PHYSICS VIVA QUESTION

ANSWERS
1.UNIFORM BENDING:-

1.Define: deformation, elasticity, elastic bodies, plastic bodies, stress, strain.

Ans:
Deformation A change in the shape of the object due to application of
force known as deformation.

Elasticity It is the ability of the material of deformed material body to

return its original shape and size when the deforming forces
are removed.

Elastic bodies A body that regains its original shape and size on the
removal of deforming forces.

Plastic bodies The body which do not have the property of opposing the
deforming forces

Stress The restoring force per unit area of the material.

𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 2
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
.Its unit is 𝑁/𝑚

Strain A change in the shape or size of a body caused by a

deforming force.

2.How do you differentiate between the stress and the pressure ?

Ans: Stress : It is the Restoring force applied per unit area of the Material.
Pressure: It is the amount of force acting per unit area of the Material.
3.How many types of strain are there ? Name them.
Ans: There are 3 types of the strain, they are
1. Longitudinal strain.
2. Volumetric strain.
3. Lateral strain.
4. Shear strain.
4. State Hooke’s law and explain it.
Ans: Within the elastic limit, Stress is directly proportional to the strain developed.
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 α 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
It means that the solid may be stretched without any permanent alteration.
5.Define Young’s Modulus, Rigidity Modulus and Bulk Modulus.
Ans: 1.Young’s Modulus :- The ratio of stress applied to the material to the
corresponding strain developed within the elastic limit.
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑌 = 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
2.Rigidity Modulus:- The ratio of the shear stress to shear strain of the body.
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
G= 𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
3.Bulk modulus:- The proportion of the volumetric stress related to the
volumetric strain of the specified material while the material deformation is within
the elastic limit.
6.What is meant by elastic limit of a body?
Ans: Elastic limit is the maximum stress a material can withstand before the
permanent deformation
7. How will the value of Y change with a change in length, breadth or thickness of
the Beam?
Ans:The value of Y, which represents the Young's modulus or elasticity of a material,
will generally not change with a change in the length, breadth, or thickness of a beam.
8. In this experiment the beam is simply bent, not extended. How the bending of
the beam is related to the young's modulus of the material?
Ans:In case of bending of a beam, depression ,δ depends on Young modulus of elasticity Y
as
2
3𝐿 𝑔𝑎𝑀
Y= 3
2𝑏𝑑 δ
−1
Therefore from above equation δ α 𝑌 .
Hence the Young’s Modulus decreases with increase in the deviation.
9. Why are the readings taken during the loads increasing and decreasing?
Ans:By taking readings during both the loading and unloading phases, the complete
relationship between load and deflection can be determined. The data collected during the
loading phase will show how much the beam deflects under increasing loads, while the data
collected during the unloading phase will show how much the beam rebounds as the load is
removed. This rebound, or residual deformation, is an important factor in determining the
modulus of elasticity of the material, as it represents the material's ability to recover from
deformation.
10. In the experiment the weights (forces) are applied at right angles to the length
of the beam, then how does the longitudinal stress and strain come into play?
Ans:In a uniform bending experiment, the weights or forces are applied perpendicular to the
length of the beam, causing the beam to bend. Therefore, the longitudinal stress and strain are
not directly involved in the bending of the beam.However, when the beam is bent, the
material on one side of the beam is compressed, while the material on the other side is
stretched. This causes internal stresses in the material that run longitudinally along the
length of the beam.
As a result, the longitudinal stress and strain may come into play in determining the
overall behaviour of the beam under bending. The longitudinal stress will be greatest
at the top and bottom of the beam, where the bending moment is highest, and it will
decrease towards the neutral axis of the beam. Similarly, the longitudinal strain will be
greatest at the top and bottom of the beam and will decrease towards the neutral axis.

