Social Research Methods: Mr. Onkar Shinde

1.
Introduction
Research methodology forms the bedrock of the scientific investigation process,
providing a structured approach to gather, analyze, and interpret data. It is an essential
aspect of any academic pursuit, enabling scholars to explore new horizons, unravel
mysteries, and contribute to the world's knowledge. In this introduction to research
methodology, we will embark on a journey to understand the fundamental principles that
underpin research and its significance across various disciplines.
(a) Research- Meaning, Scope purpose
Scope of Research:
SOCIAL RESEARCH METHODS The scope of research is vast and encompasses numerous areas across various fields,
including:
 Academic Research: In universities and academic institutions, research is
Mr. Onkar Shinde
conducted to expand the existing body of knowledge, validate or challenge
existing theories, and explore new avenues of inquiry.
 Scientific Research: This type of research focuses on understanding natural
phenomena, testing hypotheses, and uncovering laws and principles governing the
physical world.
 Social Research: Social research investigates human behavior, society, culture,
and interactions to gain insights into various aspects of human life, such as
economics, sociology, psychology, and anthropology.
 Market Research: Businesses and marketing professionals use research to gather
data about consumers, markets, and competitors, aiding in product development,
branding, and strategic decision-making.
 Medical and Health Research: In the medical field, research aims to improve
healthcare outcomes, understand diseases, test new treatments, and develop
medical technologies.
 Technological Research: Research in technology focuses on innovation,
development, and improvement of existing technologies or creating new ones to
address contemporary challenges.
Purpose of Research:
The primary purposes of research include:
 Advancement of Knowledge: Research contributes to the expansion of human
knowledge by uncovering new information, validating existing theories, or
challenging old assumptions.
 Problem-solving: Research seeks to address specific problems or challenges faced
in various fields, providing evidence-based solutions to real-world issues.
 Informed Decision-making: The findings of research enable individuals,
SRI BALAJI UNIVERSITY
businesses, and governments to make well-informed decisions backed by data and
MBA - PM AND HRD
evidence.
Pune
Mr. ONKAR SHINDE MM2325324 1

 Innovation and Development: Research drives innovation by encouraging the  Cultural Understanding: Social research explores the diversity of cultures, beliefs,
development of new ideas, technologies, and methodologies that lead to progress and practices, fostering intercultural understanding and promoting social cohesion
and advancements. in multicultural societies.
 Theory Building: Research helps in constructing and refining theoretical  Social Media and Digitalization: The rise of social media and digital platforms has
frameworks, providing a deeper understanding of the subject under investigation. transformed communication and social interactions. Social research explores the
 Policy Formulation: Governments and policymakers rely on research to design implications of digitalization on identity, socialization, and information
effective policies and strategies to address societal challenges and foster dissemination.
development.  Social Movements and Activism: Research sheds light on the motivations and
 Personal Growth: Research enhances critical thinking, analytical skills, and dynamics of social movements, activism, and collective action, helping to
problem-solving abilities, benefiting the personal growth and intellectual understand their impact on society and institutions.
development of researchers.  Human Rights and Social Justice: Social research plays a vital role in advocating
In summary, research is a multifaceted process that shapes our understanding of the for human rights and social justice. It highlights violations, inequalities, and
world, solves problems, and paves the way for progress. Its scope is diverse, covering injustices, empowering individuals and organizations to take action.
various disciplines and industries, while its purposes are far-reaching, impacting  Education and Learning: Research in education explores effective teaching
knowledge, decision-making, innovation, and personal development. methodologies, learning outcomes, and educational policies, guiding educators
Regenerate. and policymakers in improving educational systems.
In today's interconnected and rapidly evolving world, social research is not only relevant
(b) Social Research – Scope, Relevance in today’s world
but also indispensable. It provides a robust foundation for evidence-based decision-
The scope and relevance of social research in today's world are immense, given the ever- making, policy formulation, and social interventions. By addressing the multifaceted
changing dynamics of societies, cultures, and human interactions. Social research plays a challenges of contemporary society, social research contributes to building a more
crucial role in understanding and addressing the complex issues and challenges faced by equitable, inclusive, and sustainable world for all.
individuals, communities, and nations. Here are some key aspects of the scope and Regenerate
relevance of social research in the contemporary world:
(c) Process of social research
 Social Issues and Inequalities: Social research helps in identifying and analyzing
The process of social research follows a systematic and structured approach to investigate
various social issues and inequalities, such as poverty, unemployment, gender
social phenomena, behaviors, interactions, and issues. While the specific steps may vary
disparities, racial discrimination, and access to education and healthcare. By
depending on the nature of the research and the research design, the general process can
investigating these problems, researchers can propose evidence-based solutions to
be outlined as follows:
policymakers and practitioners.
 Public Policy and Governance: Governments and policymakers rely on social  Identify the Research Problem: The first step in social research is to clearly
research to design and implement effective public policies and programs. Research define the research problem or question. This involves identifying the topic of
findings provide insights into the impact of policies, assess their effectiveness, and interest, understanding its significance, and framing a research question that the
inform future policy decisions. study aims to answer.
 Health and Well-being: Social research contributes to understanding health  Review of Literature: Before initiating the research, conducting a thorough
behaviors, mental health issues, and factors influencing well-being. It is essential literature review is crucial. This involves reviewing existing studies, academic
in guiding healthcare interventions, public health initiatives, and mental health papers, and relevant literature to understand the existing knowledge on the topic,
support systems. identify gaps in the literature, and gain insights into research methodologies used
 Global Challenges: With an increasingly interconnected world, social research by others.
addresses global challenges like climate change, migration, terrorism, and  Formulate Research Objectives: Based on the research problem and literature
humanitarian crises. It explores the social dimensions of these issues and review, specific research objectives or goals are set. These objectives provide a
contributes to building resilience and sustainable solutions. clear direction for the study and guide the data collection and analysis processes.
 Technology and Society: Social research investigates the impact of technology on  Choose Research Design: Researchers select an appropriate research design based
society, including its effects on communication, privacy, social relationships, and on their research objectives and the nature of the research problem. Common
the job market. Understanding these dynamics is vital in harnessing technology for research designs in social research include qualitative, quantitative, and mixed
the benefit of humanity. methods approaches.
Mr. ONKAR SHINDE MM2325324 2 Mr. ONKAR SHINDE MM2325324 3
 Data Collection: In this stage, data is collected based on the chosen research Writing a literature review in social research involves several key
design. Data collection methods may include surveys, interviews, observations,
steps:
focus groups, content analysis, or secondary data analysis, depending on the
research objectives.  Define the Research Question: Clearly articulate the research question or topic
 Data Analysis: Once data is collected, it is organized and analyzed to draw you want to investigate. The research question should be specific, focused, and
meaningful conclusions. In quantitative research, statistical analysis is often used relevant to the social issue you aim to explore.
to summarize and interpret numerical data. Qualitative research involves analyzing  Identify Relevant Sources: Conduct a thorough search of academic databases,
textual or narrative data to identify themes and patterns. libraries, online journals, and other reputable sources to identify relevant literature
 Interpretation of Findings: After data analysis, researchers interpret the findings in related to your research question. Use keywords and search terms that are closely
the context of the research objectives. They draw conclusions, make inferences, related to your topic.
and discuss the implications of the results.  Evaluate and Select Sources: Evaluate the credibility and quality of the sources
 Drawing Conclusions: Based on the interpretation of findings, researchers draw you find. Look for peer-reviewed journal articles, academic books, and
conclusions about the research question and assess the extent to which the research authoritative publications from reputable authors and institutions. Select sources
objectives have been met. that are directly relevant to your research question and provide valuable insights.
 Report Writing: Researchers prepare a comprehensive research report that  Organize the Literature: Organize the selected literature into themes or
includes the research problem, objectives, methodology, findings, interpretations, categories that are relevant to your research question. This helps in identifying
and conclusions. The report should be structured and written in a way that is common threads, controversies, and gaps in the existing knowledge.
accessible to the intended audience.  Summarize and Synthesize: Write concise summaries of each selected source,
 Dissemination of Results: Finally, the research findings are shared with the highlighting the main findings, methodologies used, and key arguments presented.
academic community, policymakers, or relevant stakeholders through Analyze and synthesize the information, drawing connections between different
presentations, publications, or other dissemination methods. sources and identifying patterns and trends.
Throughout the social research process, ethical considerations, such as informed consent,  Identify Gaps in the Literature: As you review the literature, identify areas
confidentiality, and respect for participants, are of utmost importance. Researchers should where the existing research is limited or lacks sufficient evidence. Discuss the
conduct their studies with integrity and adhere to ethical guidelines to ensure the well- gaps in the literature and explain why they are important to address in your
being of participants and the credibility of the research findings. research.
(i) Literature review  Provide a Critical Analysis: Offer a critical evaluation of the strengths and
A literature review is a critical and comprehensive analysis of the existing literature, weaknesses of the studies you have reviewed. Assess the methodologies used, the
scholarly articles, books, and other sources related to a specific research topic or question. validity of findings, and potential biases. Discuss any conflicting findings or
It serves as a foundational element of social research, as it provides an overview of the debates within the literature.
current state of knowledge on the subject, identifies gaps in the literature, and helps to  Contextualize the Research: Situate your research within the broader context of
contextualize the research problem. the existing literature. Discuss how your study builds upon or diverges from
previous research, and explain the significance of your research in addressing the
gaps identified.
 Writing the Literature Review: Begin the literature review with an introduction
that explains the purpose and scope of the review. Organize the literature into
sections based on themes or concepts. In each section, provide a clear and
coherent narrative that summarizes the key findings, synthesizes the information,
and presents critical insights.
 Proper Citation: Ensure proper citation and referencing of all the sources you
have used in your literature review. Use a consistent citation style, such as APA,
MLA, or Chicago, as per the guidelines of your academic institution.
A well-written literature review demonstrates your understanding of the research topic
and provides a strong foundation for your social research by situating it within the
existing body of knowledge.

