand how to appreciate it, try these easy tips:
Learn a Little Bit Every Day, Try an Art Project, Take a Class, Write What You
Know, Visit a Museum, See Through Different Angles, Analyze One Thing,
Think About Your Feelings, Interview Someone, Accept It.

2. Still life

A still life is a work of art depicting mostly inanimate subject matter, typically
commonplace objects which are either natural (food, flowers, dead animals,
plants, rocks, shells, etc.) or man-made (drinking glasses, books, vases, jewelry,
coins, pipes, etc.).
With origins in the Middle Ages and Ancient Greco-Roman art, still-life
painting emerged as a distinct genre and professional specialization in Western
painting by the late 16th century, and has remained significant since then. One
advantage of the still-life artform is that it allows an artist much freedom to
experiment with the arrangement of elements within a composition of a
painting. Still life, as a particular genre, began with Netherlandish painting of
the 16th and 17th centuries, and the English term still life derives from the
Dutch word stilleven. Early still-life paintings, particularly before 1700, often
contained religious and allegorical symbolism relating to the objects depicted.
Later still-life works are produced with a variety of media and technology, such
as found objects, photography, computer graphics, as well as video and sound.

Sanchez Cotan “Still Life With Game, Vegetable and Fruit”.

This still life shows the inside of a cupboard. On the shelf are a group of birds
consisting of two serins, two tiny goldfinches and two sparrows on a cane, as
well as three succulent carrots, two radishes, and a large white thistle that closes
the composition. Hanging from the upper we can see a branch with three fresh
lemons, seven apples hanging on the cord, a goldfinch, a sparrow and two red
partridges. The composition is outstanding for its sobriety and intensity. This is
a very beautiful still life, a genre of painting that portrays food and everyday
objects, and which is so ancient that it even appears in Roman mural paintings.
Sanchez Cotán elevated it to the status of genius.
Sanchez Cotan “Still Life With Game, Vegetable and Fruit”.

This work was painted for Juan de Salazar, a miniaturist at El Escorial and the
executor or Sánchez Cotán´s will. It belonged to the Infante Sebastián Gabriel
(1811-1875), from whom it was confiscated in 1835.

27. The Fine Arts. The Landscape Painting.

A landscape is the visible features of an area of land, its landforms, and how
they integrate with natural or man-made features, often considered in terms of
their aesthetic appeal. A landscape includes the physical elements of
geophysically defined landforms such as (ice-capped) mountains, hills, water
bodies such as rivers, lakes, ponds and the sea, living elements of land cover
including indigenous vegetation, human elements including different forms of
land use, buildings, and structures, and transitory elements such as lighting and
weather conditions.

Artists have been painting the landscape since ancient times. The Greeks and
Romans created wall paintings of landscapes and gardenscapes. After the fall of
the Roman Empire, the tradition of depicting pure landscapes declined, and the
landscape was seen only as a setting for religious and figural scenes. This
tradition continued until the 16th century when artists began to view the
landscape as a subject in its own right. The artistic shift seems to have
corresponded to a growing interest in the natural world sparked by the
Renaissance.

Traditionally, landscape art depicts the surface of the Earth, but there are other
sorts of landscapes, such as moonscapes.

⮚ Skyscapes or Cloudscapes are depictions of clouds, weatherforms, and

atmospheric conditions.

⮚ Moonscapes show the landscape of a moon.

⮚ Seascapes depict oceans or beaches.

⮚ Riverscapes depict rivers or creeks.

⮚ Cityscapes or townscapes depict cities (urban landscapes).

Spring Landscape by Arthur Wesley Dow

There's a pleasant contrast between the intricate trees and the flat color shapes
of the greenery, sky, and path. Notice how the trees inject clarity into the
painting and command attention. They also give context to the flat color shapes.
This is a great demonstration of one-point perspective. Notice how the lines of
the path converge towards a vanishing point in the distance.

There are several subtle but important details: the house, the flowers, the
highlights and shadows on the tree branches, stairs, and fence posts. These
details don’t jump out at you; rather, they reveal themselves only after the
painting has caught your attention. It’s a case of, the more you look, the more
you see.

Parts of the trees shoot up across the sky. This creates a link between the sky
and land and also adds a point of sharp contrast (dark trees across the light sky).

The line that separates the sky and land is a strong diagonal that anchors the
painting. It also creates a perpendicular relationship with the other strong long:
the path.

