Editorials

_ ... .

Human Power correction sheet for each new book that

The technical journal of the repeats any bicycling myths
International Human-Powered Vehicle An historic battle Derek Roberts still believes that the
Association You may be blissfully unaware of it, original invention of the so-called
David Gordon Wilson, editor but a battle that concerns us all is raging "French bicycle" in the 1860s was the
21 Winthrop Street
Winchester, MA 01890-2851, USA around us in learned circles. It concerns work of Pierre and Ernest Michaux. He
Phones: 617-729-2203 (home) the originator(s) of the pedalled bicycle. has translated a book from the French
617-253-5121 (MIT) We usually give a nod towards Kirkpa- about the family. But another bicycle
617-258-6149 (FAX) trick Macmillan, a Scots blacksmith, historian I respect, David Herlihy, be-
who seems to have made the world's lieves that Pierre Lallement was the in-
Associate editors first pedalled bicycle in around 1841 - ventor, and that he was shafted by the
Toshio Kataoka, Japan but we have to rely on second- or third- Michaux family, who were very good at
1-7-2-818 Hiranomiya-Machi
Hirano-ku, Osaka-shi, Japan 547 party accounts that are either vague or self-promotion. It turns out again that
Theodor Schmidt, Europe conflicting or both. It doesn't matter too there was nothing written by the Mi-
Hoheweg 23 much, because he had virtually no effect chaux until decades after the supposed
CH-3626 Hunibach on the world. Apparently he didn't invention, and no patent, whereas Lalle-
Switzerland write, and he shied away from publicity. ment did take out a (US) patent.
Philip Thiel, watercraft The position of the Michaux family You may not be excited to delirium
4720 7th Avenue, NE
Seattle, WA 98105, USA seemed, on the other hand, assured. His- - I am - by this battle of the champions.
IHPVA torians have told us that they developed I mention it, of course, as a sermon.
P.O. Box 51255 the front-wheel-pedalled bicycle in Please make truth and accuracy and ac-
Indianapolis, IN 46251, USA 1861, and that they were showmen and knowledgment of the work of others
Phone: 317-876-9478 businessmen and started a craze that your holy grail when you write for any
Qfficers lasted for the rest of the century. I see publication, especially Human Power.
Marti Daily, president and that I wrote (in American Scientist, July- So far, you have bestowed an unsullied
executive director
Adam Englund, secretary August 1986) ". . credit for the bicycl- reputation on the journal.
Bruce Rosenstiel, treasurer ing revolution belongs indisputably to
Paul MacCready, int'l president Pierre Michaux and his son Ernest and to
Doug Milliken, VP water
Glen Cole, VP land
a controversial employee-turned- Upturn in the economy
competitor, Pierre Lallement." Orders for recumbents have sharply
Chris Roper, VP air Now I am an amateur, not a profes- increased lately. The reason can be
Matteo Martignoni, VP ATV
Theodor Schmidt, VP hybrid power sional, historian. I rely nowadays on the traced to marital love. Vic Sussman, a
writings of a very professional amateur, writer for, among other publications,
Board members Derek Roberts, founder of the Southern Newsweek, had given up conventional
Allan Abbott Veteran-Cycle Club in the UK. When I bicycling because of the pain he suf-
Marti Daily started adding historical notes to my fered. He happened to try out a Ryan
Peter Ernst writings I was not as careful in my Vanguard, took home Dick Ryan's video
Dave Kennedy choice of people to quote. I was gently about it, and "watched it, fantasizing,
Chet Kyle
Gardner Martin taken to task by Derek Roberts over the twice a week ". Eventually his wife
Gaylord Hill historical section I wrote for Bicycling bought him a Ryan, and he has been
Dennis Taves Science. He has the reputation of a cur- crazy about recumbents ever since. His
David Gordon Wilson mudgeon, and at the time I agreed with ability to channel his enthusiasm into a
that perjorative label. But increasingly two-page spread in a national news
Human Power is published quarter- he has become one of my heroes. His- magazine has produced a small but very
ly by the International Human-Powered torical accuracy seems trivial until one welcome blip in the economy of several
Vehicle Assoc., Inc., a nonprofit orga-
nization devoted to the study and appli- tries to understand why an inventor did struggling recumbent-bicycle manufac-
cation of human muscular potential to what s/he did, or until one becomes a turers. His piece could also encourage
propel craft through the air, in and on victim oneself. stirrings in designers of regular bikes.
the water and on land. Membership I found myself becoming curmud- We are grateful for Vic's wife's loving
information is available by sending a geonly when, for instance, someone concern for her spouse.
self-addressed stamped business-sized made a presentation of recent develop-
envelope to the IHPVA address above. ments in some aspect of human power
Additional copies of Human Power
may be purchased by members for and used, without attribution, data and HP Olympics
$3.50 each, and by nonmembers for graphs produced by my students and my- When Chet Kyle and Jack Lambie
$5.00 each. self as if they were his own. I decided to organized the first International Human-
Material in Human Power is copy- swallow my pride and to keep quiet - but Powered Speed Championships in 1975
righted by the IHPVA. Unless copy- since then people have used his paper as (they formed the IHPVA a year later)
righted also by the author(s), complete the fundamental reference, and my stu- there was one event: the 200-m flying-
articles or representative excerpts may
be published elsewhere if full credit to dents have gotten no credit. Once a start speed trial. This year Chet brought
the author(s) and the IHPVA is promi- "history" has been written, it is taken as the IHPSC back to California - to the
nently given. truth by others, and the falsehoods beautiful area of Yreka in near Mt. Shas-
We are indebted to the authors, to propagate like crab grass. Derek Rob- ta. He and his small band of mainly lo-
Marti Daily and to Carolyn Stitson, erts calls them "myths", and he has writ- cal non-IHPVA members put on a tour
whose dedicated help made this issue ten a book about them. He also writes a de force. We now have so many
possible. Dave Wilson (Continued on p. 4)
I

P. 2 Human Power, Spring-Summer, Vol. 10/1

 (Continuedfrom p. 2) Unlike other FWD's swivel mounts,
different events that a prodigious effort Letters to the editor the Flevo's steering employs the princi-
is demanded of the volunteers. Are the ple of flap-banking. A dislocated mid-
demands too heavy? Our new president, Compliments and frame joint serves the dual purpose of
Marti Daily, and the board of directors suggestions producing lateral sway to the front wheel
are asking for your views on the future and at the same time, maintaining the
direction of the IHPVA. Some (see the I am pleased with the consistent rigidity necessary to utilize it as a drive
next editorial) believe that the diversity quality of the publication Human Power. wheel. As can be seen in Johan's dia-
of interests is becoming so great that we The authors have written technical yet gram, the mid-section free swivel is re-
are losing our focus. When Ellen and I very readable articles and the general strained by a spindle-shaped PVC
returned to our motel room each evening layout looks professional. Vol.9 nos.3-4 grommet producing an ingenious, but
we would watch a little of the Olympics, are no exception. I especially enjoyed crude. .self-centerin, device.
A __, ac -_ .] _ . _

and we were struck by the similarities "Modelling energy consumption on the

with the modern IHPSC. There were Tricanter HPV" by John Raine and Mau- IV~~n
sports that we had never heard of pre- rice Amor. Their work suggests some
viously (e.g. rhythmic gymnastics) that methods to try for testing rolling re- ~;;Ji3
nevertheless attracted enthusiastic audi-
ences. The commentators were suffi-
ciently skillful and knowledgeable that
sistance (a problem I have been trying to
solve), and shows the detail of their de-
sign process. Great publication!
we could find ourselves rooting for some Mark E. Mueller, 1161 I St. #6, Arcata,
unknowns. Perhaps the IHPSC should
use the Olympics as a model. We
should set a limit to the duration and the
CA 95521-5558; 707-822-4771
l MLD-SSMoR JoLNT be
FYo-BIK;