 Interpretation of Findings: Theories are essential for interpreting research findings
(ii) Concepts and theories and drawing meaningful conclusions. They help place the results within a broader
When writing social research, concepts and theories play a crucial role in shaping the theoretical framework, enhancing the research's contribution to the field.
framework and understanding of the study. These concepts and theories provide the It's important to note that concepts and theories are not rigid entities but are subject to
necessary structure and context for the research, allowing researchers to analyze and evolution and refinement as new evidence and insights emerge. Social research
interpret the data effectively. Let's explore the significance of concepts and theories in continually contributes to the development and revision of theories and concepts,
social research: advancing our understanding of complex social phenomena.
Concepts in Social Research: When writing social research, researchers should clearly define the concepts used,
provide theoretical underpinnings for their work, and explain how the chosen theories
 Definition: Concepts are abstract ideas or terms that represent specific aspects of
informed the research design and interpretation of findings. The use of concepts and
the social world. They provide the building blocks for constructing research
theories adds depth, coherence, and credibility to social research, making it an essential
questions and hypotheses.
aspect of scholarly inquiry.
 Operationalization: In social research, concepts need to be operationalized, which
means defining them in measurable and observable terms. Operationalization
ensures that researchers can collect data and quantify the concepts for analysis.
 Variables: Concepts in social research often become variables, which are
attributes or characteristics that can vary among individuals or groups. Variables
are measured and analyzed to identify patterns and relationships.
 Independent and Dependent Variables: Researchers differentiate between
independent and dependent variables. The independent variable is the factor that is
manipulated or controlled, while the dependent variable is the outcome or
response being measured.
 Conceptual Framework: A conceptual framework is a structure that links the
research problem, concepts, and theories. It provides a logical basis for
understanding relationships between variables and guiding the research design.
Theories in Social Research:

Definition: Theories are systematic explanations or frameworks that help understand and
interpret social phenomena. They are developed based on evidence, observations, and
rigorous analysis.
 Role in Research: Theories guide researchers in formulating research questions,
hypotheses, and expectations. They provide a lens through which data is
interpreted and analyzed.
 Theoretical Framework: A theoretical framework establishes the foundation for
research by integrating relevant theories and concepts. It helps explain the
relationships between variables and provides a rationale for the research design.
 Theory Testing: Social research often involves testing existing theories to
determine their validity and applicability to specific contexts. Researchers may
either validate, modify, or reject theories based on empirical evidence.
 Theory Building: Some social research aims to build new theories or expand
existing ones. Through inductive reasoning, researchers may develop new
concepts or relationships from the data collected.

(iii) Research questions: The social research questions has two types  Cluster Sampling: If you have a population dispersed over a wide geographic
region, it may not be feasible to conduct a simple random sampling of the entire
Open-ended question: This is a question that doesn't have a simple "yes" or "no"
population. In such case, it may be reasonable to divide the population into
answer. It requires a more detailed response, often using multiple sentences or even
‘clusters’—usually along geographic boundaries—randomly sample a few
paragraphs. Open-ended questions encourage people to share their thoughts, opinions, or
clusters, and measure all units within that cluster. Think of a pizza. Instead of
explanations. For example, "What do you think about climate change and its impact on
picking individual slices, you pick entire slices of different types. This is useful
the environment?"
when the population is spread out in groups, like studying schools in different
Closed-ended question: This is a question that can be answered with a brief response, districts.
usually a "yes" or "no" or a specific piece of information. It doesn't leave much room for  Multistage sampling If you have a population dispersed over a wide geographic
elaboration. Closed-ended questions are useful when you want a quick and specific region, it may not be feasible to conduct a simple random sampling of the entire
answer. For instance, "Did you enjoy the movie?" population. In such case, it may be reasonable to divide the population into
‘clusters’—usually along geographic boundaries—randomly sample a few
(iv) Sampling cases
clusters, and measure all units within that cluster.
In social research methodology, sampling refers to how researchers select a subset of  Convenience Sampling: Imagine you're at a party and you only talk to the people
individuals or cases from a larger population to study. Here's a simple explanation of closest to you. That's convenience sampling – picking the easiest cases to reach. It
different sampling cases: might not give the most accurate picture.
 Purposive Sampling: This is like carefully choosing ingredients for a recipe.
 Random Sampling: This is like picking names out of a hat. Every person or case
Researchers handpick cases that are important or relevant to their study, based on
in the population has an equal chance of being chosen. It helps ensure that the
specific criteria.
sample represents the whole population fairly.
 Snowball Sampling: Imagine rolling a snowball down a hill – it gets bigger as it
 Probability sampling is a technique in which every unit in the population has a
goes along. Researchers start with a few cases and then ask those cases to refer
chance (non-zero probability) of being selected in the sample, and this chance can
others. It's useful for studying hard-to-reach or hidden populations.
be accurately determined.
 Quota Sampling: Picture a buffet where you can only take a certain number of
 Simple random sampling. In this technique, all possible subsets of a population
each dish. Researchers choose a specific number of cases from different
(more accurately, of a sampling frame) are given an equal probability of being
categories, making sure they meet a "quota."
These sampling methods help researchers gather information from a smaller group to
selected The probability of selecting any set of units out of a total of
learn about a larger population. Just like tasting a few bites to understand the whole meal!
units in a sampling frame is . Hence, sample statistics are unbiased estimates
of population parameters, without any weighting. Simple random sampling
involves randomly selecting respondents from a sampling frame, but with large
sampling frames, usually a table of random numbers or a computerised random
number generator is used.
 Systematic sampling. In this technique, the sampling frame is ordered according
to some criteria and elements selected at regular intervals through that ordered list.
Systematic sampling involves a random start and then proceeds with the selection
of every th element from that point onwards, where , where is the
ratio of sampling frame size and the desired sample size , and is
formally called the sampling ratio.
 Stratified sampling. In stratified sampling, the sampling frame is divided into
homogeneous and non-overlapping subgroups (called ‘strata’), and a simple
random sample is drawn within each subgroup.