The house, stairs, and path are rigid and geometric. They play well against
nature's organic shapes and lines.

28. The Fine Arts. The Portrait Painting.

A portrait painting or drawing depicts the image of a particular person or

animal, or group thereof. The subject of a portrait is usually called a "sitter",
because traditionally people would sit in front of the artist to have their portrait
painted. Nowadays, of course, artists can work from a photograph, so not
everyone has to "sit" for a portrait.

At the moment, the oldest drawing of a human face is an image found in

the Villonerre cave, France. The estimated age of this portrait is 27,000 years.
However, the birthplace of the portrait genre is not considered to be France, but
the ancient Mediterranean civilizations, which include Egypt, Greece, Rome
and Byzantium. During the Middle Ages, portrait as a genre lost its relevance
and was of an exclusively religious nature. When the Renaissance epoch came,
the portrait began to change significantly. Several key factors influenced this:
weakening of the religion influence, the emergence of new techniques in
painting, change of portraits in profile to front or three-quarters. In the XVIIIth-
XIXth centuries, more and more often, portraits appeared not of noble persons
and their families, but ordinary people in their everyday environment. In the
XXth century, the development of technology, the emergence of photo and
video has a significant impact on the portrait genre. Still, the purpose of a
portrait in the modern world is broader than photography. This genre allows us
to most vividly express our point of view with the help of painting and convey a
certain semantic dynamics, which is quite difficult to achieve by resorting to
other genres.

Depending on the purpose of the portrait and the method of its creation,
the following types are distinguished: ceremonial; chamber; costumed;
collective; miniature; historical; walking portrait; family; religious; self-portrait.
Also, portraits are divided depending on which part of the person's body they
cover. In this regard, a portrait is distinguished: up to the chest; waist-high;
thigh-deep; knee-deep; in full growth.

The Lady with an Ermine (Italian: Dama con l'ermellino [ˈdaːma kon
lermelˈliːno]; Polish: Dama z gronostajem) is a portrait painting widely
attributed to Italian Renaissance artist Leonardo da Vinci. Dated to c. 1489–
1491 the work is painted in oils on walnut panel. The portrait's subject is Cecilia
Gallerani, painted at a time when she was the mistress of Ludovico Sforza,
Duke of Milan, and Leonardo was in the Duke's service. It is one of only four
surviving portraits of women painted by Leonardo, the others being Ginevra de'
Benci, and La Belle Ferronnière and the Mona Lisa.

The Lady with an Ermine was executed with oils on a small, walnut wood
panel. The work is prepared with a layer of white gesso and a layer of brownish
underpaint. The painting shows a half-height woman turned toward her right at
a three-quarter angle, but with her face turned toward her left.

The subject has been identified with reasonable certainty as Cecilia

Gallerani, the mistress of Leonardo's employer, Ludovico Sforza. Her gaze is
directed neither straight ahead nor toward the viewer, but toward a "third party"
beyond the picture's frame. Gallerani holds a small white-coated stoat, known as
an ermine. Her dress is comparatively simple, revealing that she is not of noble
birth or noble descent. Her coiffure, known as a coazone, confines her hair
smoothly to her head with two bands of it bound on either side of her face and a
long plait at the back. Her hair is held in place by a fine gauze veil with a woven
border of gold-wound threads, a black band, and a sheath over the plait.

I appreciate this painting as it represents not just a beautiful woman, but it

also has a small mystery in it. The ermine in the painting created a number of
disputes among art historians. Commentators have noted that it is too large to be
an actual ermine, but its size is explained by its being of a largely symbolic
nature. The ermine was a traditional symbol of purity and moderation, as it was
believed it would face death rather than soil its white coat. Besides, I admired
the colours of the painting and artist's love of details.

29. The Fine Arts. The Genre Painting

Genre painting is a painting of scenes from everyday life, of ordinary

people in work or recreation, depicted in a generally realistic manner. Genre art
contrasts with that of landscape, portraiture, still life, religious themes, historic
events, or any kind of traditionally idealized subject matter. Intimate scenes
from daily life are almost invariably the subject of genre painting. The
elimination of imaginative content and of idealization focuses attention upon the
shrewd observation of types, costumes, and settings.