number of events, and admit and drop HP is looking good! Great articles, Mastering the Flevo bike requires a
events using a criterion of popularity or interesting letters, and I fully agree with great deal of practice, patience and self-
of worth. the editorial comments on international confidence. It took me almost fifteen
cooperation. John Allen's article "In hours and ten falls over a period of three
search of the massless flywheel" was weeks before I could counter the rodeo-
fascinating and thought-provoking. It effects of its steering mechanism and
Vigorous debate by prompts me to recommend another almost a year before I weaned from hand
correspondence method for minimizing the dreaded to leg steering. The constant new dis-
deadspot. coveries of slalom turns and leg steers
When Rob Price sent his manuscript Add a pair of arm cranks. My re- make this one of the most interesting
on "what is and what is not a HPV, and cumbent trike, designed by Gary Hale of and challenging recumbents I have
why" I reviewed it and wrote to him that Eugene, OR, has substantially smoother ridden.
I would love to publish it in HP, even power output with arms cranking. The Li Hock Hung, 9 East CoastAvenue,
though I did not agree with all his opin- weight penalty is about 5 kg, 10 lbm. Singapore 1545, ph.. 4453838
ions. I thought that he would raise the The two pairs of cranks are offset about fax. 2205714
hackles of a few people. I was certainly 90 so that the hands don't hit the knees.
right! His article stimulated more corre- I discovered that the standard reciprocat- What isan HPV?
spondence than HP has ever had on one ing crank arrangement caused noticeable
subject. Some of the letters were a little zig-zagging, wasting energy and wearing (All the following letters are comments
more vitriolic than I would have liked. out tires. This problem was solved by on Rob Price'sarticle in the last issue of
We are publishing all except one some- putting the cranks in unison. The action HP)
what incoherent letter, although we have is somewhat like rowing with a sliding
had to shorten some. Rob Price is a su- seat. Acceleration is tremendous and I find Rob Price's article "What is
perb engineer and author, as we have sustained speed is 10-15% greater than and What is Not a Human -Powered Ve-
seen from his earlier contributions, and with reciprocating cranks. The tech- hicle and Why" in Human Power 9/3
his views are always thought-provoking nique takes a little practice. .. but the and 9/4 generally thoughtful and well-
and insightful. He has sent along a effort is well repaid. .. While touring, considered: but in describing canoeing,
"side-bar" to his response to the corre- the arms really save my knees on the he gets in a bit over his head in the wa-
spondence that I hope I have room for hills, sharing the load. The arms may be ter; and in describing Nordic skiing, he
in this issue. It is on the subject of the a flywheel to dampen the dead spot and goes into a snowbank.
IHPVA's diversity. Rob, as usual, is un- enhance the power stroke. Price describes canoeing as follows:
orthodox: he believes that the ICU was "The paddler dips one end of the oar
right to ban recumbent bicycles from Larry Warnberg, P.O. B. 43, Nahcotta,
WA 98637. then paddles a few strokes on one side of
competition so that it could concentrate
on athletic contests rather than engineer- the boat while providing a fulcrum for
ing. The IHPVA must face some limits The Flevo FWD the paddle end with the other hand.
to its scope eventually. Read and The paddle then changes hands so the
ponder! Please allow me to add my further action is moved to the opposite arm for
Dave Wilson observations on the Flevo bike as re- the next series of power strokes. In this
ported in Mike Eliasohn's article on way power is balanced on both sides of
FWD recumbents in HP 91/9/2 p. 14. the boat and both arms, and the boat

4 Human Power, Spring-Summer, Vol. 10/1

P.R
 goes in a fairly straight line atop the Mr. Price's criteria, then so is a canoe or fulcrum, a favorite of men contemplat-
water." kayak! ing castration. As with Alpine skis, the
This describes a single-ended paddle As to skiing: not all Nordic skis have quickest way to stop is to fall over."
(not "oar") technique used by rank nov- a "fishscale-shaped or stepped bottom Perhaps YOU go into the snowbank,
ices. Experienced canoeists propel surface construction." Instead, many use Mr. Price, but these gratuitous com-
themselves forward primarily by special waxes which have high sticking ments do not contribute to an under-
straightening up into a sitting position friction against snow, but very low slid- standing of the sport, and do not reflect
out of a forward crouch while rotating ing friction. Even waxed skis are capa- the grace of the sport as practiced by
the upper body from the waist, bringing ble of climbing grades several times trained athletes. I am sure that the U.S.
the powerful muscles of the trunk into steeper than the 0.5% which Mr. Price Consumer Product Safety Commission
play. The arms are held relatively rigid cites. Ski waxes are an interesting topic would have devised an equally gratu-
and nearly fully extended; neither hand for human-power research even if this itous safety regulation for ski poles, as it
is used as a fulcrum. may not qualify as human-powered ve- has for bicycles, if a Nordic castration
The experienced canoeist does not hicle research. epidemic had been demonstrated in the
change sides to steer when using a The parallel-ski technique which Mr. medical literature.
single-ended paddle, as the paddle is Price describes has largely been re- The discussion of skiing raises a seri-
used to steer at the end of every stroke. placed, at least in competition on packed ous question, however: IHPVA mem-
The common technique (the "J stroke") snow, by a faster version of the "herring- bers' research has led to radical advances
uses the paddle as a rudder, but a more bone" or "skating" technique previously in land and water speed records - and to
efficient technique is to pull down on the used only for uphill propulsion. To human-powered aircraft, an entirely new
handgrip at the upper end of the paddle, some degree, this development reflects category of vehicle. Can we expect to
using the gunwale at this time as a ful- changes in the Nordic skis themselves, see similar radical developments in
crum to lever the paddle's blade away including the adoption of composite ma- human-powered travel over snow?
from the boat. I learned this technique terials, steel edges and improved John S. Allen, 7 University Park,
from my grandfather, who learned it bindings. Waltham, MA 02154-1523
from the Algonquins. Note that this technique involves an (617) 891-9307
The paddle is capable of a wide vari- impedance transformation of a slow drop
ety of specialized forward and reverse in the skier's center of gravity and slow
sweep strokes, push-off and pull-in sideways motion of the leg into fast for- I have intended for some time to
strokes and sculling strokes. Though ward motion of the skier. There is also subscribe to the IHPVA ... I enjoyed
somewhat less efficient for forward an inherent acceleration to coupling your review of my paper on high-speed
propulsion than oars, the paddle is far speed, as each stroke propels the body Aleut kayak design (HP 9/2: 10) and oth-
more versatile; for this reason, and be- er items passed to me by your member
toward the opposite leg by action/reac-
Larry Warnberg. .. Now I have just re-
cause the paddler faces forward, paddles tion. An important impedance trans- ceived a copy of Rob Price's piece on (in
are always used in white water and other formation also occurs through the ski part) why kayaks should not be consid-
situations requiring tricky maneuvering. poles, with a short downthrust becoming ered human-powered vehicles. Without
In the light of these facts, I am aston- a longer backthrust. addressing his argument (you can infer
ished by Mr. Price's disqualification of Therefore I do not agree that Nordic the details) I am now sending in our $20
the canoe and kayak as human-powered skis disqualify as a human-powered ve- for membership and a subscription, to
vehicles on grounds that they lack an hicle on grounds that they lack an im- lend this little bit more weight to the op-
impedance-matching device. If he were pedance transformation. Should they posing view. Lending more weight, I
correct, our language would lack the col- disqualify on grounds that they attach to expect, will be the current work of...
orful saying "up the creek without a the feet like shoes? The same question William S. Laughlin on the Aleut hyper-
paddle;" bare hands would do nearly as applies to ice skates, roller skates and trophic humerus.... The Aleut kayak
well. in-line skates, whose means of attach- incorporated impedance-matching tech-
The paddle transforms impedance by ment and propulsion are similar. I nique and technology on several levels,
increasing the sweep of the arms, and by would opt for the broadest definition on perhaps not as immediately visible to an
improved connection to the water untrained eye as the gears on a ten-speed
grounds of consistency, recalling that the
through its large blade. A wide range of bicycle, but nonetheless effective in
IHPVA was forced into existence some
making the most of human power for
impedances may be selected not only by twenty years ago by the International long-distance work.
the choice of a paddle but by varying Cycling Union's restrictive definition of
hand positions and strokes. One valid "bicycle." While the IHPVA's approach George Dyson, BaidarkaHistoricalSoc.
conceptual difference between paddled produces true innovation, the ICU's rules P.O.Box 5454, Bellingham, WA
and rowed boats is that the paddle lacks lead only to evolutionary monsters, up- 98227-5454
a constant fulcrum or point of support right bicycles with aerodynamic parts
on the vehicle -- but the paddle is none- which pretend not to be in order to beat
theless an impedance-transforming de- the rules. In the 1991-2 Fall and Winter issue
vice: so, if a rowboat is a hand-cranked Price comments about Nordic ski of Human Power, Rob Price attempts to
human-powered vehicle according to braking that "Basket brake force may be define a human-powered vehicle ("What
increased by placing the poles between Is And What Is Not A Human-Powered
the legs and using the seat area as a Vehicle And Why"). The critical