(v) Data collection (vi) Data analysis
Data collection: This is like gathering puzzle pieces to solve a bigger picture. Researchers Data analysis: Data analysis provides social researchers with the tool to unlock insights
use different methods to collect information from people, places, or things. They might and understand complex social phenomena. You can interpret the data, and uncover
talk to people, observe behaviors, or analyze documents. relationships and patterns to address human behavior and social experiences.
Here are some common methods of data collection in social research: Social research, as we all know, focuses on expanding our knowledge on social dynamics.
 Surveys: Imagine asking a bunch of people the same set of questions. Surveys are Data analysis in social science research provides you with empirical evidence to dig
like that – researchers create questionnaires and ask people to answer them. It deeper and explore human experience, attitudes, interactions, and social structures. Social
helps gather opinions, attitudes, and information from a large number of people. data analysis enables you to assess the effectiveness of policies and programs, helping
you make informed decisions and design effective interventions.
 Interviews: Think of having a conversation with someone. Researchers conduct
interviews to get detailed information and insights. They can be face-to-face, over Imagine you have a big bag of different colored marbles. Data analysis is like sorting and
the phone, or even online. counting them to see which colors are most common. Researchers use various techniques
 Observations: This is like being a silent detective. Researchers watch people's to make sense of their data and draw meaningful conclusions.
actions, behaviors, or events without interfering. It's useful for studying things
What is data analysis in research?
people might not talk about.
 Documents and Records: Imagine reading through old letters or diaries. In research, data analysis refers to employing statistical and logical techniques to evaluate
Researchers analyze documents like letters, newspapers, or official records to and synthesize the data collected. It allows researchers to extract meaningful insights
learn about the past or current trends. from an unstructured mass of data.
 Focus Groups: Picture a small group of people discussing a topic. Researchers
Extracting insights and meaning from data gives us a better understanding of the world
gather a diverse group to have a conversation, getting different perspectives and
and different phenomena and empowers improved decision-making.
opinions.
 Experiments: Think of a science experiment, but for social stuff. Researchers set Different data will need to be analyzed using different techniques. Within this article, we
up controlled situations to see how people react. It helps understand cause-and- will explore the different kinds of data in research and the different methods of data
effect relationships. analysis used to analyze them.
 Secondary Data: Imagine borrowing a friend's notes for a class. Researchers use Types of Data in Research
existing data collected by others, like census data, to answer their own research
questions. There are three main types of data in research:
Data collection helps researchers find patterns, understand behaviors, and draw Qualitative Data: Qualitative data is used to describe qualities or characteristics and
conclusions. Just like putting together pieces of a puzzle to see the whole picture! generally refers to the descriptive findings collected through different methods of
research. It refers to data that is non-numerical in nature and is, therefore, not
quantifiable. Some examples of qualitative data are blood type, ethnic group, color, etc.
Quantitative Data: The type of data whose value takes distinct figures or counts that are
associated with a numerical value. It refers to quantifiable information that can be used to
conduct statistical analysis and mathematical computations. Some examples of
quantitative data are cost, age, and weight.

Basic methods of data analysis in social research:
Aspect Qualitative Data Analysis Quantitative Data Analysis Other Important types of Data analysis
Data Type Deals with non-numeric, Deals with numeric data,
descriptive data such as text, involving quantities and  Descriptive Analysis: This is like summarizing your findings. Researchers
images, audio, and video. measurements. organize data into charts, graphs, and tables to present a clear overview of what
Research Focuses on exploring and Concentrates on numerical they've collected.
Approach understanding the underlying patterns, statistical  Content Analysis: Think of reading a book and highlighting key words.
meanings, contexts, and themes relationships, and objective Researchers examine texts, documents, or other forms of communication to
within data. measurements. identify themes, trends, or meanings.
Data Collection Often employs methods like Commonly uses structured  Comparative Analysis: Picture comparing two different puzzles to see which one
interviews, observations, open- surveys, experiments, has more pieces. Researchers analyze multiple groups, cases, or time periods to
ended surveys, and content measurements, and statistical find similarities and differences.
analysis. tests.  Thematic Analysis: Think of sorting marbles into groups based on their colors.
Sample Size Typically smaller sample sizes are Often involves larger sample Researchers identify and group patterns, themes, or categories in qualitative data.
used to allow for in-depth analysis sizes to ensure statistical  Hypothesis Testing: Imagine you have a guess about a magic trick. Researchers
and rich insights. significance and use data to test their hypotheses and see if their predictions are supported or not.
generalizability. Data analysis helps researchers make sense of the information they've collected, turning it
Data Utilizes techniques like coding, Relies on graphs, charts, tables, into valuable insights and knowledge. It's like putting together puzzle pieces to reveal a
Representation categorization, thematic analysis, and statistical analyses to complete picture!
and narrative reporting. present data. Regenerate
Data Requires subjective Emphasizes objectivity,
Interpretation interpretation, researcher statistical significance, and
judgment, and context hypothesis testing.
awareness.
Generalizability Findings are context-specific and Aims for generalizability to a
may not be easily generalized to broader population through
larger populations. statistical inference.
Validity and Focuses on ensuring the Emphasizes internal and
Reliability credibility, transferability, external validity, reliability, and
dependability, and confirmability replicability of results.
of findings.
Software Tools May use qualitative data analysis Often employs statistical
software like NVivo, MAXQDA, or software such as SPSS, SAS, R,
ATLAS.ti. or Excel.
Examples Case studies, content analysis, Descriptive statistics, regression
thematic analysis, grounded analysis, hypothesis testing,
theory, ethnography. surveys.
Please note that the choice between qualitative and quantitative data analysis
depends on the research goals, data type, and research questions, and in many cases,
mixed methods approaches are also used to gain a more comprehensive
understanding of a research topic.

Writing up
(D) Research Ethics
Writing up: Imagine you've finished solving a puzzle, and now you want to show it to
others. Writing up is like creating a clear and detailed report or paper that explains what 2. (a) Theory and research
you did, what you found, and what it all means.
(i) Deductive and Inductive theory
Key components of writing up in social research methodology include:
(b) Quantitative and Qualitative research
 Introduction: Think of introducing a new friend to a group. In the introduction,
Research Ethics:
researchers explain the research question, its importance, and the purpose of the
study. Research ethics involve principles and guidelines that researchers must follow to ensure
 Literature Review: Imagine discussing what others have said about a movie the integrity, honesty, and respect in their research endeavors. Key points to remember
before watching it. Researchers review existing studies and literature related to include:
their topic to show what's already known.
 Informed Consent: Obtain permission from participants, ensuring they
 Methodology: This is like explaining the rules of a game. Researchers describe
understand the study's purpose, procedures, and potential risks.
how they collected data, the sampling methods, and the tools or techniques used.
 Confidentiality: Protect participants' identities and sensitive information,
 Data Analysis: Picture explaining how you solved a challenging problem.
maintaining their privacy.
Researchers present their data analysis methods and findings, using charts, graphs,
 Anonymity: Ensure that participants' identities are completely undisclosed, even
and descriptions to support their points.
to the researcher.
 Results: This is like showing the completed puzzle to your friends. Researchers
 Avoiding Harm: Take precautions to minimize physical, psychological, or
present their findings in a clear and organized manner, highlighting important
emotional harm to participants.
patterns or insights.
 Honest Reporting: Report findings truthfully and accurately, avoiding
 Discussion: Imagine sharing your thoughts after watching a movie. Researchers
manipulation or misrepresentation.
interpret their findings, connect them to the existing literature, and discuss the
 Avoiding Plagiarism: Give proper credit to previous research and sources, and
implications and potential real-world applications.
cite them appropriately.
 Conclusion: Think of summarizing the most exciting parts of a story. Researchers
 Conflict of Interest: Disclose any potential conflicts that might bias research
wrap up the study, restate the main findings, and explain the broader significance
results.
of their work.
(a) Theory and Research
Writing up is a crucial step because it allows researchers to share their discoveries with
others, contribute to knowledge in their field, and open doors for further research. It's like Deductive and Inductive Theory:
telling a captivating story about solving a complex puzzle!
 Deductive Theory: Start with a general theory or hypothesis and test it through
specific observations. It moves from theory to data.
 Inductive Theory: Start with specific observations and patterns, then develop a
general theory based on those observations. It moves from data to theory.
 Example of Deductive Approach: Testing a hypothesis that customer satisfaction
leads to repeat purchases.
 Example of Inductive Approach: Analyzing customer feedback data to develop
a new model of factors affecting purchase decisions.