11. Why is the length of the beam away from the two knife edges are same?
Ans:By keeping the length of the beam away from the knife edges the same, the bending
moment is distributed uniformly along the length of the beam, ensuring that the beam bends
uniformly. If the length away from the knife edges were different, the bending moment would
not be distributed uniformly, resulting in non-uniform bending and inaccurate results in
determining the material’s properties.
12. Define: linear stress, linear strain, longitudinal stress and longitudinal strain.
Ans: 1.Linear strain:- The ratio of the change in the dimension of the body due to the
deformation to its original dimension in the direction of the force applied.
2.Longitudinal strain:-It is the change in length to its original length of the
object.
3.linear stress:-Linear stress refers to the physical force applied to an object per unit
area, resulting in deformation of the object. It is also known as normal stress or axial stress,
and it is typically expressed in units of newtons per square meter (N/m²).
4.longitudinal stress:-Stress experienced by an object along its length due to the
presence of equal and opposite deforming forces perpendicular to the area of cross-section is
called longitudinal stress.

13. Explain the stress and strain curve.

Ans:-A stress-strain curve is a graphical way to show the reaction of a material when a load
is applied. It shows a comparison between stress and strain.

2. TORSIONAL PENDULUM:-

1. Define: Shear, shear stress, shear strain, rigidity modulus, and moment
of inertia.
Ans:1.Shear: Shear refers to the deformation that occurs when a force is applied to a
material in a direction parallel to its surface.
2.Shear stress: Shear stress is the force per unit area that is applied to a material when
it is subjected to a shear force.
3.Shear strain: Shear strain is the ratio of the change in shape of a material to its
original shape when it is subjected to a shear force. It is a measure of the amount of
deformation that occurs due to the shear stress.
4.Rigidity modulus: The rigidity modulus, also known as the shear modulus. It is
defined as the ratio of shear stress to shear strain and is denoted by the symbol G.
5.Moment of Inertia :Inertia possessed by a body rotating about an axis is called
moment of inertia

2. How the moment of inertia varies with the mass of the body?
Ans:The moment of inertia increases with the mass of the body, but it also depends on
the distribution of the mass. If the mass is distributed farther away from the axis of
rotation, the moment of inertia will be higher. This is because more force is required
to overcome the object's rotational inertia and change its angular velocity.

3. What is torsion and what causes torsion in a body?

Ans:Torsion is a type of deformation that occurs in a body when it is subjected to a
twisting force or torque.
The cause of torsion in a body is the application of a twisting force or torque. When a
force is applied to one end of a body while the other end is fixed or restrained, the
body will twist and deform. The magnitude of the torsion depends on the applied
torque and the properties of the material.

4. What is meant by the period of pendulum and torsional pendulum?

Ans:The period of a pendulum is the time it takes for one complete oscillation or
swing back and forth.
The period of the torsional pendulum, is the time it takes for the pendulum to
complete one full oscillation around its axis of rotation.
𝐼
5. Why 2 remains constant for a given wire?
𝑇
𝐼
Ans: The quantity 2 is known as the torsion constant.For a given wire, the torsion
𝑇
constant remains constant. If we measure the period of oscillation for different objects
suspended from the same wire, we find that the quantity I/T^2 remains constant. This
is known as the torsional constant of the wire and is denoted by the symbol k.

6. Why the moment of inertia changes for a given body when we change the axis
of oscillation or rotation?
Ans:Because it also depends on the distribution of the mass. If the mass is distributed
farther away from the axis of rotation, the moment of inertia will be higher. This is
because more force is required to overcome the object's rotational inertia and change
its angular velocity.

7.Why the amplitude of oscillation must be small for a torsional pendulum?

Ans:the amplitude of oscillation small ensures that the motion of the pendulum
remains linear, and the period of oscillation is constant .This makes it easier to
measure the period accurately, which is important in determining the torsional rigidity
of the wire
 8. On what basis do you distinguish a regular body from an irregular body?
Ans:the distinction between a regular and an irregular body is based on their
symmetry. A regular body has one or more axes of symmetry, while an irregular body
has no axes of symmetry.

9.On what factors,does the time period of oscillation of a torsional pendulum

depend?
Ans:The period of a torsional pendulum depends on the moment of inertia of the body
and the torsional spring constant of the wire or rod.
The period of a torsional pendulum is given by the formula:
𝐿
𝑇 = 2Π 𝐾

where T is the period, I is the moment of inertia of the body, and k is the torsional
spring constant of the wire or rod.

10. What do you mean by torsional rigidity of a wire?

Ans:Torsional rigidity of a wire is the property that describes how much torque or
twisting force is required to produce a certain amount of angular deformation or
rotation in the wire

11. How do the values of rigidity change with the change in the length and radius
of wire?
Ans:The torsional rigidity of a wire depends on its material properties, such as the
shear modulus, as well as its dimensions, such as its length and radius. Generally, the
torsional rigidity of a wire increases with an increase in its radius and decreases with
an increase in its length.