Human Power, Spring-Summer, Vol. 10/1, P. 5

 I found Rob Price's article ... inter- paddle is long, 2350 mm being common. In a similar manner nordic-skiers can
esting and useful. However, it is clear Matching the paddle to the boat and pad- achieve fairly high speeds on the level
that Price has a number of misconcep- dler is important. Just as too high a gear (and of course downhill) yet instantly
tions about canoes and kayaks. on a bicycle can lead to knee problems, adapt to steep gradients or poor snow. I
Canoes are paddles with single-blade so can the wrong paddle result in wrist fail to see an intrinsic difference be-
paddles (not 'oars'), but directional con- injuries. Again, [these] are well ex- tween this sort of impedance-matching
trol comes not from switching sides, but plained in the literature, and familiar to and that done with pedals and gears.
through the use of strokes such as the those involved. (I might point out that I The other point is that except to peo-
J-stroke, which provides both forward ple establishing racing categories or bu-
am an Australian Canoe Federation se-
thrust and steering action. With the ex- reaucrats looking for things to ban or
nior instructor and a part-time builder of
ception of marathon racers, anyone who tax, it makes very little difference what
sea kayaks).
controls a canoe by switching needs to we define as an HPV or not. In the IHP-
Canoes and kayaks are definitely ve-
learn to paddle. Any book on canoeing VA we are also concerned with human
hicles and certainly human powered. I
makes this clear. power in a wider context, e.g. for de-
suspect that they are closer to being
The kayak, as suggested by the edito- vices such as hand-drills, lawnmowers,
HPVs than Price believes.
rial note, was devised for use in the Arc- pumps or generators. Even in this age of
On another subject, I ride a vehicle
tic. The various Inuit groups developed electric toothbrushes and pencil-
that is definitely an HPV: an Australian-
boats and paddles to suit their local sharpeners, good hand-tools are far from
made Greenspeed GTR 20-26. It is
needs. Their boats were used on the obsolete and well-designed ones are of-
made in Melbourne by Ian Sims (69
open sea, and they, like modern-day sea- ten more useful than many powered
Mountain Gate Drive, Ferntree Gully,
kayakers, often travelled considerable ones.
Victoria 3156, Australia). Enclosed is a
distances, in sometimes stormy condi- 7lheo Schmidt (assoc. editor, Europe.)
brochure ('1 send this on to ,S'telve l)es
tions. Very different from the 'running
.Jardinsfir the new .Soure (;ide - ed)
water .. directional control. . fending off
and an illustration I drew for a local I am rather disturbed by Rob Price's
obstructions' that Price describes.
cycle-club newsletter. article... I am not an engineer or de-
As for impedance matching, the
Peter.1. ('arter. 28 Rowe/lts Road. Iock- signer of any kind, but I am a skier, skat-
choices are limited, but more than real- levs. South Australia 5032. (08)43-4298 er and cyclist. As such, many of Mr.
ized by Price. Change of hand position
Price's statements trike me as wrong.
is used by some paddlers, but paddle Some of this "wrongness" seems to
length, and to a lesser extent blade area, Rob Price chooses to define HPVs by come from a simple lack of research. It
are used to match boat speed to paddle the quality of their "impedance- is known, for example, that although the
cadence and paddler's power. To take matching" and denies many vehicles side cut of a ski helps to initiate the ski's
two examples, paddles used in white- their HPV status on this basis. I think he turn, a turn at speed is achieved primari-
water and sea touring differ quite mark- is looking at it too mechanically, as we ly by the ski's flex during the turn. In
edly. In white-water the speed is rela- are never concerned with just a vehicle, the extreme, one can see this by carving
tively low, but acceleration and but rather with a vehicle-person combi- a turn with a track-style cross-country
maneuverability are important, and the nation. The human body achieves a fan- ski (one with no side cut). Discussions
of how a ski carves a turn is rather com-
paddle is relatively short. A sea kayak is tastic range of impedance-matching all
mon in the popular skiing magazines.
faster and travels at more or less con- by itself, being able to sprint at up to 10 Similarly, when Mr. Price talks about
stant speed (about 1.5 m/s) and the m/s, yet also climb vertically. Even cross-country technique, he mentions
when using simple devices like skates, only diagonal stride techniques, not skat-
skis, and paddled boats, people can ing techniques (very important in the
maintain this degree of adaptability and current racing scene), he fails to mention
often even extend the range. A good the use of wax (rather than steps or fish
kayaker or canoeist can paddle efficient- scales) for ascending, and his working of
ly at low or high speeds at various load- "gradual slopes" is rather misleading.
ings imposed, for example, by the During his discussion of wheeled
weather. Different strokes and grips help vehicles, he claims that roller blades are
and "impedance-matching" is actually not HPVs as ) they can't be steered, and
better than with boats using propellers 2) they don't allow for "impedance
with fixed pitch and fixed gearing, even matching". For 1), what can I say' Has
if these have a higher peak propulsive Mr. Price ever used a roller blade? Al-
though I spend more time on "regular"
efficiency. The reason paddling seems
roller skates, I have used in-line skates,
like such hard work to untrained persons
and I know that leaning one's foot rela-
is that most people have fairly weak tive to the ground causes them to track a
arms which tire quickly just holding turn. ...
IREENS.PIEED GSP 2 as up the paddle whereas most have legs Impedance matching seems to be a
strong enough to support their bodies for major pitfall for me... After all, many
hours each day. "real" machines (such as steam locomo-
tives and turbine engines in jet