Key differences between "Deductive theory" and "Inductive theory" Quantitative and Qualitative Research:
 Qualitative Research:
Aspect Deductive Theory Inductive Theory
 Qualitative research is a research approach that focuses on understanding
Approach to Starts with a general premise Starts with specific observations or and exploring complex phenomena through the collection and analysis of
Reasoning or theory and applies it to evidence and uses them to generate non-numeric data. It seeks to uncover underlying meanings, patterns, and
specific cases to draw specific generalized theories or hypotheses. insights within the data, often by delving into the subjective experiences,
conclusions. perspectives, and behaviors of individuals or groups. Qualitative research
Logic Emphasizes logical certainty; if Provides probabilistic conclusions; methods include interviews, focus groups, observations, content analysis, and
the premise is true and the generalizations are likely or plausible thematic analysis. This approach is valuable for gaining a deep understanding
logic is valid, the conclusion is but not necessarily certain. of human behavior, culture, and context.
certain.  Quantitative Research:
Use in Commonly used in Often used in qualitative research to  Quantitative research, on the other hand, is a research approach that
Research quantitative research and generate new theories or concepts. emphasizes the collection and analysis of numerical data to test hypotheses,
hypothesis testing. identify patterns, and make statistical inferences. It aims to quantify
Research All men are mortal. Socrates is Mentorship programs have improved relationships, variables, and outcomes using structured research methods
Example a man. Therefore, Socrates is job performance in multiple observed such as surveys, experiments, and statistical analyses. Quantitative research
mortal. cases, leading to the hypothesis that is particularly useful for investigating cause-and-effect relationships,
mentorship programs enhance job generalizing findings to larger populations, and producing statistically
performance. significant results.
Testing and Typically structured to be May be less directly testable and
Falsifiability testable and falsifiable; falsifiable because they are derived
evidence that contradicts the from specific observations, but can
theory can lead to rejection or still be subject to testing and
modification. refinement.
This table outlines the fundamental distinctions between deductive and inductive theories
in terms of their approach to reasoning, logical certainty, research applications, examples,
and testability.

Differences between quantitative and qualitative research: Criteria in Social Research:
(a) Reliability: Reliability in Social Research
Aspect Quantitative Research Qualitative Research
Research Focus Numerical data, statistical Non-numeric data, subjective  Reliability is like having a trustworthy friend. In social research, it means that if
analysis, and objective experiences, and in-depth we do the study again or someone else does it the same way, we should get similar
measurements. understanding. results. It's about consistency and dependability.
Research Typically structured, Open-ended, exploratory questions  Imagine you're using a weighing scale. If it gives you the same weight every time
Questions hypothesis-driven, and that aim to understand phenomena. you step on it, it's reliable. But if it gives different weights each time, you can't
measurable questions. trust it.
 So, in social research, we want our methods and tools to be reliable, so we can be
Data Collection Surveys, experiments, Interviews, focus groups,
confident that our findings are accurate and not just a one-time fluke.
Methods structured observations, observations, and content analysis.
 Reliability is about consistency and stability of research results.
and statistical analysis.
Types of Reliability:
Sample Size Often involves larger Typically smaller sample sizes to
 Test-Retest: Repeating the same study at different times to check if results are
sample sizes to ensure allow for in-depth analysis. consistent.
statistical significance.  Inter-Rater: Different researchers get similar results when analyzing the same
Data Graphs, charts, tables, and Textual descriptions, quotes, and data.
Representation statistical analyses to thematic analysis for data (b) Validity: it means that our study is measuring what it's supposed to measure and
present data. presentation. drawing the right conclusions. It's about getting things right and making sure our findings
Data Analysis Statistical tests, Qualitative coding, categorization, are meaningful and accurate. Validity is like making sure we're asking the right questions
quantification, and thematic analysis, and narrative and using the right tools to get the right answers, just like hitting the bullseye on the
numerical comparisons. reporting. target. It helps us be confident that our research is on track and tells us something real
Objectivity and Emphasizes objectivity, Focuses on context, subjectivity, and about the world.
Generalizability internal and external aims for rich insights rather than  Validity means the research measures what it intends to measure.
validity, and generalization. Types of Validity:
generalizability.  Internal Validity: Ensuring that the study's design and methods are accurate.
Researcher's Role Often maintains a more Engages in a more interactive and  External Validity: Extending research findings to other contexts or populations.
detached role as an subjective role, with a focus on
objective observer. understanding participants'
perspectives.
Time Frame Typically shorter time Often longer time frames for data
frames for data collection collection and in-depth analysis.
and analysis.
Examples Surveys measuring Ethnographic studies, case studies,
customer satisfaction, content analysis of media,
clinical trials, market phenomenological research.
research.
This table provides an overview of the primary distinctions between quantitative

and qualitative research in terms of research focus, questions, data collection,
sample size, data representation, analysis methods, objectivity, the role of the
researcher, time frame, and examples.

Research Design: Research design refers to the overall plan, structure, and strategy that a Correlational design exampleYou could use a correlational design to find out if the rise
researcher develops to guide their study and answer specific research questions or test in online teaching in the past year correlates with any change in test scores.
hypotheses. It is a crucial aspect of the research process and involves making decisions
But this design can’t confirm a causal relationship between the two variables. Any change
about various elements of the study, including the research methods, data collection
in test scores could have been influenced by many other variables, such as increased
techniques, data analysis procedures, and the overall framework for conducting the
stress and health issues among students and teachers.
research.
Experiments are the strongest way to test cause-and-effect relationships without the risk
of other variables influencing the results. However, their controlled conditions may not
Types of quantitative research designs
always reflect how things work in the real world. They’re often also more difficult and
Quantitative designs can be split into four main types. expensive to implement.
 Experimental and quasi-experimental designs allow you to test cause-and-effect Experimental design exampleIn an experimental design, you could gather a sample of
relationships students and then randomly assign half of them to be taught online and the other half to
 Descriptive and correlational designs allow you to measure variables and be taught in person, while controlling all other relevant variables.
describe relationships between them.
By comparing their outcomes in test scores, you can be more confident that it was the
Type of design Purpose and characteristics
method of teaching (and not other variables) that caused any change in scores.
Experimental  Used to test causal relationships
Types of qualitative research designs
 Involves manipulating an
Qualitative designs are less strictly defined. This approach is about gaining a rich,
independent variable and
detailed understanding of a specific context or phenomenon, and you can often be more
measuring its effect on a
creative and flexible in designing your research.
dependent variable
 Subjects are randomly assigned to The table below shows some common types of qualitative design. They often have similar
groups approaches in terms of data collection, but focus on different aspects when analyzing the
 Usually conducted in a controlled data.
environment (e.g., a lab)
Quasi-experimental  Used to test causal relationships Type of design Purpose and characteristics
 Similar to experimental design, but Case study  Detailed study of a specific subject (e.g., a place, event,
without random assignment organization, etc).
 Often involves comparing the  Data can be collected using a variety of sources and
outcomes of pre-existing groups methods.
 Often conducted in a natural  Focuses on gaining a holistic understanding of the case.
environment (higher ecological Ethnography  Detailed study of the culture of a specific community or
validity) group.
Correlational  Used to test whether (and how  Data is collected by extended immersion and close
strongly) variables are related observation.
 Variables are measured without  Focuses on describing and interpreting beliefs,
influencing them conventions, social dynamics, etc.
Descriptive  Used to describe characteristics, Grounded theory  Aims to develop a theory inductively by systematically
averages, trends, etc analyzing qualitative data.
 Variables are measured without Phenomenology  Aims to understand a phenomenon or event by
influencing them describing participants’ lived experiences.
With descriptive and correlational designs, you can get a clear picture of characteristics,
trends and relationships as they exist in the real world. However, you can’t draw
conclusions about cause and effect (because correlation doesn’t imply causation).

Language in Quantitative Research
(a) Literature:
1. Reviewing Existing Literature: Before you start, see what others have studied. It
helps build knowledge and identify gaps.
2. Searching Literature (Electronic Databases): Use databases for relevant
articles.
3. Keywords and Search Parameters: Craft effective terms for searches.
4. Referencing Your Work: Properly cite sources to avoid plagiarism.
5. The Role of the Bibliography: It's a map to sources used, enhancing credibility.
it's a list of all the books, articles, and sources you used or referred to while
researching and writing your paper or study. Bibliographies can be organized in
different formats, such as alphabetical order by author's last name or in the order
they appear in your paper. It's an important part of academic integrity, showing
that you've done thorough research and giving recognition to the people who
contributed to your understanding of a topic.
6. Avoiding Plagiarism: Give credit to original authors to maintain integrity.
7. Def Plagiarism is the act of using someone else's words, ideas, or work without
giving them proper credit, leading to the false representation of those materials as
one's own original creation. It involves copying, paraphrasing, or closely imitating
another person's work and presenting it as if it were your own, without
acknowledging the original source. Plagiarism is a breach of academic and
intellectual integrity, as well as a violation of ethical standards.
UNIT – 2 (b) Research Question: A good research question is specific, clear, and aligned with our
objectives. It prompts us to delve deeper, to explore nuances, and to uncover connections.
It's the driving force that fuels our intellectual journey, pushing us to ask more, learn
more, and contribute to the body of knowledge.
A research question is more than just a sentence; it's a query that sparks curiosity, ignites
inquiry, and propels us forward. It's the heartbeat of every study, pumping life into our
pursuit of understanding. A thoughtfully formulated question is like a key that unlocks
doors to discovery, revealing insights hidden within data and literature.
 A clear, specific question guiding your study.
(c) Theoretical Framework & Hypothesis:
Theoretical Framework: Illuminating the Path
Think of the theoretical framework as the intellectual GPS that helps you navigate
through the vast landscape of ideas and theories. Just as a successful business needs a
strategic plan, your research needs a theoretical framework to provide structure and
direction.
Purposeful Perspective: A theoretical framework helps you view your research question
from a particular angle, focusing your attention on relevant concepts and relationships.