12. What do you understand by the angle of twist?

Ans:The angle of twist is a measure of the amount of rotation or angular deformation
that occurs in a structural element, such as a shaft, rod, or beam, when a torque or
twisting force is applied to it.

13. Does the Newton's laws of motion hold good even for rotatory motion?
Ans:Yes, Newton's laws of motion hold good for both translational and rotational
motion. However, the laws must be expressed in terms of angular quantities for
rotational motion.

3.DIFFRACTION GRATING

1.What is diffraction of light? How many types of diffraction are there?

Ans:Bending of light and its enter into the region of geometrical shadow of an object
is called diffraction.Diffractions are of two types, namely
a) Fresnel’s diffraction and b) Fraunhoffer diffraction.
2. What are the different parts of a spectrometer and mention their functions?
Ans:There are three parts of a spectrometer:
1. Collimator:It aligns or collimates the beam of light that enters the
spectrometer.
2. Prism Table:It magnifies the light dispersed by the prism and focuses it
onto the eyepiece.
3. Telescope:It disperses light or it modifies the direction of light.

3. Why the telescope focused for a distant object? Why the slit on the collimator
kept very narrow?
Ans:By focusing the telescope on a distant object, a parallel beam of light is
produced, and ensures that the diffraction pattern produced by the grating is consistent
In diffraction grating experiment, the slit on the collimator is kept very narrow in
order to produce a collimated (i.e. parallel) beam of light that is incident on the
diffraction grating.When the slit is wide, the beam of light that passes through it is not
well collimated, and as a result, the diffraction pattern produced by the grating is not
as clear or well-defined.

4. Explain the required condition for diffraction.

Ans: Diffraction takes place only when size of the object is comparable to the
wavelength of the incident light.

5. What is the mechanism by which the emission spectrum is produced in the Hg

spectral lamps?
Ans:The Hg spectral lamp produces an emission spectrum through atomic emission. When
electricity passes through the mercury vapour in the lamp, the mercury atoms become ionised
and release energy in the form of photons. These photons have specific energies that
correspond to specific wavelengths of light, and together, they form the characteristic
emission spectrum of the lamp

6. What is the difference between prism and grating spectrum? What are the
advantages of a grating over a prism?
Ans:
Prism Spectra Grating Spectra

● Obtained from using Prism ● Obtained using grating prism

● Regular triangular type of prism ● Grating Prism

● The spectrum is created due to the ● The spectrum is created due to the
dispersion of light diffraction of light
7. What is a Plane diffraction grating? How are they made? Name different types
of gratings.

Ans: A large number of narrow rectangular slits arranged side by side of width equal
to width of wavelength of light with equal opaque spaces. OR An arrangement
consisting of a large number of parallel slits with specific ‘grating constant’ is called
diffraction grating.
Gratings are made by ruling fine grooves by a diamond point either on a plane glass
surface to produce a transmission grating or on a metal mirror to produce a reflection
grating. Different types of Grating are;
1. Transmission Grating
2. Reflection Grating

8.What is meant by grating constant? Does the spectrum depend on the material
of the grating?
Ans: The spacing between two consecutive lines is called grating constant. Spectrum
is independent on the material of the grating.

9. How does the spacing between the rulings behave? What is the effect of
spacing between the rulings on the angle of diffraction?
Ans:The spacing between the rulings (or grooves) on a diffraction grating affects the
diffraction pattern observed when light is passed through the grating. Specifically, the
spacing between the rulings determines the angle at which different orders of
diffraction occur.The angle of diffraction is inversely proportional to the spacing
between the rulings. This means that increasing the spacing between the rulings will
result in a smaller angle of diffraction for a given wavelength of light, while
decreasing the spacing will result in a larger angle of diffraction.