Human Power, Spring-Summer, Vol. 10/1, P. 9

 airplanes) don't use any impedance pedal past well-trained and hardworking individual rider on any single vehicle, it
matching. Second, I quite frankly can't roller-bladers on level concrete paths. seems plausible to provide a wide range
believe that a row boat is not a HPB, and Peter Sharp noted Dave Wilson's of gears to allow driver selection of the
by this criterion neither is the Decavita- discussion of impedance matching and optimum ratio.
tor. .. But to top it off, skating tech- that forced rowing produced (some 15%)
Sharp labeled my figure 5 a taxono-
niques in general ... do allow for more power than pedaling - for a period my, stating they were inevitably arbi-
impedance matching, simply by varying of five minutes. This is possible for trary and incomplete, and indicated that
the angle between the axis between the short periods using both arms and legs a comprehensive list would become ho-
two skates or skis.... just like selecting anaerobically. Wilson was using data
pelessly confusing. He compared it un-
the "right" gear on a bicycle. from a paper by J. Y. Harrison. In that
favorably to Jim Kor's more
Eric Schweitzer, 166 East 96th Street paper, Harrison said that hands-and-feet comprehensive "open-ended and cross-
New York, NY 10128 drive complexities are negated after the indexed list" which he found quite useful
switch to aerobic work, after 4 or 5 min-
for generating new ideas. My list is sim-
utes, because legs alone can utilize more ply a subset of Kor's list. Kor stated that
Rob Price replies. oxygen than can be supplied by the
his list was not complete, which I did
John Allen details the more efficient bloodstream. Wilson discussed the ad-
not explicitly do, and should have done.
paddling techniques used by experienced vantages of forced rowing on p. 133,
Sharp made a long list of items that
canoeists and describes a steering tech- which is lacking in the machines I dis-
ostensibly qualify as HPVs. If he wishes
nique handed down from the Algonquins cuss in the previous paragraph. He ex- to consider everything that humans
via his grandfather. This forces a point tols the virtues of derailleur gearing on touch to be an HPV he is welcome to do
that I failed to make in the article: how p. 141 (of the quoted reference). I so. His frustration with the IHPVA is
much training is necessary to overcome should not have used the word "ulti-
evident: he states (twice) that the IHP-
idiosyncrasies in some drives to get a mate" in connection with derailleur-gear
VA should sponsor more, not less, com-
reasonable output? A good impedance impedance matching; "unchallenged"
petitions to promote development. He
match, or good efficiency, ought to be would have been a more-appropriate has all but witnessed the barring of
realizable by "rank novices", to borrow word. Like many others I seek a better wheelchairs from competition because I
Allen's words. drive system. found their drive system lacking. I saw
Allen and George Dyson take me to Schweitzer indicated that many two unique chairs at the Bolder Boulder
task for excluding kayaks. Dyson made "real" machines do not use impedance foot race this year, one with three con-
the point that the Aleut kayak used matching, and he cited steam locomo- centric push rings to effect ratio changes
impedance-matching technique and tives and aircraft gas turbines. The with speed increases, and another with a
technology on several levels, perhaps steam engine produces its greatest small-radius hand crank. These are
not as visible to the untrained eye as the torque at the drive wheels when the ma- much more efficient.
gears on a ten-speed. In the absence of chine is starting from rest, the exact The intent of the article was to get
more data I suspect the training issue point where the greatest traction is re- people thinking about efficient drives in
noted above would apply. I am pleased quired to initiate motion in the train. their HPV designs. Contrary to Sharp's
that I helped the IHPVA obtain another The gas turbine is ideally suited to the near-racial slurs about proclaiming the
dues-paying member. cruise altitudes and speeds of modern purity of master racing vehicles over
Allen and Eric Schweitzer would aircraft. Both these transport devices are other sub-human-powered machinery, I
include Nordic skis, both citing the skat- designed, or impedance matched, to am interested in the speed champion-
ing technique used in competition. Once maximize efficiency at the design points ships only for their contribution to effi-
again the novice-vs-trained-user argu- yet provide acceptable performance in cient transport for the general public.
ment could be applied. off-cruise conditions. Rob Price. 7378 S. Zephyr Way
Allen's comments on braking with Sharp makes a valid point that im- Littleton, CO 80123
ski poles between the legs and skep- pedance matching should be expanded
ticism about my 0.5% ruling grade are to include the usage of a vehicle over a
entirely appropriate. My lapse into what route and for a given purpose. He goes
I though to be a light-hearted relief from on to say that multi-gear bicycles might
the frustration I feel as an eternally ama- //
teur skier was unfortunate and inap- be well-suited to a bicycle used on train-
propriate for Human Power. ing rollers or as an air plow. I disagree
Incidentally, I have never resorted to the with the former and agree with the latter.
castration technique, but have read about Rollers were originally designed for use
it in a newspaper article. with one-speed fixed-gear (track) bikes
The reason I excluded Nordic skis, and the constancy of the roller-riding
canoes, kayaks and roller-blades is that environment makes a fixed gear an ex-
they all share a poor impedance match cellent impedance match in that applica-
because they use a power stroke that is tion. Conventional upright bicycles are
intermittent, that is limited to less than
excellent air plows and the variable
half the available time, that requires
considerable energy to reset the drive gearing allows riders to work at opti-
mechanism, and that involves wasted mum muscle speed in varying gradient
effort in bringing the drive up to syn- and wind conditions. Since routes and
chronous speed. That low efficiency is purposes vary widely, even by an
why we on mountain bikes can easily
Cartoon draw'n1 a donated l)! Ron Sol - thanks!
nd