Building on Knowledge: Just as successful businesses build on previous successes, your Measurement and Scaling
theoretical framework builds on existing theories and research. It's like connecting your
Measurement Measurement is a crucial aspect of research methodology, as it involves the
work to a larger body of knowledge.
process of quantifying and assigning values to various attributes or characteristics of the
Guiding Questions: A solid theoretical framework prompts insightful questions, enabling subjects under study. It provides a structured approach to collect and analyze data,
you to explore deeper and make informed predictions about your research. making it possible to draw meaningful conclusions from research. In this context, we will
discuss two essential components of measurement: Variables and Operational Definitions.
A lens to view your research, hypotheses predict relationships.
(a) Variables Variables are characteristics or attributes that can vary and are subject to
(d) Concept:
measurement in research. They are the building blocks of any scientific investigation and
 An abstract idea operationalized into measurable variables. can take various forms. Researchers classify variables into two broad categories:
(e) Indicators:
1. Independent Variables: These are factors that researchers manipulate or control to
 Measurable aspects of a concept. observe their effect on other variables. Independent variables are typically the
(f) Construct: "cause" in a cause-and-effect relationship.
 Complex concepts made of multiple indicators, capturing complexity. 2. Dependent Variables: These are the outcomes or responses that researchers
These elements form the foundation of social research, guiding how you gather and measure to assess the impact of independent variables. Dependent variables are the
analyze data. Review literature, ask clear research questions, develop theories, and "effect" in a cause-and-effect relationship.
understand concepts, indicators, and constructs to create insightful and meaningful For example, in a study examining the impact of a new drug on blood pressure:
research.
Hypothesis: A hypothesis is a specific and testable statement or educated guess that  Independent Variable: The administration of the new drug (control group vs.
suggests a potential relationship between two or more variables. It serves as a preliminary experimental group).
explanation or prediction about an observed phenomenon or a research question.  Dependent Variable: Blood pressure levels before and after drug administration.
Hypotheses guide research efforts by providing a clear focus for data collection and
analysis, helping researchers explore and determine the validity of their ideas. Variables can also be further categorized into categorical (qualitative) and continuous
(quantitative). Categorical variables have distinct categories or groups, while continuous
variables have a range of values.
(b) Operational Definition An operational definition is a clear and precise description of
how a variable is measured or manipulated in a research study. It serves to eliminate
ambiguity and ensures that the variable is consistently and accurately measured across
different research settings. Creating operational definitions is crucial to making research
findings replicable and reliable.
The process of developing an operational definition involves specifying:
 The method or procedure used for measurement or manipulation.
 The units of measurement (e.g., inches, seconds, kilograms, Likert scale points).
 The criteria or conditions for classifying or categorizing data.
For example, if a researcher aims to measure "aggressiveness" in a study on children's
behavior, the operational definition might specify that aggressiveness will be measured
using the number of aggressive acts (e.g., hitting, shouting) observed during a 30-minute
observation period.

Scaling Scaling is a technique used in research to assign values to variables in a way UNIT – 3
that allows for meaningful comparisons and quantification of attitudes, opinions, or
Interviewing in Qualitative Research
characteristics. Scaling methods help researchers convert abstract concepts into
measurable data. Interviewing meaning - Interviewing is a method of gathering information or
conducting a conversation between two or more people, typically involving an
(a) Introduction Scaling is essential because it transforms qualitative data into quantitative
interviewer (the person asking questions) and an interviewee (the person providing
data, making it easier to analyze statistically. Different scaling methods are employed
answers). The primary purpose of an interview is to obtain information, insights, or
depending on the nature of the data and the research objectives.
responses from the interviewee on a particular topic, issue, or subject of interest.
(b) Four Types of Scales There are four primary types of scales used in research:
Interviewing In Qualitative research is a fundamental data collection method in
1. Nominal Scale: This is the simplest form of scaling, where data is categorized into qualitative research. It allows researchers to gather in-depth information, explore
distinct, non-ordered categories or labels. Nominal scales are used for perspectives, and understand the experiences of individuals or groups.
classification purposes. Examples include gender (male, female), eye color (blue,
brown, green), or product brands. Defrance Between Structured interview and Qualitative Interview
2. Ordinal Scale: In an ordinal scale, data is ranked or ordered, but the intervals Aspect Structured Interview Qualitative Interview
between ranks are not equal. This scale is often used for measuring preferences or Purpose To gather specific, To explore in-depth
opinions without precise measurement intervals. Examples include customer standardized data understanding
satisfaction ratings (poor, fair, good, excellent) or educational levels (high school, Question Type Closed-ended questions Open-ended questions
bachelor's, master's, Ph.D.). Flexibility Limited flexibility in question High flexibility, questions adapt to
3. Interval Scale: The interval scale has equal intervals between values but lacks a order and wording participant responses
true zero point. This means that ratios and absolute differences between values are Predefined Predetermined set of General topics or themes with
not meaningful. Examples include temperature measured in Celsius or Fahrenheit Questions questions room for exploration
and Likert scales (1-5, 1-7). Response Format Quantitative, numerical Qualitative, narrative responses
responses
4. Ratio Scale: The ratio scale is the most advanced and versatile type of scale. It
possesses all the properties of the previous scales (nominal, ordinal, and interval) Sampling Often larger, random or Smaller, purposeful or
but also has a true zero point, allowing for meaningful ratios and absolute systematic sampling convenience sampling
differences. Examples include age, height, weight, and income. Analysis Statistical analysis Thematic or content analysis
Standardization High standardization and Low standardization, unique
(c) Rating Scales Rating scales are commonly used in research to measure attitudes,
replicability participant responses
preferences, opinions, and perceptions. They fall under the ordinal and interval scale
Time and Length Typically shorter, more Can be longer, more
categories. A popular example is the Likert scale, where respondents are asked to rate
their agreement or disagreement with a series of statements on a scale, typically ranging structured, and focused conversational, and open-ended
from "strongly disagree" to "strongly agree." Other rating scales include semantic Research Design Common in quantitative Common in qualitative research
differential scales, where respondents rate concepts using opposite adjectives (e.g., research designs designs
"happy" vs. "sad"). Objective To test hypotheses and To explore, describe, and
quantify relationships understand complex phenomena
(d) Ranking Scales Ranking scales are used to order items or objects based on a
Example Use Surveys, opinion polls, Ethnography, case studies,
particular criterion or preference. Respondents are asked to arrange a list of items in a
specific order, such as ranking product features by importance or ranking job candidates Cases quantitative research studies narrative research
by qualifications. These scales provide ordinal data and help researchers understand the Rapport Building Less emphasis on building Emphasis on building trust and
relative importance or preference of items. rapport with participants rapport for open sharing
Data Collection Structured questionnaires or Semi-structured interview guides
Tool surveys or protocols