The term arose in 18th-century France to describe painters specializing in

one kind (genre) of picture, such as flowers or animals or middle-class life, and
was originally used derogatively by advocates of the ideal or grand manner in
art. By the late 19th century, when the Swiss critic Jacob Burckhardt wrote
Netherland Genre Painting (1874), the term was more approving and also was
restricted to its current sense. The term is still most popularly used to describe
the works of such 17th-century Dutch and Flemish painters as Jan Steen, Gerard
Terborch, Adriaen van Ostade, David Teniers the Younger, Pieter de Hooch,
and Johannes Vermeer. Later masters of genre art have included such various
artists as Cornelis Troost in the Netherlands, David Wilkie in Britain, Jean-
Baptiste-Siméon Chardin in France, Pietro Longhi in Italy, and George Caleb
Bingham in the United States.

The Gleaners (1857) by Jean-Francois Millet

 The Gleaners - now seen as a pioneering work of modern art - is a perfect
example of Millet's profound respect for the timeless dignity of human labour.
The painting's focus on the lowest ranks of rural society attracted considerable
opposition from the upper classes, who were upset by its artistic pretentiousness
and its social radicalism, and linked it with the growing Socialist movement.

Millet paid close attention to its composition, using every device to

imbue his subjects with a simple but monumental grandeur. The angled light of
the setting sun accentuates the sculptural quality of the gleaners, while their set
expressions and thick, heavy features tend to emphasize the burdensome nature
of their work. Furthermore, these figures, bent double and toiling in the
darkened foreground, are set against a warm pastoral background scene of
harvesters - with their haystacks, cart and sheaves of wheat - reaping a rich
harvest in the corn fields. The contrast between abundance and scarcity, and
between light and shadow, is cleverly used by Millet to emphasize the class
divide. And the remoteness of the landlord class is also highlighted by the
blurry image of the landlord's foreman, sitting on a horse in the remote distance
(right).

The entire composition is in fact a commentary on the social classes of

France and, in particular, on the inability of the lower classes to rise above their
station. The three women are shown bent over, so they do not pierce the
horizon, confirming that what we are born into is where we stay. Meanwhile,
the uppermost line of ground is occupied by peasant farmers watched over by
the foreman, none of whom break the horizon either. The sky symbolizes the
unattainable upper class of society that looks down on its inferiors. It is as
different from the other people as air is to earth.

But there is a sign that change is coming. The white vest and red and blue
hats of the gleaners form the three colours of the Tricolour - the flag of the
French Republic and the symbol of popular Revolution in France - as captured
for instance in Liberty Leading the People (1830) by Delacroix.

30. The English School of Painting.

The modern British school begins with the painters of miniature portraits in the
16th and 17th centuries, among whom the earliest were Nicholas Hilliard and
Isaac Oliver, artists of some note in the reign of Elizabeth.

Other able portrait painters of the 17th century were the Scotch Jamesone, a
pupil of Rubens, William Dobson, a pupil of Vandyck, and Samuel Cooper; but
the chief court painters after the Restoration were the Flemish Sir Peter Lely
and Sir Godfrey Kneller, whose influence on art in England was disastrous.

The 18th century produced many painters of the highest merit, as Hogarth
( famous painting called Marriage A-la-Mode), who stands unrivaled as a
caricaturist and moralist, Reynolds and his rival Gainsborough, notable among
the chief portrait painters of the world, and Richard Wilson (famous work Lake
Avernus), the founder of the English school of landscape, the chief artistic
speciality of the country.

The flowering of English Romantic art, however, came with the work of
England’s two greatest landscapists, J.M.W. Turner and John Constable.
Constable’s influence on European painting was far-reaching, providing
considerable inspiration to the French Impressionists.

After about 1850 the fresh observation and direct approach that had become
traditional in the best English art was superseded by a self-conscious revivalism
and a concern with involved theory.

The five main genres of painting include: history painting, portraiture, genre
painting, landscape and still life.

My favourite British painter is William Hogarth. Hogarth was a printmaker,

portrait painter, social critic, and editorial cartoonist. He was born in London to
a lower-middle-class family. In his youth he took up an apprenticeship with an
engraver, but did not complete the apprenticeship. He is best known for his
series of paintings of ‘modern moral subjects’. His most notable paintings, The
Harlot’s Progress, The Rake’s Progress, and Marriage a la Mode teach by
example, pointing out the foibles of the rich and the depths of degradation of
those who have fallen from the narrow path of middle-class virtue. In his
portraiture work and historical paintings Hogarth used the Rococo style. The
paintings, carefully composed as any Italian painting of the classical tradition,
are filled with detail and allusions to each other, so that the viewer has the
sensation of reading a story without words.