P. 10 Human Power, Spring-Summer, Vol. 10/1

(( mntiued fi-,l p. 3) Hans Seehase natural flapping frequency similar to that
the then long-ump record, 7.61 in. The Seehase built an aircraft for the Mus- of rowing.
prize was eventually won nine years lat- kelflug competition. There is no record
er (see next entry). of it taking ot'ff. It had, however, several Daniel Perkins
interesting design features. The wing Perkins worked tfor the Royal Air-
Poulain-Farman structure was an aluminum-alloy tube craft Establishment at Cardington, Brit-
An lIPA was built by the Farman with widely spaced ribs and fabric cov- ain's largest experimental-airship
company and was pedalled by Gabriel ering, similar to that of modern hang- facility. lie decided to build an
Poulain, a racing bicyclist ad uan experi- gliders. Htis aim was to reduce weight inflatable-wing (parasol) HPA with a
enced pilot, over the course in both even at the expense of increased drag, a pod-and-boom fuselage. All his varied
directions on the morning of July 9, principle that was ignored by other de- tests came up against a strange speed
192 1, yielding a flight of I 1.98m. The signers for 42 years. barrier of 6.3 m/s ( 14 mph). His later
craft was a biplane with a spatl of 6. Im The transmission was also unique. efforts reached success with the Reluc-
(20 ft) and a wing area of 12.3 sq m ( 132 The pedals drove, through a chain, a tant Phoenix (q.v.).
sq l). A fiuring enclosed the bicyclist two-throw crankshaft. This was coupled
and rider. The plane had no propeller through light connecting rods to a simi- Alan Stewart
uld, apparently, no aerodynamnic con- lar crankshaft on the propeller shaft, at Stewart built HP ornithopters at least
trols. 'The all-up weight was 91.2 kg right angles to the first. Compliant rub- from 1959 - 1979 in and around Green-
(201 Ibm). ber "big-ends" were used to take up the hill, UK. One succeeded in gliding.
small changes in length and angle set-
Lippisch ting that such an unorthodox arrange- Sumpac
Dr. Alexander .ippisch, a prolific ment theoretically requires. Three undergraduates at Southamp-
designer of sailplanes and other aircraft, ton University, Alan Lassiere, Anne
built an ornithopter in 1929. T'is was Pedaliante Marsden and David Williams, decided in
always launched as is a glider. The Enea Bossi, an Italian aircraft de- their last term (spring 1960) to attempt
wings twisted during the flapping cycle. signer, started his research into HPF by to build a man-powered aircraft (hence
The pilot, Hans Werner Krause, titting a propeller on to a tricycle in the SUMPA'C). The first Kremer prize com-
achieved a flight of 300m after L.ippisch 1930s. It was unstable, and Bossi con- petition had been announced the pre-
set up an attractive bonus as a reward for cluded that two wing-mounted counter- vious November Other undergraduates
a successful flight. rotating propellers would be required for s(oo joined them. Tests of human pow-
an HPA. Hence his drive train was com- er output were first carried out by timing
Muskelflug Institut. plex and heavy. The Pedaliante was of people running upstairs, but after a re-
In 1935 the Institute of Muscle- conventional glider construction, cumbent position was chosen for the
powered flight (Muskelfilug-Institut) was weighed 99 kg (220 Ibm), and had a single pilot an ergometer rig was built
set up within the (iesellschaft Polytech- wing span of 17.7m (58 ft) and area of for more-relevant power measurements.
nic, Frankfurt, and a prize was offered 23.2 sq m (250 sq ft). Other choices were of the planform, the
for the tirst German flight of I km. The Pedaliante made dozens of flights airfoil section, and the method of con-
director, Oskar Itrsinus, carried out tests after towed launches. There has been struction. (Lateral control through aile-
of the power developed by humans and much dispute as to whether it ever took rons was regarded as the accepted
made the data available in 1936. off under the pedal power of the pilot method, not needing any analysis for
However, before these data were given alone. If it did, it would have been a choice).
out, Helmut Haessler and Franz Villing- world first, preceding SUMPAC (q.v.) The planform was that of a conven-
er, who both worked at Junkers, made by 35 years. Sherwin (1976) reviews the tional single-seat monoplane. The span
their own tests by having one bicyclist arguments for and against the validity of was chosen to be 24m, 80 ft. Their
tow another. Unfortunately, an error in Bossi's claim that Pedaliante took off analysis showed that a larger span would
measurement or interpretation resulted under human power. require less power but the aircraft would
in false readings of power levels at least be more difficult to turn. A NACA air-
twice the actual power that it was possi- Emiel Hartman foil section designated as 65-818 was
ble tfor a human being to develop unlder An ornithopter roughly sketched by selected. The primary structure was a
the circumstances. Accordingly the air- tlartman, a sculptor, was built in En- spruce-girder box-spar using spruce 1.6
craft design, although having a neat and gland in 1958 by a glider-repairer. It mm (1/8th") thick. The propeller and
valid configuration, a low frontal area, a used a mechanical linkage to provide the the main wheel were driven, with the
pylon that did not interfere with the necessary twisting of the wings during ratio between them chosen to match the
wing, and a short transmission, was in- the flapping cycle. Only towed flights prevailing wind speed.
capable of unassisted take-otf. were made, but the builder told the au- Wind-tunnel tests were made of the
thor in 1961 that by flapping the wings, wing section, the propeller, and of a
forward progress had been made on the model of the complete aircraft. The
ground. Springs were used to give a model showed excessive drag (almost

__

Human Power, Spring-Summer, Vol. 10/1, P. 11

 technique to initiate a quick lean into a
turn - he momentarily steers in the oppo-
site direction. This technique is standard
with motorcycle racers. Weaver has
written a computer program that inte-
grates the various forces. (Cycling Sci-
ence, Sept. and Dec. 1991).
This basic aerodynamic technique
could be used by conventional and re-
cumbent bicycles to maintain stability in
-. _-JAf . .
gusting cross winds. One way to do this
would be to mount a vertical wing ahead
of the bicycle. The best size and posi-
tion of the wing would need to be deter-
mined for each type of bicycle, with
adjustments made to compensate for dif-
UMPAC, from Southampton University man-powered aircrajift.1960-63 ferent riders. This wing would serve to
30% of the total) at the junction of the move the center of pressure ahead of the
wing and the pylon, which had to be AN AERODYNAMIC STABI- center of gravity. When bikes were
large enough to enclose the pilot's head. LIZER FOR BICYCLES equipped with partial or full fairings,
by Peter A. Sharp the wing size and/or placement would
A compromise reshaping was adopted,
need to be modified. However, the
as a complete solution was impractical.
wing would need to be incorporated in
Construction started in January 1961, In an article in Human Power (Spring
such a way that it did not significantly
1989), Doug Milliken reported a simple,
and the first flight, with Derek Piggott as increase aerodynamic drag if used for
pilot, was on November 9, 1961. Sum- but elegant, experiment concerning bi-
record attempts or sprints.
pac made a total of 40 flights, mostly cycle stability. He wanted to determine
totally under human power, so that it the effect of cross winds. So he and his
was the first HPA (if Bossi's claims are friend Max Behensky tied a string to a
not substantiated) to take off in additionconventional bicycle and, while it was - fixed LWinS adJ'sHable b1be
to fly. Some later flights were made un- being ridden, pulled the string to simu- clamps /
late side forces. The attachment point of
der tow or with the assistance of a
the string simulated the center of pres-
model-airplane engine.
sure of the bicycle-and-rider. They
In early 1963 Lassiere, one of the
found that if the string were tied behind
original three in the SUMPAC team, the center of gravity, the bicycle was
took the plane to Imperial College and unstable. But if the string were tied
rebuilt the fuselage, the pylon (to avoidahead of the center of gravity, the stabil-
the separation problem) and used new ity was quite good. The reason was that
materials for the transmission (fabric the tug tended to steer the bicycle quick- igure Aerodynamic stabilizer
instead of steel belt) for the fuselage ly in the direction of the tug, but that For practical vehicles, a stabilizing
(Melinex polyester) and for the forward then caused the bike to quickly lean wing would offer an additional advan-
structure (light-alloy sheet). These away from the tug, thereby balancing the tage. It would produce some degree of
modifications took longer to accomplish force of the tug. This finding is counter- lift and thrust when the wind was blow-
than did the building of the original intuitive, but it works. And the rider can ing. Chester Kyle has shown that even
keep the bike going pretty much straight
plane. Unfortunately on its first flight in the aerodynamic tubing used for some
1965 under the pedalling of a strong bi-ahead. conventional bicycles can provide mea-
cyclist, John Pratt, the plane went steep- Matt Weaver later used this principle surable lift and thrust (Cycling Science,
ly up to 10m (30 ft), stalled and crashed,as part of the design for his extraordi- Sept. and Dec. 1991). A more signifi-
breaking the wing and fuselage beyond narily fast and stable bicycle, the "Cut- cant contribution of lift and thrust could
what was considered repairable. ting Edge". This bike is fully faired and be made by the wing if it could be main-
has a very long nose ahead of the front tained at the most efficient angle of at-
(This is takenfrom a manuscript Chris wheel. It looks as if it would be quite tack to its relative wind. A fixed wing
Roper has written covering all known unstable in cross winds. But the exact would function like a Darrieus-rotor
HPflight; part will appearin the opposite is true. When a cross wind hits wind turbine (egg-beater type) that
above-mentioned HP handbook. He the bicycle, the nose of the bike is needs to spin at high speed to keep the
hopes to find a publisherJbrhis com- quickly pushed downwind, thus inducing relative wind within the efficient range-
plete manuscript. a quick lean into the wind, and thereby of-attack angles. A fixed wing on a bi-
enabling the bike to maintain a straight cycle would be efficient only at bicycle
Chris Roper (VP-air), 19 Stirling Court, line. In fact, the bike steers slightly up-
29 Tavistock St., Covent Garden, Lon- speeds that were many times the speed
wind. And Weaver uses the same of the wind. But if the wing used a
don WC2E 7NUJ, UK