10. Explain the order of the spectrum. How does the 2nd order spectrum differ
from 1st order spectrum?
Ans:The order of the spectrum refers to the number of times that the diffracted light has
undergone diffraction within the grating structure
The first-order spectrum is the spectral pattern produced when the incident
light is diffracted once by the grating structure. The first-order spectrum contains the most
intense and prominent spectral lines and is the easiest to observe.
The second-order spectrum is the spectral pattern produced when the incident light
is diffracted twice by the grating structure. The second-order spectrum is typically much
fainter and less intense than the first-order spectrum, as it represents a much smaller
portion of the total diffracted light. The spectral lines in the second-order spectrum are
also shifted to higher wavelengths than those in the first-order spectrum.
11.Define angle of minimum deviation. Why the grating is adjusted for minimum
deviation position?Which colour is more deviated in this experiment? Why?
Ans:The angle of minimum deviation is the angle at which a prism or a diffraction
grating produces the least amount of deviation of light passing through it.
In the case of a diffraction grating, adjusting it for the angle of minimum deviation can
improve the resolution and clarity of the spectral lines observed from the diffracted
light
the light with the longest wavelength will experience the greatest deviation in a
diffraction grating experiment. This corresponds to the color red, which has the
longest wavelength in the visible spectrum.
The reason is the greater the wavelength of light, the greater the deviation it
experiences. This is due to the fact that the diffraction grating causes the incident light
to diffract in different directions depending on the wavelength of the light.

12.In the Hg spectrum, which lines are prominent and which are weak? What
could be the reason for variation in intensities of spectral lines?
Ans:In the mercury (Hg) spectrum, there are several spectral lines of varying
intensities. The most prominent spectral lines are located at 404.7 nm (violet), 435.8
nm (blue), 546.1 nm (green), 576.9 nm (yellow), and 579.1 nm (yellow)In contrast,
there are also weaker spectral lines present in the Hg spectrum, which may be more
difficult to observe. Some of the weaker spectral lines in the Hg spectrum include
those at 623.4 nm (red) and 690.7 nm (red). The efficiency of the diffraction grating in
diffracting and dispersing the incident light. Some diffraction gratings may have
higher or lower efficiency in diffracting certain wavelengths of light, resulting in
variations in the intensity of the spectral lines observed.

13.Can a grating be used for studying spectra in the UV or infrared region? If so,
what should be its characteristic? Can a prism be so used?
Ans:Yes, a grating can be used for studying spectra in the UV or infrared region.
For studying spectra in the UV region, a grating with a high ruling density or
small groove spacing is required. This is because the wavelength of UV light is
shorter than visible light and therefore requires a higher density of grooves to produce
diffraction. Infrared light, on the other hand, has longer wavelengths than visible light,
so a grating with a lower ruling density or wider groove spacing is needed to produce
diffraction.
Prisms can also be used to study spectra in both the UV and infrared regions,
but they are typically less efficient than gratings because they produce more
dispersion, which can make it difficult to resolve fine spectral features.
4.DIELECTRIC CONSTANT

1. What is a capacitor and capacitance of a capacitor?

Ans:Capacitor is a device used to store charge. It consists of two parallel plates
separated by small distance between them with or without dielectric.
Capacitance of a capacitor is defined as it is the ratio of charged stored on the either of
the plate to the potential difference between the plates.

2. What are dielectric materials? Give examples.

Ans: Dielectrics are insulators but conduct electricity when placed between the plates
of a capacitor. Example: Paper.
3. What is the capacitive time constant and half time constant?
Ans:The capacitive time constant, also known as the RC time constant, is a measure of the
rate at which a capacitor charges or discharges in an electrical circuit. It is defined as the
product of the resistance (R) in the circuit and the capacitance (C) of the capacitor: τ = 𝑅𝐶

The half-time constant is the time required for the capacitor to reach half of its maximum
voltage or current level. It is equivalent to half the value of the capacitive time constant (τ/2).

4. What is the energy stored in the capacitor?

Ans:
5. What are the factors that determine the capacitance of capacitors?
Ans:Factors affecting the capacitance of a capacitor are:
1. Dielectric Medium between the plates.
2. Distance between the Plates.
3. Area of the plates.
4. Temperature.
6. Why dielectrics are used in capacitors? What is dielectric constant and
dielectric loss?
Ans:Dielectrics are used in capacitors to increase the capacitance and to insulate the
conductive plates from each other. A dielectric material is an insulator that can store
electrical energy in an electric field.
Dielectric Medium is defined as the ratio of the capacitance of a capacitor with
dielectric as its medium to the capacitance of a capacitor with air as it medium.
When voltage is applied across the dielectric of a capacitor, some amount of the
energy is lost in the form of heat,that cannot be recovered this is dielectric loss.