31. Mass Media in Great Britain.

There are several different types of mass media in the United Kingdom:
television, radio, newspapers, magazines and websites. The United Kingdom is
known for its large music industry, along with its new and upcoming artists.
The country also has a large broadcasting and film industry.

Newspapers have been widely distributed in the United Kingdom for hundreds
of years. Today, the UK's most highly circulated paper is the free sheet Metro
whilst other popular titles include tabloids such as The Sun and Daily Mirror,
middle market papers such as the Daily Mail and Daily Express and Broadsheet
newspapers such as The Guardian and The Times.

When the spread of radio began, the British were quick to agree on certain
principles. Unlike the press, it should not be financed, even partially, through
commercial advertising; but its programmes should be free from state control,
and should therefore have no state subsidy. The British Broadcasting
Corporation (BBC) was set up, given the monopoly of radio broadcasting, and
financed by compulsory annual payments. The main programme for news,
comment and discussion is BBC Radio 4, which is split into separate regional
programmes for part of the day. The BBC World Service is listened to
throughout the world and has a high reputation for objectivity.

There are four television channels in Britain. The British Broadcasting

Corporation has two channels: BBC1 and BBC2. Independent Television has
two channels: ITV and Channel 4. All four channels produce a good mixture of
miscellaneous entertainment, music, drama and serious discussion. All succeed
in presenting news efficiently, interestingly and without bias.

The United Kingdom has been involved with the Internet throughout its origins
and development. The UK has one of the highest internet penetration rates in
the world. Almost the entire nation has access to the internet. The most common
online activity in Great Britain is sending and receiving emails. Other activities
pursued by 60 percent or more of adults in Britain are searching for information,
social networking, reading the news and online banking. This leads the digital
audience in the UK to spend an average of almost 25 hours a week on the
internet. So, the role of the Internet is extremely important in Great Britain.

32. Mass Media in the USA.

Newspapers in the US

Newspapers in the United States have been published since the 18 th century
and are an integral part of the US culture. Although a few newspapers including
The New York Times, USA Today, and The Wall Street Journal are sold
throughout the United States, most US newspapers are published for city or
regional markets. Most general-purpose newspapers are either printed one day a
week or are printed daily. A daily newspaper from a medium-sized US city has
between 50 and 75 pages, divided into different sections. The most important
stories, whether international, national or local, are printed on the front page,
which usually has the beginnings of four or five articles, and colour
photographs. The articles continue inside.

Tabloids contain articles about famous people but do not report the news.
On Sundays newspapers are thicker. There are usually fewer news stories but
more articles analyzing the news of the past week and many more features,
including a colour section of comics.

Television and radio

The television networks that broadcast in the United States are the largest
and most distributed in the world. Many critics have said that American
television is currently undergoing a modern golden age. The nation has a
national public television service known as the Public Broadcasting Service
(PBS).The four major US broadcast television networks are the National
Broadcasting Company (NBC), the Columbia Broadcasting System(CBS),
the American Broadcasting Company (ABC), and the Fox Broadcasting
Company (Fox). Network daytime schedules consist of talk shows and soap
operas, although CBS still carries game shows. The traditional prime time
schedule runs from 8:00 to 11:00 p.m. Sunday is the most-watched night on
American television. Public television has a far smaller role in the United States
than in most other countries. The Public Broadcasting Service is the largest
public television broadcaster in the United States. The national cable television
network became possible in the mid-1970s with the launch of domestic
communications satellites. There are public and educational radio stations. They
are owned and operated primarily by colleges and universities, by local schools
and boards of education, and by various religious groups. People who live in
cities such as New York, Los Angeles and Chicago have choice up to 100 FM
stations.Among the great variety of local, private, non-commercial radio
stations in America, there exists the National Public Radio Network (NPR),
known for its quality news and discussion programs.

The Internet in the life of Americans

The Internet in the United States provided the foundation for the worldwide
Internet of today. Internet connections in the United States are largely provided
by the private sector. Americans now own four digital devices on average,
spending roughly 60 hours a week consuming content across different devices.