P. 12 Human Power, Spring-Summer, Vol. 10/1

variable angle, it would be able to func-
tion as a true wing sail while maintain-
ing its function as a stabilizer. This is a
counter-intuitive combination.
Cloth sails have been used a few
times in the past on bicycles. They were
fast and exciting, but difficult to control
and not safe for normal bike riding. The
Rans tricycle produced a few years ago
was a combination of a pedaled tricycle
and a cloth sail. It seems to have
worked well, but the market was limited.
It was perhaps too wide for normal bi-
cycling, and not wide enough to function
as a competitive landsailer.
A bicyclist has enough to worry
about when riding without having to
control a wing sail as well. So a wing
sail would need to be automatically con-
trolled. The increased lift of the wing
sail would require the rider to lean more.
The technique of leaning continuously
into the wind for balance is common to Figure 3 Automatic wing-sail control
bicyclists and wind surfers alike. Bi- the middle, or neutral position, the wing might end up with a very fast trike. (A
cycles with full fairings do this as well sail would, like the orienting vane, partial solution would be to use the wing
but their placement of the center of pres- merely face into the relative wind and sail for propulsion on straight sections
sure too far rearward has tended to make produce neither stabilization nor thrust. when the wind was blowing, and for cor-
them unstable. Installing shock cords (bungee cords) on nering when the wind was not blowing.)
l

the cable loop would permit the wing This would then be the trike equivalent
sail to dump excessive wind pressures, of down-force wings on racing cars. I
and might thereby permit the use of a wish the future would hurry up and
larger wing sail. This is made possible arrive.
by pivoting the wing sail at its center of
lift (about 25% of chord), so that it will ((Author's note: In a personal commu-
naturally try to face the relative wind nication, Doug Milliken noted that,
unless restrained. An interesting ques- "...vertical surfaces are used by some
tion is how large the wing sail can be- race cars (sprint cars) to produce aerody-
come before the increase in stability it namic lateral force to aid cornering
provides becomes a source of decreasing speed. We have a picture of a car lean-
stability. And another option to consider ing into a turn (rather than rolling out-
is that of using another wing sail ward) because of the aero effects of a
mounted to the rear of the bicycle, but large 'sideboard' while the car is at a big
then moving the forward wing sail far- tail-out side-slip angle." This is sort of a
ther ahead. "square rigger" (aerodynamic drag) ver-
A wing sail could also be used for sion of what I am proposing
tricycle propulsion. And it might also (aerodynamic lift) for tricycles.))
Figure 2 Stabilizer/wing-sail be used for aerodynamic stabilization,
but in a quite different manner. When PeterA. Sharp, 2 786 Bellaire Place
Achieving automatic control of a
road racing, tricycles could use a wing OAKLAND, CA 94601, USA
wing sail would seem to be relatively
simple. First, an orienting vane is sail to increase cornering speeds. The
wing sail would be linked to the steering Peter'ssuccess as an inventor allows
placed behind the wing sail, and pivoted
so that the wing sail turned as the wheels him to earn his living as a self-employed
on the same axis as the wing sail. Then
turned. This would create lift toward the craftsman. He is happily marriedto his
a control-cable loop is used to rotate the
inside of the turn (assuming windless Tour Easy, and they have recently con-
wing sail a fixed angle (the optimum
conditions), and higher possible corner- ceived a new type of HPV, to be named
angle of attack, left or right) relative to
ing speeds. The wing sail would be used "Quicycle".
the orienting vane. The rider need only
to counteract the tipping forces. When
pull the cable loop forward or backward
to adjust the wing sail for winds coming the wind was blowing, however, things
from the right or from the left. When would get complicated. But some smart
the rider moved the lever/cable-loop to person who can solve that problem

Human Power, Spring-Summer, Vol. 10/1, R 13

 2.6
References and footnote
2.4
1. Lighthill, M.J., On Sound Generated
2.2 Aerodynamically, Proceedings of the
2 Royal Society, 1952, Vol. 21 1, pp.
1.8
564-587.
2. Lighthill, M.J., On Sound Generated
1.6
Aerodynamically II: Turbulence as a
1.4 Source of Sound, Proceedings of the
1.2 Royal Society, 1954, Vol. 222, pp. 1-32.
1
C.H. Treat
08
Department of Engineering Science
0.6 Trinity University
0.4 _ San Antonio, Texas 78212
0.2
Herb Treat has been on the faculty at
0 -- I I I I I I I I I
-20
-25 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25
Trinity University in San Antonio for the
past 25 years. An enthusiastic bike-rider
Distonce from Outer Tip of the Eor [mm]
[1 Bore Ear + Device "A" o Device "C" A Device "D" himself he reports here the results of
one of his senior-engineering-student
design projects.
Figure 3 Turbulence vs anemometerposition (atfreestream velocity of 1.2 m/s, 25 mph)

those in figure 2 but are, of course, less we note that, as indicated by the output Book review
pronounced. of the microphone and consistent with
Also shown in figure 2 are the root- Lighthill, reduced turbulence within the
mean-square (RMS) values of the micro- ear corresponds to reduced noise levels
Velomobile
phone readings. We see that, as indi-
by Vytas Dovydenas
[5]. German Edition: Verlag Technik Berlin
cated by the RMS values, the noise level As may be obvious, it is important 1990, ISBN 3-341 00790-3
when device "A" is in place is only 26 for the entire ear to be in the "dead air" Original Russian: Leningrad 1986
percent of that when no device is pres- behind the device. This was confirmed 127 pages
ent. The other two devices yield less by attaching a string to the pinna (the
significant reductions. outer cartilage shell of the ear) and pull- Reviewed by T7teo Schmidt
Turning now to the relation between ing it into the airstream. The result was This book gives an East-European
noise and turbulence, turbulent flow is an increase in noise level of up to ninety view of HPV development, describing
typically described by the equation percent. many vehicles which will be unknown to
western IHPVA members. Basic design
u[i] = 5i + u[i]' (1) IV. Summary criteria for HPVs are also competently
The experimental results show that described. An HPV-based transport sys-
where u[i] is the instantaneous fluid ve- some very simple passive devices at- tem for the 21 st century is presented.
locity, the mean velocity, and u[i]' the tached to the leading chin-strap of a bi- Although written in German, the many
cycle rider's helmet greatly reduce excellent drawings and colored pictures
fluctuating component of the velocity.
wind-induced noise and, therefore, im- (not photos) make the book interesting
Since the time average of the fluctuating
prove the bicyclist's ability to hear for anyone to look at. This book is diffi-
component of turbulent flow is zero, it is
sounds emanating from his/her environ- cult to get but may be borrowed from
common practice to describe the magni-
ment. The results indicate that, for the the IHPVA library for a deposit plus
tude of the fluctuating component, that
conditions tested, noise levels can be postage both ways.
is, the magnitude of the turbulence, by a
reduced by approximately 75 percent.
root-mean-square value [4]:
The early work on this device was
featured on Cable Network News (CNN) Editor's apology: apologiesfor
u[i]'(RMS)= { (u[i] - u) /N} (2)
in August, 1990.
being late with this issue! Produc-
where N is the number of datum points. ing a journal seems easy, but
Acknowledgments
Figure 3 shows typical turbulence
The author wishes to express his ap- aroundfive hours of my time per
values when (2) is applied to the veloc-
preciation to the following former un- page is needed to get HP to the
ity data collected in the vicinity of the
dergraduate students who contributed point I can send it to Marti Daily.
ear. We see that the magnitude of the
significantly to the endeavor: Paul Mil-
turbulence falls dramatically as the
lman, Parker Shectman, Jimmy Whitney Now, for the next issue, we need
anemometer moves into the ear and that, more inputfrom you. Send pa-
and Karl Zimmermann.
in every case, when a device is in place, pers, letters, reviews, reports!
the turbulence within the ear is less than
that when no device is present. Finally, Dave Wilson