7. What do you mean by charging and discharging of capacitors?

Ans:
8. What are dielectric materials and dielectric strength?
Ans: Dielectrics are insulators but conduct electricity when placed between the
plates of a capacitor
Dielectric strength: It is the maximum applied electric field that can be applied
without dielectric breakdown.
9. Mention the types of capacitors. Define parallel plate capacitor.
Ans: Types of Capacitor: 1.Parallel Plate Capacitor 2.Spherical Capacitor
3.Cylindrical Capacitor
A parallel plate capacitor is a type of capacitor that consists of two parallel
conducting plates separated by a dielectric material.
10. What is the nature of the electric field between the oppositely charged placed
of a parallel plate capacitor?
Ans:The nature of the electric field between the oppositely charged plates of a parallel
plate capacitor is uniform and perpendicular to the plates.

11. How can the capacitance of a capacitor be increased? Define 1 Farad.

Ans:The capacitance of a capacitor can be increased by either increasing the surface
area of the plates, decreasing the distance between the plates, using a dielectric
material between the plates.
A capacitor has a capacitance of 1 F when 1 coulomb (C) of charge raises the
potential between the plates by 1 volt (V).

12. Dielectrics are insulators, but still called as dielectrics why?

Ans:Dielectrics are called dielectrics because they are used in capacitors to increase
their capacitance. Even though dielectrics are insulators, they are able to store electric
charge on their surface when placed in an electric field. This is because the electric
field polarizes the molecules of the dielectric material, causing them to become
electric dipoles. These electric dipoles help to store more charge on the plates of a
capacitor, thus increasing its capacitance.

13. What happens to the charge on a parallel plate capacitor, when the potential
difference between its plates is doubled?
Ans:When the potential difference across the capacitor is doubled, the charge stored
in it also doubled.

14. What is the effect of temperature on the dielectric constant of a dielectric?

Ans:With increased temperature, the mobility of polar molecules increases, which
increases the dielectric constant.

15. What is the dielectric constant of a perfect conductor?

Ans:The dielectric constant of metals is infinite.
5. FOUR PROBE METHOD:-

1. Explain the variation of energy gap of the semiconductor with respect to

temperature.
Ans: The energy gap in the semiconductor decreases with increase in the
temperature.
2. Why a semiconductor behaves as an insulator at zero degree kelvin?
Ans:At zero Kelvin, a semiconductor behaves as an insulator because there is not
enough thermal energy to excite the electrons to the conduction band, which leaves
the valence band completely filled and without free electrons to conduct electricity.

3. Explain how the resistivity of a semiconductor varies with temperature, and

why?
Ans:The resistivity of a semiconductor decreases with increasing temperature
because at higher temperatures, more electrons are excited from the valence band to
the conduction band, increasing the number of charge carriers available to conduct
electricity. This increase in the number of charge carriers results in a decrease in the
resistivity of the semiconductor.

4. What are the disadvantages of two probe method of resistivity determination?

Ans:The method does not allow the computation of resistivity and the results are
expressed in terms of resistance, limiting the comparison of results for different
sized devices.

5. What is the advantage of Four Probe method over the other conventional
methods?
Ans:The four-probe method has several advantages over other conventional
methods for resistivity measurements, including high accuracy,
non-destructiveness, contact-independence, and precise sample positioning.

6. What materials are used for probe designing and why?

Ans:Probes used for resistivity measurements are typically made of materials that
are conductive, durable, and non-reactive. Commonly used probe materials include
tungsten, platinum.These materials have high electrical conductivity, are resistant to
corrosion, and can withstand high temperatures.

7. What shape should be given to the probe tip and why?

Ans:The probe tips used for resistivity measurements are typically designed to be
sharp, pointed, and as small as possible. This is because a sharp, pointed tip
provides a more localized contact with the sample, reducing the contact resistance
and minimizing errors in the measurement

8. What should be the shape and size of the semiconducting sample to be tested?
 Ans:In general, the sample should be flat and smooth, with parallel surfaces to
ensure uniform contact between the probes and the sample. The size of the sample
should be large enough to accommodate the probes and provide sufficient space for
electrical contacts, but small enough to minimize thermal gradients and ensure a
uniform temperature distribution.