Data Statistical tables, charts, and Verbatim quotes, themes, and Ask for Specific Examples:
Presentation graphs narratives
Participant Participants may feel less Participants often feel valued and o Encourage interviewees to provide concrete examples or anecdotes to
illustrate their points or experiences.
Experience engaged or heard heard, fostering rich data
o You can inquire, "Could you give me an example of a time when...?"
Validity and High emphasis on reliability Emphasis on validity through in-
Reliability and replicability depth understanding Avoid Double-Barreled Questions:
Research Goals Hypothesis testing, Exploration, contextual
generalizability understanding o Refrain from asking questions that contain multiple parts or require a
Asking questions in a qualitative interview yes/no answer. These can be confusing for the interviewee.
o Instead of asking, "Do you feel happy and satisfied in your job?" you
It is a crucial skill that can significantly impact the quality and depth of the data you might ask, "How do you feel about your job, and why?"
collect. In qualitative research, the aim is to explore the experiences, perspectives,
Respect Silence and Pauses:
and meanings attributed to a particular phenomenon. Therefore, the questions you
ask should be open-ended, flexible, and designed to elicit rich and detailed o Allow for moments of silence or pauses in the conversation.
responses. Here are some key principles and strategies for asking questions in a Interviewees may need time to collect their thoughts or reflect.
qualitative interview: o Rushing to fill these gaps can disrupt the interviewee's flow of thought.
Start with Open-Ended Questions: Explore Emotions and Feelings:
o Begin the interview with broad, open-ended questions that invite the o Qualitative interviews often aim to uncover emotions and feelings. Use
interviewee to share their thoughts, experiences, or stories. questions like, "How did you feel when that happened?" or "Can you
o For example, you might start with, "Can you describe your experience describe the emotions you experienced?"
with [the phenomenon under study]?"
Use Reflective Questions:
Use Probing Questions:
o Reflective questions encourage interviewees to think deeply about
o Follow up on interviewee responses with probing questions to delve their experiences and perspectives. For instance, "Looking back, how
deeper into their experiences or perspectives. has this experience shaped you?"
o For example, ask "Can you tell me more about that?" or "How did that
make you feel?" Tailor Questions to the Research Objectives:
Avoid Leading Questions: o Ensure that your questions align with the specific goals and research
objectives of your study. Tailor your questions accordingly.
o Refrain from asking questions that suggest a particular answer or
assume a specific perspective. Leading questions can bias responses. Build Rapport and Trust:
o For instance, avoid questions like, "Didn't you find it frustrating
when...?" o Establish a rapport with the interviewee to create a comfortable and
trusting environment. This can lead to more open and honest
Use Clarifying Questions: responses.
o If an interviewee's response is unclear or ambiguous, ask clarifying Pilot Test Questions:

questions to ensure you understand their meaning.
o For example, say, "I want to make sure I understand correctly. Are you o Before conducting the main interviews, consider piloting your
saying that...?" questions with a small group to refine them and identify any potential
issues.

Keep the Conversation Natural:  Non-Verbal Cues: Note that you'll miss non-verbal cues in telephone
interviews, so pay close attention to tone and language.
o While you may have a set of questions to guide the interview, let the  Recording: Inform interviewees of the recording, and ensure that the phone
conversation flow naturally. Be flexible and responsive to the connection and recording equipment are reliable.
interviewee's cues.  Privacy: Conduct telephone interviews in a quiet and private location to
Summarize and Validate Responses: maintain confidentiality.
o Periodically summarize what the interviewee has shared to ensure (iv) Life History and Oral History Interviewing:
accuracy and understanding. This also validates their contributions.
 Establish Trust: Build rapport and trust with interviewees, particularly in
Preparing an Interview Guide: Key Considerations life history and oral history interviews where personal narratives are shared.
 Narrative Approach: Encourage interviewees to tell their stories
(i) Kinds of Questions: chronologically and in detail, focusing on key life events and experiences.
 Ethical Considerations: Address any potential ethical concerns related to
 Open-Ended Questions: Start with broad, open-ended questions to sensitive or personal topics, and ensure interviewees' emotional well-being.
encourage interviewees to share their experiences, thoughts, and feelings.  Historical Context: Consider the broader historical context when conducting
 Probing Questions: Follow up on responses with probing questions to delve oral history interviews to capture historical perspectives accurately.
deeper into specific aspects or seek clarification.
 Clarifying Questions: Use clarifying questions to ensure a clear Remember that an interview guide is a flexible tool meant to guide the conversation,
understanding of interviewee responses. not restrict it. Adapt your questions and approach based on the interviewee's
 Reflective Questions: Employ reflective questions to encourage responses and the specific research objectives. Additionally, always prioritize ethical
interviewees to think deeply or consider the implications of their experiences. considerations, consent, and data privacy throughout the interview process.
 Closed-Ended Questions: Use closed-ended questions sparingly, mainly for
factual information, as they limit discussion.
 Transition Questions: Include transition questions to guide the flow of the
conversation between different topics.
(ii) Recording and Transcription:
 Recording Equipment: Ensure you have reliable audio or video recording

equipment, and test it beforehand.
 Permission: Obtain informed consent from interviewees to record the
interview, and explain how the recordings will be used.
 Transcription: Plan for accurate transcription of interviews, either by
yourself or a transcription service.
 Anonymization: Protect interviewee identities and sensitive information
during transcription and data storage.
(iii) Telephone Interviewing:
 Preparation: Arrange a suitable time for the interview, and inform

interviewees about the format.

Data and Data Collection UNIT-IV
WHAT is Data - Data is distinct pieces of information, usually formatted in a Sampling
special way”
Meaning of Sampling
What is Data Collection?
Sampling refers to the method of selecting a small pattern of data from large population
Data collection is the process of collecting and evaluating information or data from for the purpose of carrying out an investigation. The selected pattern is termed as sample
which is a small and manageable version of large set of data. Sampling is most widely
multiple sources to find answers to research problems, answer questions, evaluate
used in statistical testing where size of population is too large such that it is impossible to
outcomes, and forecast trends and probabilities. include each individual observation in test.
A) Process of Construction and Evaluation Characteristics of Sampling

B) Types of Questions Various characteristics of sampling are discussed in points given below: –
C) Relevance, Content, and Sequencing
D) Questions to be Avoided 8. Goal-oriented: Design of sampling should be goal oriented. It must align clearly
with the objectives of research being conducted and should be in accordance with
E) Checklist for a Good Questionnaire / Schedule
conditions of survey.
F) Practical Exercise to Prepare a Questionnaire 9. Proper universe representation: Sample chosen should adequately represent the
characteristics of whole population from which it is taken. It should fairly
represent details about all units without any biasness. There are different methods
of choosing a sample and it need to be chosen with utmost care as improper
sampling would lead to error in survey.
10. Proportional: Size of sample should be proportional with the size of population.
It should be large enough for representing the whole universe and must provide
statistical reliability. Sample must ensure proper accuracy for carrying out the
particular research study.
11. Economical: Process of sampling should be economical requiring minimum cost
and efforts for attaining the objectives of survey.
12. Random selection: Sample units should be selected on a random basis under
which every unit has an equal chance of being chosen. It will ensure that sample is
a fair representative of whole population.
13. Practical: Design of sample should be simple and practical. It must be capable of
easily understood and applicable in fieldwork.
Types of Sampling
Various types of sampling are as discussed below: –
 Random sampling: Random sampling is a technique under which every member

of population has equal chance of being selected in sample units. It is most reliable
method which ensures fairness and eliminates any biasness. Under random
sampling, whole population need to be properly numbered or names should be
allotted to it and then a raffle method is used for making the sample.
 Convenience sampling: It is a technique under which individual from target
population is chosen on the basis of their easy availability and willingness to take
part in survey. Convenience sampling is an easy and inexpensive method under