Human Power, Spring-Summer, Vol. 10/1, P. 15

 Clearly, the pedal or handle speed is
EFFECTS OF CRANK-ARM LENGTH ON not the samne as the crank rate. The
PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSE IN pedal-hand speed is faster for the longer
ARM ERGOMETRY crank than for the shorter crank even
though both travel through the same de-
by Brent L. Gravelle and Richard R. Powell grees of rotation per unit of time. The
-

force dynamic of muscular contractions

SUMMARY A shorter crank-arm, by contrast,
at varying rates of speed can be illus-
Physiological responses associated would require more force to turn be-
trated by the force-velocity curve (figure
with varying crank-arm lengths in arm- cause of reduced leverage; however, this
1), and can help to clarify the nature of
ergometry indicate that during submaxi- extra demand is theoretically offset by a
muscular force production as it relates to
mal steady-state arm exercise, an opti- physiological advantage gained as a
differences in velocity of movement due
mal crank length may exist. result of the point of force application
to different lever-arm lengths.
Furthermore, when using an arm- turning through a shorter distance and at
ergometry work test to fatigue, a higher a slower speed. With this in mind, it
power-output level may be achieved seemed unlikely that different crank-arm
with a relatively longer crank-arm. Un- lengths would greatly affect the physio-
fortunately, no significant differences logical cost of producing work, because
were found in efficiency values compar- the power-output in both cases would be
ing crank lengths to suggest an optimal the same. However, with a significant 8
length for power production. variation in crank-arm length, this as-
sumption may not be true due to possi-
INTRODUCTION ble variation in the underlying
With the development of arm pow-
ered vehicles for the lower-body dis-
abled (i.e. "Freedom Ryder", New
physiology of muscular contractions pro-
ducing the power-output. The purpose of
this study was to help clarify this
I
England Handcycle, etc.) as well as de- uncertainty.
velopment of arm- and leg-powered
HPVs, the characteristics of arm-crank- BACKGROUND 2 I II I I

VELOCITY OF MUSCULAR CONTRACTION

drive systems are of technical impor- Research that has addressed crank-
tance to overall efficiency. Although arm length variation has related to leg
there is ample research on leg-drive sys- cranking only. In this regard, however, 'FigureI Force-velocity relationship
tems and leg ergometry, there is little Simpson (1979) has argued: Increased handle or pedal speed can
knowledge available to guide one when "A longer crank-arm permits the use
be obtained only by the muscles exercis-
designing a HPV with a physiologically of a bigger gear with less fatigue, even
ing or contracting at a faster rate. The
efficient arm-crank-drive system. though the feet are moving in a circle
increased velocity of contraction will
Efficient power production depends of greater diameter. With a shorter
decrease maximal force production ca-
on a number of factors such as body- crank, the advantages are reversed: more
pable in the muscles and limit the force
segment lengths, muscle mass, spinning force is required, but the smaller circle
applied to the crank handle or pedal
or cranking rate and the length of the of rotation makes for smoother pedal-
(Kreighbaum and Barthels, 1985; Bo-
crank-arm. Identifying an optimal crank- ling, the quality called 'souplesse'.
lourchi and Hull, 1985). When shorter
arm length for average riders was the Where spinning is desirable, a shorter crank-arms are employed and the RPM
focus of this study. crank is more efficient." (p.29) Simp- is held constant, the handle or pedal
By keeping power-output constant son's sentiments are echoed by Hull and must travel at a slower speed than the
and maintaining the crank rotational ve- Gonzalez (1988) in their statement: longer crank to maintain the same RPM,
locity at a constant revolutions per min- "On the one hand, at a constant pow-
while at the same time leverage is sacri-
ute (RPM), one can vary the crank-arm er and constant crank-arm length, in-
ficed. With less leverage the body has to
length and determine the body's physio- creasing the pedalling rate allows a
apply a greater force to turn the shorter
logical response to such a variation. corresponding reduction in the pedal
crank-arms. Slower cranking speeds ne-
A crank handle attached to a longer force and hence joint movements due to
cessitate the development of greater
crank-arm must turn through a larger pedal force. On the other hand, at con-
muscular tension to perform the same
circumference and at a higher velocity stant power and constant angular veloc-
power-output. Such muscular work may
and therefore will put a greater demand ity, increasing the crank-arm length also therefore become more anaerobic at
on a subject's speed of muscular contrac- allows a corresponding reduction in ped- higher power-outputs and mnore ineffi-
tion. However, because of a longer ra- al force. Intuitively, a longer crank-arm cient. The reason for this cin be ob-
dius arm, there will be an enhanced would lead to reduced pedal force but served in the power-velocity curve of
mechanical advantage due to increased increased dynamic action of the limb muscular contraction (figure 2). Here it
leverage. The result is less force being whereas a shorter crank-arm would re-
can be seen that highest power-outputs
required to turn the crank and less de- sult in increased pedal force but de-
are achieved at relatively higher contrac-
mand in terms of force of muscular con- creased dynamic action." (p. 840) tion velocities despite the sacrifice of
traction of active muscles. contraction forces.

Human Power, Spring-Summer, Vol. 10/1, P. 19

 5 and 6-1/2 inches (101.6, 127 and 165 conditions. During each exercise
mm) in length were used. session, physiological determinations of
Twelve physically active male stu- oxygen consumption (V02), heart rate
dents were selected as experimental sub- (HR), and pulmonary ventilation (VE)
w

F jects with a mean age of 21.8 years, R = were made at rest and every fifteen sec-
0
I- 18-25. Subjects were selected for simi- onds until exercise ceased. The work
0
Z lar arm lengths in an attempt to control rate of power-output started at 25 watts
M
0
for variations in leverage associated with and increased 25 watts every two min-
force production. An anthropometric utes until the subject reached
caliper, graduated in centimeters, was exhaustion.
0
pi
9
used in conjunction with a method by By monitoring V02, HR, and VE at
Plagenhoef (1971) for locating joint cen- 25- and 50 -watt work outputs, steady-
VELOCITY OF MUSCULAR CONTRACTION
ters and determining limb lengths. The state physiological cost was determined
upper and lower right arm of each sub- for each crank length. Time to ex-
ject was measured to insure an average haustion (TIMEEXHST) was also used
Figure 2 Power-velocitv relationship upper-arm length of 31.5 cm + 1.5 cm as a measure of maximum power-output
and an average forearm length of 25.5 for each test condition. Collected data
Based on the theoretical power-
cm + 1.2 cm. Variance was relatively were statistically analyzed to determine
output being equal under varying crank-
small, measuring 1.01 for the upper arm significant difference.
arm length conditions, it could be sup-
and 0.38 for the forearm. Consequently,
posed that the interplay among the FINDINGS
subjects were considered similar in this
above variables would render all crank
anatomical feature. No significant differences among the
lengths equal in terms of submaximal
The three different crank-arm lengths three crank lengths were found for the
and maximal muscular-performance physiological variables at a power out-
constituted three test conditions with
outcomes. However, it was suspected
each subject randomly exposed to all put of 25 watts. However, at a 50-watt
that maximum power-output achieved as work output, VE, V02 and HR re-
measured by time to exhaustion would sponses were significantly affected by
favor a longer crank-arm length because crank lengths (figure 3). Results indi-
of the more dominant influence of aero-
cated significant differences between
bic metabolism (characteristic of a lower crank lengths of 102 mm and 127 mm
total muscular force and higher velocity) and 102 mm and 165 mm on all physio-
in a multistage progressive ergometry logical variables. In contrast no signifi-
test to fatigue. cant differences (p<.05) were found
1. -
Accordingly, we proposed the fol- HR I - - _"`
between the 127 mm and 165 mm crank-
lowing two hypotheses: VF . .........
arms. Had more data points existed over
1.0 - -LZ a wider range of crank-arm lengths,
1. when performing submaximal these relationships may have been ex-
arm-ergometry power-outputs at three 5 05- trapolated to more clearly definable cur-
I
8
different crank-arm lengths, physiolog- I '
vilinear relationship.
ical responses would remain unchanged; Figure 4 represents the maximal
and f O-
power-output achieved and time to ex-
2. when performing a multistage haustion plotted against crank length. As
arm-ergometry exercise test to ex- .0.5 - crank length increased from 102 mm to
haustion using three different crank-arm 127 mm then to 165 mm, TIMEEXHST
lengths, a relatively long crank-arm significantly increased (p<.05) from 6.75
I I I
would result in a longer work time prior t17 so1 125 a O min. to 7.85 min., and then to 8.79 min.,
to exhaustion.
respectively. Accompanying the gain in
exercise time is a corresponding rise in
APPROACH
power-output with a mean maximum
An arm-crank ergometer was used power-output of 125 watts achieved at a
that was an electrically braked system
mean time of 8.79 minutes using a 165
enabling a standard power-output re- mm crank-arm.
gardless of ranking speed (Unit PE,
Pedal-Mode Ergometer, Warren E. Col- CONCLUSIONS
lins, Inc., Braintree, Mass.). The This investigation explored physio-
ergometer was mounted on a wooden logical responses associated with vary-
frame and a seat was positioned in front F'igure 3 Oxygen consumption (VO).
7ulmonarv ventilation (VE,) and heart- ing crank-arm lengths in arm-ergometry.
of the crank-arms so that the axis of Physiological responses suggest the fol-
rotation was at shoulder height. Three rate (HR) responses during steady-state
exercise at 50- Wpower output usinl
nrm lowing. 1) During submaximal arm exer-
sets of interchangeable crank-arms of 4,
three different crank-arm lengths: 102, cise, an optimal crank length for
127 & 165 mm. .
average-sized male adults exists 127 mm