9. Explain how the probes must be aligned over the semiconducting sample.
Ans:The probes must be aligned parallel to each other and perpendicular to the
surface of the sample, with the tips positioned at the same level to ensure uniform
contact with the sample. The spacing between the probes should be optimized for
the specific resistivity range being measured, and they should be aligned over a flat
and smooth area of the sample, away from any defects.

10. While measuring the resistivity of the semiconducting material, the sample
bottom is non- conducting, why?
Ans:The bottom surface of the semiconducting sample is coated with a
non-conducting material to prevent electrical contact between the probes and the
bottom surface, ensuring that the current flows only through the sample and not
through any other paths, which could lead to erroneous resistivity measurements.

11. Why is the current kept constant for measuring the resistivity of a
semiconductor using four probe?
Ans:The current is kept constant for measuring the resistivity of a semiconductor
using four-probe method to ensure that the voltage measurements are proportional
to the resistivity of the sample and not affected by variations in the current.

12. Why the spacing between the probes must be same?

Ans:The spacing between the probes must be the same to ensure uniform current
flow through the sample, without any preferential paths that could lead to
inaccurate resistivity measurements.

13.What is Four Probe Setup?

Ans: The 4-point probe setup consists of four equally spaced tungsten metal trips
with finite radius.

6.PLANCK’S CONSTANT USING LED:-

1. Define Planck’s Constant.

−34
Ans: Planck Constant - 6.625 × 10 J/s. It is a fundamental universal
constant that defines the quantum nature of energy and relates the energy of a
photon to its frequency.
2.Define LED.
Ans: It is a semiconductor device that emits light when current flows through
it i.e, when the recombination of the electron and hole, releasing energy in the
form of photons.
3. What are semiconductors?
Ans: Semiconductors are the material whose electrical conductivity lies in
between that of a conductor and insulators.
4. Name the types of semiconductors.
Ans: There are two types of semiconductors
1. Intrinsic semiconductors.
2. Extrinsic semiconductors.

5. Define Intrinsic and Extrinsic semiconductors.

6. What are types of Extrinsic semiconductors?

7.What do you mean by n-type and p-type semiconductors?

8.What do you mean by doping?

9. Examples of Intrinsic, Extrinsic, n-type and p-type semiconductors.

10. What are the majority charge carrier in the p-type and n-type
semiconductors.

7. FERMI ENERGY:-

1. Define Fermi energy. Name the unit for Fermi Energy.

Ans: The energy corresponding to the highest occupied level at absolute zero
temperature (0K) is called the Fermi energy. It is expressed in Electron Volt (eV).

2.What is Fermi level? Explain the importance of Fermi energy.

Ans: Energy level at which the probability of electron occupancy is 0.5 or 50%.

3.What is Fermi factor? Mention its significance.

Ans: Fermi factor gives the probability of occupation of a given energy under
thermal equilirium.

4.Explain the probability of occupation of various energy levels in a metal

 at ordinary temperatures based on Fermi factor.
Ans:

5.What are Fermi temperature (𝑇𝑓) & Fermi velocity?

Ans:Fermi temperature is the temperature at which the average thermal energy
if the free electron in a solid becomes equal to the Fermi energy at 0K.
Fermi Velocity:The velocity of the electron which is occupying the Fermi level
is called the Fermi velocity.

6.What is meant by Fermi Dirac distribution? Explain the F-D distribution

as a function of temperature
 Ans:Fermi Dirac distribution is a representation of the distribution of electrons
in the various energy levels of material under thermal equilibrium.

7.Name the factors on which 𝐸𝑓 depends?

Ans: Fermi Energy depends on temperature, Density of states,doping
concentration.
8. If the dimension of the wire/coil is changed will it affect the value of 𝐸 ? If yes
𝑓
how?
Ans:Yes, changing the dimensions of a wire or coil can affect the Fermi energy (Ef)
because the electron density and effective mass of the electrons are influenced by the
crystal structure and dimensions of the material. Increasing the wire/coil diameter can
increase electron density and decrease effective mass, resulting in an increase in Ef.
Decreasing the diameter can decrease electron density and increase effective mass,
leading to a decrease in 𝐸 .
𝑓

9. State Pauli's exclusion principle.

Ans: No electrons in the same atom can have identical values for all four of their
quantum numbers.