which participants are chosen by researcher on the basis of their easy accessibility. Studying the whole population requires large amount of resources both in term of
However, this method may not represent whole population accurately and involve money and time. Sampling makes it possible to cover whole population
biasness. satisfactorily even by employing limited resources.
 Systematic sampling: Systematic sampling is method in which participants are
selected from population using a systematic/orderly manner. All members are Advantages of Sampling:
properly numbered and then chosen at regular intervals instead of randomly  Cost-Efficiency: Sampling is often more cost-effective than studying the entire
generating numbers. This sampling technique is less time-consuming as it has population.
predefined range.  Time Savings: Sampling reduces the time required for data collection.
 Stratified sampling: Stratified sampling is a type of sampling under which whole  Feasibility: In cases where the population is too large or dispersed, sampling
population is divided into distinct small sub-groups based on various individual makes research feasible.
traits such as gender, age, job role and income. Groups are formed in such a way  Practicality: Sampling allows researchers to work with limited resources.
that it does not overlap. Peoples in each sub-group are included on the basis of  Reduced Burden: Respondents in the sample may experience less survey fatigue
overall proportion of population. compared to the entire population.
 Judgmental or Purposive sampling: Under this type of sampling, judgements of
researcher is used for choosing sample units. It is also termed as selective Limitations of Sampling:
sampling in which samples are formed at the discretion of researcher.
 Sampling Error: The results from a sample may differ from the true population
Advantages of Sampling values due to random chance (sampling error).
Various advantages of sampling are as discussed below: –  Sampling Bias: If the sample is not representative, it may introduce bias, leading
to inaccurate conclusions.
 Lower sampling cost: Sampling reduces the overall cost involved in doing  Limited Generalizability: Findings from a sample may not apply to the entire
research. The cost for collecting data about entire population is quite high. population if the sample is not truly representative.
Sampling reduces the population into small manageable units. Acquiring data  Complexity: Choosing an appropriate sampling method and ensuring
about sample of population involves lower cost which is one of the major representativeness can be challenging.
advantage.  Resource Constraints: In some cases, obtaining a representative sample may be
 Less time consuming: Sampling reduces the overall time by reducing the size of impractical or costly.
population. Data is not collected about every member in population but only
related to sample is gathered. It is less time-consuming in comparison to census Sampling Errors:
technique.
 Higher accuracy of data: A sample represents the whole population from which  Sampling Error: The difference between the characteristics of a sample and those
it is drawn. It is used for calculation of desired descriptive statistics and a stability of the population it represents. It is due to random chance.
of derived sample value can be easily determined. Samples permit a high level of
 Non-Sampling Error: Errors in data collection, processing, analysis, or reporting
accuracy because of limited area of operations. It enables in proper execution of
that are not due to sampling, including measurement errors, non-response bias, and
field work and results of studies conducted on the basis of theses sample units turn
data entry errors.
out to be accurate.
 Higher scope of sampling: Sampling enables investigators to easily arrive at
Sampling Techniques:
generalizations about set of data. It would be totally impractical to study whole
population as it is too large for measuring characteristics of all individual
members. Process of sampling by analyzing variables within small proportion of Probability sampling methods
population ease in arriving at generalizations. Probability sampling means that every member of the population has a chance of being
 Intensive and exhaustive data: In studies based on sample units, observations are selected. It is mainly used in quantitative research. If you want to produce results that are
made of a limited number. Therefore, exhaustive and intensive data are collected. representative of the whole population, probability sampling techniques are the most valid
 Suitable in case of limited resources: Sampling is very effective technique of choice.
collecting information in presence of limited resources with organization.

There are four main types of probability sample 3. Stratified sampling
Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into subpopulations that may differ
1. Simple random sampling
in important ways. It allows you draw more precise conclusions by ensuring that every
In a simple random sample, every member of the population has an equal chance of being subgroup is properly represented in the sample.
selected. Your sampling frame should include the whole population.
To use this sampling method, you divide the population into subgroups (called strata)
To conduct this type of sampling, you can use tools like random number generators or based on the relevant characteristic (e.g., gender identity, age range, income bracket, job
other techniques that are based entirely on chance. role).
Based on the overall proportions of the population, you calculate how many people
should be sampled from each subgroup. Then you use random or systematic sampling to
select a sample from each subgroup.
4. Cluster sampling
Cluster sampling also involves dividing the population into subgroups, but each subgroup
should have similar characteristics to the whole sample. Instead of sampling individuals
from each subgroup, you randomly select entire subgroups.
If it is practically possible, you might include every individual from each sampled cluster.
If the clusters themselves are large, you can also sample individuals from within each
cluster using one of the techniques above. This is called multistage sampling.
Non-probability sampling methods

In a non-probability sample, individuals are selected based on non-random criteria, and
not every individual has a chance of being included.
This type of sample is easier and cheaper to access, but it has a higher risk of sampling
bias. That means the inferences you can make about the population are weaker than with
probability samples, and your conclusions may be more limited. If you use a non-
probability sample, you should still aim to make it as representative of the population as
possible.
2. Systematic sampling Non-probability sampling techniques are often used in exploratory and qualitative
Systematic sampling is similar to simple random sampling, but it is usually slightly easier research. In these types of research, the aim is not to test a hypothesis about a broad
to conduct. Every member of the population is listed with a number, but instead of population, but to develop an initial understanding of a small or under-researched
randomly generating numbers, individuals are chosen at regular intervals. population.
If you use this technique, it is important to make sure that there is no hidden pattern in the 1. Convenience sampling
list that might skew the sample. For example, if the HR database groups employees by A convenience sample simply includes the individuals who happen to be most accessible
team, and team members are listed in order of seniority, there is a risk that your interval to the researcher.
might skip over people in junior roles, resulting in a sample that is skewed towards senior
employees. This is an easy and inexpensive way to gather initial data, but there is no way to tell if the
sample is representative of the population, so it can’t produce generalizable results.
Convenience samples are at risk for both sampling bias and selection bias.

2. Voluntary response sampling 4. Snowball sampling
Similar to a convenience sample, a voluntary response sample is mainly based on ease of If the population is hard to access, snowball sampling can be used to recruit participants
access. Instead of the researcher choosing participants and directly contacting them, via other participants. The number of people you have access to “snowballs” as you get in
people volunteer themselves (e.g. by responding to a public online survey). contact with more people. The downside here is also representativeness, as you have no
way of knowing how representative your sample is due to the reliance on participants
Voluntary response samples are always at least somewhat biased, as some people will recruiting others. This can lead to sampling bias.
inherently be more likely to volunteer than others, leading to self-selection bias.
5. Quota sampling
Quota sampling relies on the non-random selection of a predetermined number or
proportion of units. This is called a quota.
You first divide the population into mutually exclusive subgroups (called strata) and then
recruit sample units until you reach your quota. These units share specific characteristics,
determined by you prior to forming your strata. The aim of quota sampling is to control
what or who makes up your sample.
Sample Size:
 The sample size refers to the number of elements or respondents included in the
sample. It is determined based on factors like the desired level of confidence, the
margin of error, and the characteristics of the population. Larger sample sizes
generally provide more accurate estimates but may be more costly and time-
consuming to obtain.
3. Purposive sampling
This type of sampling, also known as judgement sampling, involves the researcher using
their expertise to select a sample that is most useful to the purposes of the research.
It is often used in qualitative research, where the researcher wants to gain detailed
knowledge about a specific phenomenon rather than make statistical inferences, or where
the population is very small and specific. An effective purposive sample must have clear
criteria and rationale for inclusion. Always make sure to describe your inclusion and
exclusion criteria and beware of observer bias affecting your arguments.

UNIT-V  Correlation analysis measures the strength and direction of the linear
(a) Measures of Central Tendency: relationship between two continuous variables.
 The Pearson correlation coefficient (r) quantifies this relationship, ranging from
 Measures of central tendency are statistical values used to describe the center or -1 (perfect negative correlation) to 1 (perfect positive correlation).
average of a dataset.  It helps identify if and how variables are related.
 Common measures include the mean (average), median (middle value), and
mode (most frequently occurring value). (g) Regression Analysis:
 They provide a summary of where the data tends to cluster.
 Regression analysis explores the relationship between a dependent variable and
(b) Measures of Dispersion: one or more independent variables.
 Linear regression models aim to predict the dependent variable using a linear
 Measures of dispersion quantify the spread or variability of data points in a equation.
dataset.  It provides insights into the impact of independent variables on the dependent
 Common measures include the range, variance, standard deviation, and variable.
interquartile range (IQR).
 They indicate how much individual data points deviate from the central (h) Multiple Correlation and Multiple Regression:
tendency.
 Multiple Correlation: Examines the relationship between a dependent variable
(c) Concept of Univariate, Bivariate, and Multivariate Analysis: and two or more independent variables simultaneously.
 Multiple Regression: Extends simple linear regression to predict the dependent
 Univariate Analysis: Examines a single variable in isolation, describing its variable based on multiple independent variables.
characteristics, distribution, and central tendency.  These techniques account for the combined effect of several variables on an
 Bivariate Analysis: Analyzes the relationship between two variables, often outcome.
through cross-tabulations, scatter plots, or correlation.
 Multivariate Analysis: Studies the relationships among three or more variables, (i) Quantitative Data Analysis: Hypothesis Testing:
employing techniques like regression, factor analysis, or cluster analysis.
 Hypothesis testing is a statistical method used to make inferences about
(d) Univariate Analysis - Frequency Tables & Diagrams: population parameters based on sample data.
 It involves formulating a null hypothesis (H0) and an alternative hypothesis (Ha)
 Frequency Tables: Summarize categorical data by counting the number of and using statistical tests to assess if there is enough evidence to reject the null
occurrences in each category and calculating percentages or proportions. hypothesis.
 Frequency Diagrams: Visual representations of categorical data, including bar  Common tests include t-tests, ANOVA, chi-squared tests, and regression analysis.
charts, pie charts, and histograms.  Hypothesis testing helps researchers determine the significance of relationships
 Univariate analysis helps understand the distribution and frequency of values and differences in their data.
within a single variable.
These concepts and techniques are fundamental in conducting data analysis in various
(e) Bivariate Analysis: fields, including social sciences, economics, epidemiology, and many others. They
provide the tools to summarize data, explore relationships, and draw meaningful
 Bivariate analysis explores the relationships between two variables. conclusions from research findings.
 It includes techniques such as cross-tabulation (contingency tables), scatter (i) Testing a Hypothesis About a Single Mean - T-Test:
plots, and chi-squared tests.
 The goal is to understand how changes in one variable relate to changes in  The t-test is a statistical method used to test whether the mean of a sample is
another. significantly different from a known or hypothesized population mean.
 It is commonly used when dealing with quantitative data from a single group or
(f) Correlation Analysis: sample.