The Internet has already surpassed newspapers as a source Americans turn

to for national and international news. Today, no rival can come close to
competing with the internet search giant Google. Blogs are part of the modern
American experience. More than 31 million bloggers churn out the content that
America reads and watches. The true king of social media is still Facebook,
which counts more than two out of three Americans among its subscriber bases.
No other network comes close, with second-place Instagram capturing only
37%.Wearable smart devices like Apple Watches and Fitbits have changed the
way people exercise, eat, sleep, and communicate – and none of it would be
possible without the Internet.

The country’s Internet service providers provide the services, systems,

hardware, software, and network access needed to bring computers, tablets,
phones, and other connected machines to life.

33. Mass Media in Ukraine.

Newspapers in Ukraine

Newspapers in Ukraine are a vital method of transmitting up-to-date

information and news to the entire populace. There are over 2,500 to choose
from, as well as more than 1,000 magazines. There are also outlets in national
minority languages: four in Hungarian, two in Polish, two in Romanian, and one
in Gagauzian. There are also 44 outlets in English. The Ukrainian press has
experienced great reforms since independence and today freedom of press is
very evident in the country. The most popular daily newspaper Segodnya
(Today) had a circulation of 230,000 and was oriented to the general audience
in cities and villages alike. Novoe Vremia (New Time), the most popular
weekly journal, had a circulation of only 19,000 and aimed at highly-educated
people interested in politics and economy. An example of independent, popular
newspaper is Dzerkalo Tyzhnya (The Mirror of the Week) edited by Yulia
Mostova, a Ukrainian journalist. Some other examples of newspapers: Antenna,
Press Centr, Fakty I Komentarii, Novyny v Ukraini, Ukrainian Journal,
Ukrainska Pravda, Gazeta 24.

The lack of transparency in the media ownership structure favors the

spread of disinformation. A vivid example is Vesti (News) newspaper, the
second most popular newspaper in Ukraine (published in Russian). The paper is
one of the most Eurosceptic and NATO-critical media outlets in Ukraine. Local
newspapers experience greater circulation than national publications as they are
more traditional and provide local residents with pertinent news. Ukrainian
press is not available in Donetsk and Luhansk regions, as well as in Crimea,
where only Russian and local newspapers circulate.

● Television and radio;

Television. Ukraine has a large audiovisual offering. Ukraine's three chief TV

channels are “Inter”, “1+1” and “UT-1”. Other channels that benefit from
advertising profits include “Novyi Canal”, ICTV and STB. The TV system in
the Ukraine is run by the National TV Company of the Ukraine (NTCU) as well
as 26 regional TV/Radio institutions.

Ukraine’s TV channel “1+1” is the largest private TV channel and the

most popular. This 24 hour channel has about 95% coverage. Various areas of
the country can also receive transmissions from Polish, Hungarian, Turkish and
Hungarian TV. Cable and satellite also open up international channels such as
Eurosport, CNN and BBC. Commercial television is dominated by five major
broadcasters: 1+1 media, StarLightMedia, Media Group Ukraine, Inter Media
Group and Lux, which is the smallest Ukrainian major broadcaster. Regional
television in Ukraine consists primarily of independently owned networks not
affiliated with major broadcasters in each region.

Radio. Nowadays, Ukrainian radio has four public service radio channels that
are broadcast 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. The programs are broadcast on
Channel One (Ukrainian Radio), Radio "Promin", Radio "Culture" and the
Radio Ukraine International. Ukrainian Radio First Channel (UR-1, Ukrainian
Radio) – is the first channel of public Ukrainian Radio, on air since 1924. Also
it is the biggest FM radio network in the country: 192 settlements in 24 regions.
The First Channel is a news and current affairs channel that also features
literary and musical programmes, programmes for children and youth. Channel
1 also broadcasts live sessions of the Ukrainian parliament (the Verkhovna
Rada). Radio Ukraine International (RUI) – is an international service in
Russian, Romanian, English, Ukrainian and German. RUI acquaints foreign
listeners with all diversity of political and social-economic life in Ukraine.
Radio “Promin’” and “Kultura” are popular as well.

● The role of internet in the life of Ukrainians

According to GlobalLogic, 85% of Ukraine's population older than 15 have had

access to Internet in January 2021. Ukrtelecom is the largest Internet access
provider. It is the most popular means of communication among media. Some
Ukrainians use Internet for communication, others for work or getting goods to
survive. Covid-19 accelerated the usage frequency because of distant work and
studying. Instagram, Facebook and Youtube are the most popular apps used by
Ukrainians. So, we can state that Internet plays crucial role in the life of
Ukrainians as well as in life of other peoples.