10. How many electrons are there in each energy level?

Ans:
11. What is meant by mean free path and relaxation time?
Ans: Mean Free Path: It is the average distance travelled by a moving particle
between two successive collisions
Relaxation Time: The time gap between two successive collisions of two electrons.
12. From where does the Fermi level concept come from?
Ans: Fermi level concept comes from Fermi Dirac Statistics
13. What is the effect of atomic number Z on 𝐸 & 𝑇 ?
𝑓 𝑓
Ans: The atomic number Z, which represents the number of protons in the nucleus of
an atom, can affect the values of the Fermi energy (𝐸 ) and Fermi temperature (𝑇𝑓) of
𝑓
a material. Generally, for metals, as the atomic number Z increases, the number of
valence electrons also increases, leading to a higher electron density. This can result in
a higher Fermi energy and Fermi temperature.

14. What is the Fermi energy of the copper coil if the experiment is performed
above room temperature?
Ans:If the experiment is performed above room temperature, the Fermi energy of a
copper coil will be affected because the Fermi energy is temperature-dependent. As
temperature increases, the energy levels of the electrons in the material also increase,
and the Fermi energy level moves towards higher energy levels. This means that the
Fermi energy of the copper coil will increase as the temperature increases.

8.NEWTON’S RINGS:-
1. What are Newton's rings? Why are the fringes circular in Newton's
rings experiment?
Ans: They consist of central dark spot followed by alternate bright and dark rings.
The fringes are circular in Newton's rings experiment because the air film between the
lens and the flat glass surface is thinnest at the center and gradually increases in
thickness towards the edges. This varying thickness of the air film causes the light
waves to interfere constructively and destructively at different points along concentric
circles, resulting in the circular pattern of bright and dark fringes.
2. What do you mean by radius of curvature?
Ans:The radius of curvature refers to the radius of the curvature of the surface of
the lens or the surface of the glass plate with which it is in contact.
3. What are coherent sources? How they are obtained?
Ans:The sources of light which can emit light waves of same wavelength,
frequency with same phase or constant phase difference are known as coherent
sources.
One common method is to use a laser, which produces a coherent beam of light
through a process of stimulated emission of photons from excited atoms or molecules
in a gain medium. Other methods for producing coherent light include
superluminescent diodes, or filtering incoherent light from light emitting diodes
(LEDs).
4. What is Interference of light? In the Newton's ring experiment, how
does interference occur?
Ans: Phenomenon in which two waves superpose to form a resultant wave of
greater, lower or the same amplitude.
In the Newton's ring experiment, interference occurs when light waves reflected
from both the upper and lower surfaces of a thin air film (formed between a convex
lens and a flat surface) interfere with each other.
5. What do you mean by fringe width? How the fringe width vary with the
radius of curvature of Plano-convex lens?
Ans: Fringe Width is the distance between two consecutive bright spots or two
consecutive dark spots.
The fringe width is directly proportional to the radius of curvature of the lens.
This means that as the radius of curvature increases, the fringe width also increases.
6. Why do we obtain the alternate bright and dark fringes?Give the conditions
for the constructive & destructive interference with respect to path difference
& phase difference.
Ans:The phenomenon of alternate bright and dark fringes that we observe in an
interference pattern is a result of the interference of two coherent waves. When two
waves of the same frequency and amplitude, travelling in the same direction,
superimpose on each other, they produce an interference pattern.
The conditions for constructive interference are as follows:
1. The path difference between the two waves must be equal to an integer
multiple of the wavelength of the waves.
2. The phase difference between the two waves must be zero or an integer
multiple of 2π.
When these conditions are met, the two waves will interfere constructively, resulting
in a bright fringe in the interference pattern.
The conditions for destructive interference are as follows:
1. The path difference between the two waves must be equal to a half-integer
multiple of the wavelength of the waves.
2. The phase difference between the two waves must be an odd multiple of π.
When these conditions are met, the two waves will interfere destructively, resulting in
a dark fringe in the interference pattern.