 The null hypothesis (H0) typically states that there is no significant difference  If the F-statistic is significant, post-hoc tests (e.g., Tukey's HSD or Bonferroni)
between the sample mean and the population mean, while the alternative may be used to identify which group means differ significantly from each other.
hypothesis (Ha) suggests there is a significant difference.  ANOVA is a powerful tool for comparing means in situations involving multiple
 The t-statistic is calculated by comparing the sample mean to the population groups, such as in experimental designs or surveys with several treatment
mean while considering the sample's standard deviation and sample size. groups or categories.
 The critical value from the t-distribution is used to determine whether to reject
the null hypothesis based on a chosen level of significance (alpha). These hypothesis testing methods are essential tools in statistics for assessing the
significance of differences or relationships in data, whether dealing with one or more
(ii) Testing Hypotheses About Two Related Means - Paired Sample T-Test: groups of data points. They provide a structured framework for making statistical
inferences from sample data to population parameters.
 The paired sample t-test, also known as the dependent sample t-test, assesses
whether the means of two related or paired groups are significantly different.
 It is used when you have two sets of measurements from the same individuals or
items under different conditions (e.g., before and after treatment).
 The null hypothesis (H0) typically states that there is no significant difference
between the paired means, while the alternative hypothesis (Ha) suggests there
is a significant difference.
 The paired sample t-test calculates the t-statistic based on the mean of the paired
differences, the standard deviation of these differences, and the sample size.
 Similar to the single-sample t-test, it uses the t-distribution and a chosen level of
significance (alpha) to determine whether to reject the null hypothesis.
(iii) Testing Hypotheses About Two Unrelated Means:
 When comparing the means of two independent or unrelated groups, the most
common method is to use an independent samples t-test.
 The null hypothesis (H0) states that there is no significant difference between
the means of the two groups, while the alternative hypothesis (Ha) suggests
there is a significant difference.
 The independent samples t-test calculates the t-statistic based on the means,
standard deviations, and sample sizes of the two groups.
 The critical value from the t-distribution helps determine whether to reject the
null hypothesis based on a chosen level of significance (alpha).
(iv) Testing Hypotheses About Several Means - ANOVA (Analysis of Variance):
 ANOVA is used to test whether there are statistically significant differences

among the means of three or more independent groups or conditions.
 The null hypothesis (H0) states that there are no significant differences among
the group means, while the alternative hypothesis (Ha) suggests at least one
group mean is significantly different.
 ANOVA calculates an F-statistic by comparing the variance between groups
(explained variance) to the variance within groups (unexplained or residual
variance).

(i) Writing up a Quantitative Research Report: o Restatement of the study's significance
o A brief closing statement
Writing a quantitative research report involves presenting the findings of a study that relies  References:
on numerical data and statistical analysis. Below are the key components typically included o Citation of all sources used in the report, following a specific citation style
in a quantitative research report: (e.g., APA, MLA).
 Appendices:
 Title Page: o Supplementary materials, such as questionnaires, coding sheets, or additional
o Title of the research report data tables.
o Author(s) names and affiliations
o Contact information (ii) Academic Writing - Research Proposal & Research Paper:
 Abstract:
o A concise summary of the study, including the research problem, Writing an academic research proposal and research paper follows a structured format, and
methodology, key findings, and implications. Typically, it should not exceed both are important components of scholarly communication. Here's an overview of each:
250 words.
 Introduction: Research Proposal:
o Background and context of the research
o Research problem or question  Title: A clear and concise title that reflects the research topic.
o Objectives or hypotheses  Introduction:
o Rationale for the study o Background and context of the research problem.
o Significance and potential contributions o Research questions or hypotheses.
 Literature Review: o Rationale for the study.
o Review of relevant literature and theoretical frameworks o Significance and potential contributions.
o Discussion of prior research related to the topic  Literature Review:
o Identification of gaps or areas for further investigation o Review of relevant literature, highlighting gaps.
 Methodology: o Theoretical framework or conceptual model.
o Research design (e.g., experimental, survey, observational)  Methodology:
o Sampling method and sample size o Research design and approach.
o Data collection procedures o Sampling method and sample size.
o Description of variables and measures used o Data collection methods and tools.
o Statistical techniques and analysis methods o Data analysis plan.
 Results:  Expected Results:
o Presentation of quantitative findings through tables, figures, and descriptive o Anticipated outcomes and findings.
statistics o Potential implications.
o Inferential statistics (e.g., t-tests, ANOVA, regression) to test hypotheses  Timeline: A proposed schedule for conducting the research.
o Interpretation of statistical results, including p-values and effect sizes  References: A list of sources cited in the proposal.
 Discussion:
o Interpretation of the results in the context of the research questions or
hypotheses
o Comparison of findings with previous research
o Implications of the results for theory, practice, or policy
o Limitations of the study
o Suggestions for future research
 Conclusion:
o Summarization of the key findings
Research Paper:
 Title: A descriptive and engaging title.

 Abstract: A concise summary of the research paper.
 Introduction:
o Background and context of the research.
o Research problem and objectives.
o Significance and contributions of the study.
o Thesis statement or research questions.
 Literature Review:
o Review of relevant literature, emphasizing the study's place in the field.
o Theoretical framework.
 Methodology:
o Detailed description of research design.
o Sampling, data collection, and analysis methods.
o Ethical considerations.
 Results:
o Presentation of findings, including tables, figures, and statistical analysis.
o Interpretation of results.
 Discussion:
o Interpretation of findings in the context of research questions.
o Comparison with previous research.
o Implications and limitations.
o Suggestions for future research.
 Conclusion: A summary of key findings and their implications.
 References: A comprehensive list of sources cited in the paper.
 Appendices: Supplementary materials, if necessary.
Both a research proposal and a research paper should adhere to a specific citation style
(e.g., APA, MLA) and maintain clarity, coherence, and logical flow throughout the document.
Academic writing should be precise, well-organized, and supported by credible sources.
The End
Mr. ONKAR SHINDE MM2325324 46

Social Research Methods: Mr. Onkar Shinde

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1.

Mr. ONKAR SHINDE MM2325324 1

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Theories in Social Research:

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of every th element from that point onwards, where , where is the

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This table provides an overview of the primary distinctions between quantitative

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Start with Open-Ended Questions: Explore Emotions and Feelings:

o If an interviewee's response is unclear or ambiguous, ask clarifying Pilot Test Questions:

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(ii) Recording and Transcription:

 Recording Equipment: Ensure you have reliable audio or video recording

(iii) Telephone Interviewing:

 Preparation: Arrange a suitable time for the interview, and inform

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A) Process of Construction and Evaluation Characteristics of Sampling

 Random sampling: Random sampling is a technique under which every member

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Non-probability sampling methods

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(iii) Testing Hypotheses About Two Unrelated Means:

(iv) Testing Hypotheses About Several Means - ANOVA (Analysis of Variance):

 ANOVA is used to test whether there are statistically significant differences

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 Title: A descriptive and engaging title.

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