34. Cinema as an excellent vehicle of culture.

The cinema has become the part of the modern way of life. In the earliest years
of the cinema its power to show the contemporary events was recognized and
appreciated. More than anything else this unique quality secured popularity for
the film as a new form of entertainment.

Impact. The movies are a powerful force in contemporary life. Cinema is also
used for educational purposes. Video classes are useful when studying
geography, foreign languages and many other subjects. They are also the means
of getting acquainted with the world. With the help of documentary and science
films one can get much information about the world around. It also helps to
attract the attention of people to different important problems, such as hunger,
earthquakes, water pollution and so on.

The cinema of the United States, often generally referred to as Hollywood, has
had a profound effect on cinema across the world since the early 20th century.
The film US Film industry is over 120 years old. It is the largest, oldest, and
most profitable film industry in the world. The major film studios of Hollywood
including Metro Goldwyn-Mayer, 20th Century Fox, and Paramount Pictures
are the primary source of the most commercially successful movies in the
world, such as Star Wars, and Titanic. American film studios today collectively
generate several hundred films every year, making the United States one of the
most prolific producers of films in the world.

Movie genres. The genres you prefer and why.

The basic movie genres were well defined and they include: action, comedy,
drama, fantasy, horror, mystery, romance, thriller and western. As for me, I
prefer amusing comedies. I want to relax a little bit, sometimes to have a good
laugh. But at the same time I am fond of true-to-life films describing the life of
ordinary people, their feelings and problems. Such films move me deeply, they
arose the feelings or sympathy or hatred for the heroes. As a rule, such films
have a deep and lasting impression upon me.

What role plays cinema in your life. Most importantly, cinema brings to us
different cultures of the world. It introduces us to various art forms and helps us
in gaining knowledge about how different people lead their lives. In a way, it
brings us closer and makes us more accepting of different art forms and
cultures. Cinema also teaches us a thing or two about practical life. Incidents are
shown in movies of emergencies like robbery, fire, kidnapping and more help us
learn things which we can apply in real life to save ourselves. Thus, it makes us
more aware and teaches us to improvise.
Your favourite English/American Actor. My favorite actress is Julia Roberts,
who is known for her leading roles in films of several genres, from romantic
comedies and dramas to thrillers and action films. Many of her films have
earned over $100 million at the worldwide box office, and six have ranked
among the highest-grossing films of their respective years.

Roberts established herself as a leading actress when she headlined the romantic
comedy Pretty Woman (1990), which grossed $464 million worldwide. She
went on to star in numerous successful films, including Sleeping with the
Enemy (1991), Hook (1991), The Pelican Brief (1993), My Best Friend's
Wedding (1997), Notting Hill (1999), Runaway Bride (1999), Erin Brockovich
(2000), Ocean's Eleven (2001), Ocean's Twelve (2004), Charlie Wilson's War
(2007), Valentine's Day (2010), Eat Pray Love (2010), August: Osage County
(2013), and Wonder (2017).

35. Film review writing

Among different types of movies (like comedies, romantic dramas, adventures,
police dramas or detective movies, psychological thrillers, horror movies or
historical films) best of all I like dramas and comedies because most of such
movies are interesting and full of life to me. Now I’d like to tell you about the
movie that I find pleasant to watch a musical film “Charlie and the Chocolate
Factory” which is based on a children’s novel by Roald Dahl. The film was
directed by Tim Burton.
This fantasy comedy film is about an eccentric chocolate magnate Willy Wonka
and Charlie Bucket, a good-natured boy from a poor family. One day Willie
announces an international competition to select the heir to his candy empire.
Charlie and four more lucky children find "golden tickets" in Wonka chocolate
bars and win a tour of the legendary chocolate factory that has been hidden from
people’s eyes for fifteen years. Watching the film is like being on that tour with
Charlie.
The film stars are my favourite actors Johnny Depp and Freddie Highmore.
Their acting is just superb. I also like the music in the film. There are several
songs there sung by the funny little Oompa-Loompas. The visual effects are
simply the best, all the chocolate things look very realistic!
I enjoyed every minute of this story on the screen. It’s a story about friendship
and dreams that always come true.