P. 20 Human Power, Spring-Summer, Vol. 10/1

 devices are permitted in these events unnecessary restrictions." To prohibit an the sprints. Would it provide an unfair
provided no energy is stored before the energy accumulator which stores human advantage? Of course it would. That's
start of the race (this means absolutely energy through pregenerative pedaling the whole point of using an energy accu-
no chemical, electrical, kinetic, poten- and/or regenerative braking is in direct mulator - to gain an advantage by means
tial, or other form of energy storage at violation of the spirit of the rules. of a technical innovation. That's just
the start)." The problem here is that an Our international president wrote, in what the IHPVA is supposed to
HPV, itself, is an energy-storage device. his recommendations for rules and goals, encourage.
A bicycle includes an aggregation of "In open categories, especially as exem- The original reasons for banning en-
various energy accumulators that store plified by the IHPVA races, a useful phi- ergy accumulators from the sprints are
energy produced by the rider. The most losophy is to have the rules lag technical not clear. But a knowledgeable member
obvious one is the whole bicycle/rider developments and so not inhibit the de- suggested two possible reasons. First,
combination which stores kinetic energy velopments. Thus, although the HPVA based on some informal studies by Ches-
as long as it is moving. Another obvious rules prohibit stored energy from sources ter Kyle indicating that energy accumu-
example is that of the wheels acting as outside the rider, a rider might be per- lators would not be likely to improve
flywheels to store kinetic energy. In mitted to store energy (as in a battery) commuting times, it may have been de-
addition, merely standing up a bicycle during one part of the event for use in a cided to save competitors the time and
requires storing potential energy - until later part. Also, the vehicle could be money that developing energy accumu-
it falls down again. The various springs permitted to exploit real-time wind pow- lators would have required. If this was
and the steering mechanism also store er via a sail wing or onboard windmill. one of the original reasons for the ban,
potential energy, and usually for more If energy storage or wind augmentation then I would contend that the reasoning
than one leg stroke. Note carefully that produce a race winner, great! If the ad- was, however well intended, anti-
the restrictions on energy storage before vantage was so large that the new tech- innovation and a self-fulfilling prophesy.
any road race, and before or during any nique would be essential for future A second possible reason may have been
other race, are "absolute". No excep- winners, then a new 'open' category that energy accumulators present diffi-
tions. Therefore, any flying starts, or could be set up permitting it, and anoth- culties in insuring that competitors do
any pedaling in excess of one leg stroke er 'semi-open' category could be devised not store energy before the race. But I
(except in a road race, etc.), is strictly prohibiting it, or a single dominant cate- would contend that this is a non-
prohibited. Also prohibited are starting gory could be selected. Innovation is problem. Let the energy be stored!
any race with a bicycle upright, or with served by this attitude." (HP, Summer That's what an energy accumulator is
any spring at other than minimum com- '87) The current IHPVA rules directly for! All that is required is some reason-
pression, or with steered wheels pointing contradict this recommendation. able time limit (so as to prevent pedaling
other than straight ahead, or even with My own argument is that energy ac- all year just to provide the power for one
inflated tires. Any win or record set in cumulators would enable HPVs to sprint). A one-, five-, or ten-minute lim-
violation of this absolute rule is there- achieve much-improved acceleration it would be practical. My reading of the
fore invalid. from a standing start using pregenerative rules suggests a third possible reason:
It is ironic that an organization pedaling. In combination with good that of simple prejudice, i.e. the assump-
whose intent was to prohibit as little as aerodynamics, that would enable HPVs tion that an energy accumulator would
possible should end up prohibiting just to accelerate with and run with automo- not be consistent with the "purity" of a
about everything. Of course, the solu- biles on level city streets, thus enabling bicycle.
tion to the problems created by these HPVs to catch the majority of stop lights The critical question is, "Is a bicycle
rules - the invalidation of probably all and significantly improve commute with an human-energy accumulator still
wins and records - is to simply rewrite times on favorable routes. (Hills would a real bicycle?" That is precisely the
the rules correctly and then to validate still be a problem.) It would also be question that was answered so infamous-
all previous wins and records using a great fun for an average rider to be able ly in the negative by the UCI when it
grandfather clause. But I also suggest to out-accelerate and outrun a profes- banned recumbents and fairings. The
that the current prohibition against ener- sional cyclist on a conventional road IHPVA is now doing exactly the same
gy accumulators be eliminated. It is bike. For IHPVA road racing, an energy thing by banning energy accumulators
contrary to the goals of the IHPVA; con- accumulator would be charged using pri- from the sprints. It's time for a change.
trary to the recommendations of our in- marily regenerative braking, since there
ternational president, Paul MacCready; would be little time for pregenerative PeterA. Shaip, 2 786 Bellaire Place
and contrary to the best interests of bi- pedaling. The tighter the road course, Oakland, CA 94601
cycle development. It is certainly con- and the more braking that was required, (see earlierfor Peter's bio)
trary to my interests, since I and others the greater would be the advantage of
in the bicycling community might profit using an energy accumulator. It would Editorial retraction: in an editorial in
from the invention of an improved HPV. be of little or no advantage in events re- the last issue, I made some snide com-
And we should be encouraged to do so quiring continuous maximum aerobic ments about an article in CYCLING
rather than being handicapped by preju- pedaling, such as timed events or specif- SCIENCE and about its editorial policy.
dicial rules. ic distance events. Since an energy ac- I apologize to Chet Kyle and Peter Steg-
To quote the IHPVA rules, "The spir- cumulator's main advantage is in mann! Dave Wilson
it of these rules is to avoid inhibiting de- providing improved acceleration, it ---------------------------

sign innovation by not establishing should definitely not be prohibited from

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