7. Why Plano-convex lens is used? What happens if concave lens is used

instead of Plano-convex lens?
Ans:A Plano-convex lens is used in the Newton's rings experiment because it
creates a thin air film between the curved surface of the lens and a flat surface, which
leads to the formation of the interference pattern. The flat surface ensures that the air
film is uniform in thickness.
If a concave lens were used instead of a Plano-convex lens, it would not create
a thin air film of uniform thickness, and the interference pattern would not form. The
concave surface of the lens would come into contact with the flat surface, eliminating
the air film that is necessary for the experiment.
8. Why is the central spot dark? What would be the reason for not
obtaining a dark central spot in the experiment?
Ans:The central spot of Newton's rings is dark when the medium between plano
convex lens and plane glass is rarer than the medium of lens and glass. The central
spot is dark because the phase change of π is introduced between the rays reflected
from surfaces of denser to rarer and rarer to denser media.
The reasons for not obtaining a dark central spot in the Newton's rings
experiment could be due to imperfect surfaces, non-monochromatic light source,
thickness of the air gap, or the viewing angle.
9. Why the rings get closer as the order of the ring increases?
Ans:In Newton’s rings experiment the thickness of the air film increases
continuously from centre to the edges and therefore we obtain a fringe system of
decreasing fringe width.
10.On what factor the diameter of the rings depend?
Ans: The diameter of the rings in the Newton's rings experiment depends on the
wavelength of the monochromatic light used, the radius of curvature of the lens, and
the distance between the lens and the flat surface.
11.What happens if a few drops of transparent liquid is placed between
lens and glassplate?
Ans:Placing a few drops of transparent liquid between the lens and glass plate
will change the thickness and the refractive index of the air film, which will affect the
interference pattern and the diameter of the rings in the Newton's rings experiment.
0
12.Why the reflecting glass plate is inclined at 45 ? Why do make the light
fall on the lens normally but not obliquely?
Ans:The reflecting glass plate is inclined at an angle of 45 degrees in the
Newton's rings experiment to reflect the incident light from the source towards the
0
lens and the flat glass plate at an angle of 90 . This ensures that the light falls
normally on the lens and the flat surface, which is necessary for the formation of the
circular interference pattern.
If the light falls obliquely on the lens and the flat surface, it will cause uneven
refraction and reflection, leading to non-uniform interference and a distorted
interference pattern.
13.Why is an extended source used in this experiment? What will happen
if a point source or an illuminated slit is used instead of the extended
source?
Ans:An extended source is used in the Newton's rings experiment to ensure that
the incident light falling on the lens and the glass plate is effectively monochromatic.
If a point source or an illuminated slit is used instead of an extended source, the
light falling on the lens and the glass plate will not be effectively monochromatic. A
point source or a narrow slit will produce light with a limited range of wavelengths,
which will result in incomplete interference patterns and unclear fringe patterns.
14.Instead of reflected rays, if you look at transmitted rays, what do you
expect to observe?
Ans:If we observe the transmitted rays in the Newton's rings experiment, we would
see a series of bright and dark concentric rings, with the bright ring at the center and
the dark ring surrounding it.
15.Why should a lens of large radius of curvature be used in this
experiment?
Ans:A lens of large radius of curvature is used in the Newton's rings experiment to
obtain a larger diameter of the rings. The diameter of the rings is directly proportional
to the square root of the radius of curvature of the lens.
If a lens with a small radius of curvature is used, the diameter of the rings will
be smaller, making it harder to observe and measure the fringes accurately. On the
other hand, a lens with a large radius of curvature will produce rings with a larger
diameter, making the fringes easier to observe and measure accurately.

9. LASER CHARACTERISTICS:-

1. Define divergence of laser beam.

Ans: The angular measure of how the beam diameter increases with the
distance from the laser aperture.
2. Define Spot size.
Ans: The radial distance(radius) from the centre point of maximum irradiance
2
to the 1/𝑒 point.
3. Define Polarization.
Ans:Polarization is a property of electromagnetic waves, including light
waves, that refers to the orientation of the electric field vector in space. In
unpolarized light, the electric field vector can vibrate in any direction
perpendicular to the direction of propagation. However, when the electric field
vector is restricted to vibrate in a specific plane, the light is said to be linearly
polarized.

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